kitchen range with closed-in-fire between oven and hot-water tank,
hot and cold running water, the use of flushing toilets, Edmund
Cartwright's power weaving machine, Samuel Crompton's mule for
spinning many threads by waterpower in 1779, James Watt's steam
engine with steam pushing the piston both ways as well as rotary
motion and used in many kinds of factories instead of water power,
Henry Bessimer's inexpensive low carbon steel in 1856, iron and
steel bridges and ships, drilling and use of oil and natural gas
as fuel, Adam Smith's "Wealth of Nations" opining that competition
of the market could distribute resources best, Thomas Paine's
"Rights of Man", free trade, democracy, popular elections, secret
ballots, universal suffrage, civil service without patronage, Mary
Wollstonecraft's "Vindication of the Rights of Women", university
education for women (University of London), policemen (in London
in 1829), clipper ships (the final development of sailing before
steam), percussion caps on guns, Periodic Chart of chemical
elements, college degrees in biology, chemistry, and physics,
geology, Maxwell's theory of electromagnetism, Albert Einstein's
theory of relativity, quantum theory, laws of thermodynamics that
the energy of the universe is a constant amount but entropy always
increases, computers, decoding of the DNA sequence, Charles
Darwin's evolution, Joseph Lister's disinfectant in 1867, Edward
Jenner's smallpox vaccine, Louis Pasteur's germ theory of disease,
anesthetics, aspirin, insulin, penicillin, antibiotics, surgery to
replace body parts, tampon, contraceptive pill, discovery of
planet Uranus by observation and thence of Neptune and Pluto by
calculation from discrepancies in Uranus' orbit, Hubble space
telescope, Big Bang Theory, buses (horse-drawn from 1829 with 18
passengers), subways, trains (1804), public railway (1825, goods
drawn by engine and passengers by horse), steam ships, steel
ships, aircraft carriers, submarines, tanks, friction matches,
chewing gum, pajamas, gas street lamps, traffic lights and signs,
ambulances, concrete and asphalt highways, census in 1801,
children's playgrounds, knee length dresses, chemical artificial
fertilizers, substitution of steel for iron, trade unions, digital
watches, wrist watches, compact disks, intelligence tests,
personality tests, wool-combing machine, statistical analysis,
Bell curves, standard deviations, United Nations, carpet sweeper,
vacuum cleaner, central heating, apartment high rises, business
skyscrapers, electricity, electric lights, sewing machines, water
closets in richer houses (after 1778), cholera epidemics, sewers
for waste disposal, industrial revolution factories, labor
strikes, cars, tractors, Charles Dickens, ice boxes and
refrigerators, telephones, central heating with radiators, hot
water heaters by gas, gas ovens, humidifiers, canned food, four-
pronged forks, suits of matching jackets and trousers, zippers,
velcro, wall-to-wall carpeting, popular elections, airplanes,
photography, record players, frozen food; cast iron kitchen range
for cooking, baking, and boiling; radio, television, plastics,
submarines, economics, multinational corporations, weather
forecasting, Braille, airplanes, space ship to moon, factory
assembly lines, washing machines, dishwashers, sewing machine,
microwave ovens, copier machines, DNA evidence, nuclear bomb and
nuclear energy, guided missiles, quartz watches, bicycles,
artificial insemination and invitro fertilization, investment
advice, retirement planning, amusement parks, catalogue buying,
labor contracts, childrens' summer camps, teenage culture,
synthetic materials, typewriters, cardboard boxes, marketing
studies, factory assembly line, gene-mapping, animal cloning,
Internet, hiking and camping trips, world travel vacations,
telegraph, word processing, gas, oil, research, credit cards,
dental floss, camcorders, mass production, nursing homes, cameras,
copy machines, wheelchairs, hospital operations, artificial limbs,
organ transplants, pharmacies, public circulating libraries,
children's playgrounds, cosmetic surgery, physical exercising
equipment, vitamin pills, sports clubs, condominiums, molecules,
chromosomes, observatories, radar, sonar, nutrition, supermarkets,
disability insurance, liability insurance, chemical fertilizers,
DDT, record players, video tape recorders, retirement homes,
movies;, planned obsolescence, box-spring mattresses, brain scans,
x-rays, organized professional sports, dry cleaners, foreign
embassies, psychiatry, veterinarians, drug abuse, wage
garnishment, tractors, lawnmowers, breeding zoos, world wars,
nuclear deterrence, fingerprinting, forensic evidence, toxic
waste, acid rain, elevators, picture windows, sewing machines,
automation, cybernetics, pizza delivery, health insurance, Walt
Disney, satellite transmission, radiocarbon dating, ice cream, air
conditioning, ball point pens, school blackboards, bullets in
1890s, electronic mail, first law of thermodynamics: the
conservation of energy, the second law of thermodynamics:
potential energy turns into high-temperature thermal energy and
finally into low-temperature thermal energy, but these processes
are not reversible. The science of philology, on the meaning and
history of words began the concept of a natural development of
languages which conflicted with the theological view that God had
created all the different languages when he punished man for
trying to build an edifice to heaven by destroying the Tower of
Babel and dispersing the people into all parts of the world with
different languages derived from the original: Hebrew, so that
they could not communicate with each other. The science of geology
developed the concept of tremendous changes in the earth's surface
which altered horizontal layers of deposits, in which there were
fossils, which challenged the biblical notion of a world and all
its animals created in a week. In 1784, Lord Henry Cavendish
proved that the sole result of mixing hydrogen with oxygen was
water, thus disproving the theory of the four elements of air,
earth, fire, and water. In the United States, there was no king, a
separation of the executive, the legislative, and the judicial; a
separation of church and state, and no aristocratic titles.
In this time period the development of law includes abandonment of
common law crimes such as seditious libel in the United States,
negligence and duty of due care in the United States replacing the
English strict liability for torts, substitution of the caveat
emptor doctrine for the English sound price doctrine in contract
law in the United States, truth as a defense to charge of libel in
the United States, repeal in England of seven year requirement for
apprentices in 1814, married women's property acts beginning 1839:
(1. right to sue and be sued, 2. right to her own earnings, 3.
right to own real and personal property, 4. right to make
contracts 5. right to stay in family homestead with children,
right to custody of children if husband abandons her), divorce in
England by courts in 1857, in United States extension of grounds
for divorce beyond adultery, bigamy, and desertion to cruel
treatment, habitual drunkenness, and conviction of a felony and
finally no-fault divorce, decline of father's paramount claim to
the custody of his minor children in the absence of a strong
showing of misconduct or unfitness, tender years doctrine (in
England in 1839 mother to have custody of child under seven and to
have access over seven) and then best interests of child doctrine
in custody disputes, legal obligation for parents to support their
minor children, adoption about the 1850s; in England allowance of
women attorneys in 1922, women to vote in 1928, adultery by a
husband to be adjudged as culpable as adultery by a wife in 1923,
the rights of a mother over her child to be equal to those of a
father in 1924, and the rights of a woman to property to be the
same as those of a man in 1926; child labor laws, full religious
freedom with admission of nonconformists to the two universities
in England in 1871, probable cause instead of suspicion for search
and seizure, mandamus, rule against perpetuities, mandatory
secondary education, kidnapping, false impersonation, liens,
obscenity, estoppel for detrimental reliance on a promise, unjust
enrichment, pensions, trademarks and unfair competition,
antitrust, privacy, freedom of thought, freedom of speech, freedom
of the press, bankruptcy, civil rights, union organizing laws,
laws on discrimination due to race, sex, ethnic or national
origin, disability, age, and sexual preference; sexual harassment
and stalking laws, product liability, international law,
environmental laws protecting air and water quality, workers
compensation, unemployment compensation, controlled substances,
intellectual property law; and contingency fees only in the United
States,
In England, there was an end of trial by combat in 1819, of
compurgation in 1833, and of benefit of clergy. In 1820, there
were 160 offenses in England with the death penalty, including
stealing from a dwelling house to the value of 40s., stealing from
a shop to a value of 5s., and stealing anything privily from the
person. The penalty for treason was still drawing and quartering.
It was a privilege of the peerage to be immune from any punishment
upon a first conviction of felony. As of 1823, church courts could
no longer decide cases of perjury; as of 1855, no cases of
defamation, but only church matters. Hearsay rules and exceptions
were developed in the 1800s. In 1816, jurors were to have no
knowledge except the evidence accepted at court. In 1837, counsel
for a person indicted for high treason could examine and cross-
examine witnesses. In 1839, a defendant could see the written
record of evidence against him. In 1898, the accused was allowed
to give evidence. Pleaders do not have to specify the form of
action relied on, but rather give facts which give rise to a cause
of action.
Judicial procedure includes grand juries, which hear evidence,
court transcript by court stenographers, discovery, depositions,
and presumption of innocence (after Salem witch trials in the
United States). The United States changed judicial procedure in
several respects: parties were allowed to testify, writ pleading
was abandoned, and prisons were used for reforming prisoners.
Debtors prisons were abolished. Also, the law was seen not as
divinely inspired eternal law to be found by judges, but law made
by man to suit the times. State judges served for life during good
behavior; they could be removed by the procedure of impeachment.
In some states, judges were elected. There were privileges on
testimony such as attorney-client, priest-confessor, and husband-
wife.
- - - Appendix: Sovereigns of England - - -
Accession - Name -
871 Alfred the Great
899 Edward the Elder son of Alfred
924 AEthelstan son of Edward the Elder
939 Edmund son of Edward the Elder
946 Eadred son of Edward the Elder
955 Eadwig son of Edmund
959 Edgar son of Edmund
975 Edward the Martyr son of Edgar
978 AEthelred the Unready son of Edgar
1016 Edmund Ironside son of AEthelred the Unready
1016 Canute
1035 Harold I Harefoot son of Canute
1040 Hardicanute son of Canute
1042 Edward the Confessor son of Aethelred the Unready
1066 Harold II
1066 William I, the Conquerer
1087 William II son of William I
1100 Henry I (and Matilda) son of William I
1135 Stephen
1154 Henry II (and Eleanor) grandson of Henry I
1189 Richard I, the Lion-Hearted son of Henry II
1199 John son of Henry II
1216 Henry III son of John
1272 Edward I (and Eleanor) son of Henry III
1307 Edward II son of Edward I
1327 Edward III son of Edward II
1377 Richard II grandson of Edward III
1399 Henry IV
1413 Henry V son of Henry IV
1422 Henry VI son of Henry V
1461 Edward IV
1483 Edward V son of Edward IV
1483 Richard III
1485 Henry VII (and Elizabeth)
1509 Henry VIII son of Henry VII
1547 Edward VI son of Henry VIII
1553 Mary daughter of Henry VIII
1558 Elizabeth I daughter of Henry VIII
1603 James I
1625 Charles I son of James I
1649 Oliver Cromwell
1660 Charles II son of Charles I
1685 James II son of Charles I
1689 William and Mary
1694 William III
1702 Anne granddaughter of James II
1714 George I
1727 George II son of George I
1760 George III son of George II
- - - Bibliography - - -
1. Ancient Laws and Institutes of England, Printed by command of
his late majesty King William IV under the direction of the
Commissioners of the Public Records of the Kingdom, Vol 1; 1840.
2. The Laws of the Kings of England from Edmund to Henry I, A.J.
Robertson, 1925.
3. The Statutes of the Realm
4. Statutes at Large
5. A Treatise of the Lawes of the Forest, John Manwood, 1615
6. History of English Law; William Holdsworth
7. History of English Law, Pollack and Maitland, 1895
8. Anglo-Saxon Charters, A. J. Robertson, 1939
9. Franchises of the City of London, George Norton, 1829
10. Borough Customs Vol. 1, Selden Society, 1904
11. Royal Writs in England from the Conquest to Glanvill, Selden
Society, 1959
12. Lawsuits in time of Wm I, Selden Society
13. Treatise on the laws and customs of the realm of England,
Ranulph D. Glanvill, 1189
14. Calendar of Wills, Court of Husting, London; Ed. Reginald R.
Sharpe
15. Calendar of Early Mayor's Court Rolls of the City of London,
AD 1298-1307, Ed. A. H. Thomas
16. Legislation of Edward I, T.F.T. Plunkett, 1949
17. English Historical Documents, Ed. David Douglas
18. Bracton on the Laws and Customs of England, Henry of Bratton,
1257
19. Chaucer's World, Edith Richert, 1948
20. John, King of England, John T. Appleby, 1958
21. A Collection of Eighteen Rare and Curious Historical Tracts
and Pamphletts, Edinburgh, Priv. Print.
22. Doctor and Student, Christopher St. Germain, 1518
23. Readings in Western Civilization, George Kuoles, 1954
24. Social England, Ed.: H.D. Traill, St. John's College, Oxford;
Vol. 1 and 2, 1894.
25. Augustine of Canterbury, Margaret Deanesly, 1964
26. The Venerable Bede, Ecclesiastical History of the English
Nation
27. Political History of England; T. Hodgkin
28. Alfred the Great, Helm, 1965
29. Domesday, A Search for the Roots of England, M. Wood, 1988
30. The English Church 1000-1066; F. Barlow, 1979
31. Life on the English Manor; H.S. Bennet; 1967
32. The English Medieval Town; Colin Platt; 1976
33. London Weavers' Company, Francis Consitt, 1933
34. The Gild Merchant, Charles Gross, 1890
35. Life and times of Roger Bacon
36. Oxford Book of Oxford, Jan Morris, 1978
37. A History of Oxford University, Vivian Green, 1974
38. Lives of the Lord Chancellors, Campbell, 1880
39. Gilds and Companies of London, George Unwin, 1966
40. A History of Technology, Charles Singer, 1954-1978
41. Edward I, Michael Prestwich, 1988
42. Franchises of the City of London, George Norton, 1829
43. The Works of Alfred
44. Salisbury Plain, R. Whitlock, 1955
45. William the Conqueror, F.M. Stenton, 1967
46. Life of William the Conqueror, T. Roscoe, 1846
47. Elizabeth I, Anne Somerset, 1992
48. Queen Elizabeth, Katherine Anthony, 1929
49. Industry in England, H.deB. Gibbons, 1897
50. Henry II, W. L. Warren, 1973
51. Edward I, L.F. Salzman, 1968
52. The Yorkist Age, Paul Kendall, 1962
53. Edward the Confessor, Frank Barlow, 1970
54. The Livery Companies of the City of London, W. Carew Hazlitt,
1892
55. Parliamentary Representation of the City of Coventry, Thomas
Whitley, 1894
56. The Government of England under Henry I, Judith Green, 1986
57. Lives of the Queens of England, Agnes Strickland, 1878
58. The Oldest Version of the Customs of Newcastle, C. Johnson,
1925
59. Charter of Henry II to the Burgesses of Newcastle, A. M.
Oliver, 1175
60. The Charters and Letters Patent Granted by the Kings and
Queens of England to Bristol, Samuel Seyer, 1812
61. Magna Carta, Legend and Legacy, William Swindler, 1965
62. Chronicles and Memorials of Great Britain and Ireland During the
Middle Ages: Letters and Papers of Richard III and Henry VII
63. Sons of the Conqueror, G. Slocombe, 1960
64. The Spirit of the Classical Canon Law, Richard Helmholz, 1996
65. Open Fields, Charles Orwin, 1938
66. The Medieval Foundation of England, Arthur Bryant, 1967
67. From Alfred to Henry III, 871-1272, Christopher Brooks, 1961
68. The Anglo-Norman Nobility in the Reign of Henry I: The Second
Generation, Charlotte Newman, 1988
69. The Birth of Britain Vol. 1, Winston S. Churchill, 1956
70. Medieval London, Gordon Hoime, 1927
71. A History of London, Stephen Inwood, 1998
72. Tudor England, John Guy, 1988
73. Reign of Henry VII, R. Storey, 1968
74. Elizabethan Life in Town and Country, M. St. Claire Byrne,
1925
75. The Elizabethan World, Edited by Norman Kotner, 1967
76. The Evolution of Modern Medicine, William Osler, 1921
77. Shakespeare's England, Oxford University Press, 1916
78. The Lion and The Throne, Catherine Bowen, 1956
79. Johnson's England, Ed. A.S. Turberville, 1933
80. Education in Renaissance England, Kenneth Charlton, 1965
81. The Scholastic Curriculum of Early Seventeenth-Century
Cambridge, William Costello, 1958.
82. English People on the Eve of Colonization 1603-1630, Wallace
Notestein, 1954
83. Sir Walter Ralegh, Willard Wallace, 1959
84. Sir Walter Ralegh, Robert Lacey, 1974
85. Constitutional Documents of the Reign of James I, J.R. Tanner,
1961
86. History of the English People, Volumes III and IV, Green 1890
87. Hume's History of England, Volumes V and VI, David Hume
88. English Society 1580-1680, Keith Wrightson, 1982
89. The Century of Revolution 1603-1714, Christopher Hill, 1961
90. Charles I and the Puritan Upheaval, Allen French, 1955
91. Charles I, Christopher Hibbert, 1968
92. Constitutional Documents of the Puritan Revolution 1625-1660,
Samuel Gardiner, 1927
93. Life and Work of the People of England in the 17th Century,
Dorothy Hartley et al, 1929
94. Home Life under the Stuarts, Elizabeth Godfrey, 1903
95. Cromwell the Lord Protector, Antonia Fraser, 1973
96. The Greatness of Oliver Cromwell, Maurice Ashley, 1957
97. Acts and Ordinances of the Interregnum 1642-1660, C.H.Firth &
R.S.Rait, 1911
98. History of the English People, John R. Green, 1916.
99. A Social and Industrial History of England, F.W. Tickner, 1929
100. A History of Everyday Things in England, Marjorie and CHB
Quennell, 1919
101. The English, Norman F. Cantor, 1967
102. A Concise Economic History of Britain, John Clapham, 1951
103. World Book Encyclopedia
104. Encyclopedia Britannica
105. History of the English Constitution, Rudolph Gneist, 1889
106. The Life of the Law, Alfred Knight, 1996
107. Norton Anthology of English Literature, Ed. M.H.Abrams, 1962
108. The Bank of England, John Clapham, 1945
109. The Honorable Company, A History of the East India Company,
John Keay, 1991
110. A History of British India, W.W. Hunter, 1966
111. The Bank of England, John Clapham, 1945
112. Early Speculative Bubbles and Increase in the Supply of
Money, M.A. thesis, Douglas E. French, 1992
113. Royal Charles, Antonia Fraser, 1980
114. Charles II, Ronald Hutton, 1989
115. The Life and Times of Charles II, Christopher Falkus, 1972
116. Life in a Noble Household 1641-1700, Gladys Thomson, 1959
117. The Weaker Vessel, Antonia Fraser, 1984
118. A Constitutional and Legal History of Medieval England, Bryce
Lyon, 1960
119. The Laws Respecting Women, J. Johnson, 1777
120. Mediaeval England, Mary Bateson, 1904
121. Elizabeth: The Struggle for the Throne, David Starkey, 2001
122. A Social History of England, Asa Briggs, 1983
123. The Year 1000, Robert Lacey, 1999
124. A History of Chemistry, Charles-Albert Reichen, 1963
125. John Locke, Economist and Social Scientist, Karen Vaughn,
1980
126. Becoming Visible, Women in European History, ed. Bridenthal &
Koonz, 1977
127. Wonder Book of the World's Progress; Inventions and Customs,
Henry Williams, 1935
128. Industrial Revolution in the Eighteenth Century, Paul
Mantoux, 1961
129. Eighteenth Century England, Dorothy Marshall, 1962
130. Georgian England, A.E. Richardson, 1931
131. The Pageant of Georgian England, Elizabeth Burton, 1967
132. The Georgian Gentleman, Michael Brander, 1973
133. England in the Eighteenth Century, J.H. Plumb, 1950
134. London Life in the Eighteenth Century, M. Dorothy George,
1925
135. Law and Jurisprudence in American History, Stephen Presser &
Jamil Zainaldin, 1995
136. England in the Age of Hogarth, Derek Jarrett, 1974
137. The First Four Georges, J.H. Plumb, 1956
138. The Review of American Colonial Legislation by the King in
Council, Elmer Russell, 1915
139. Select Pleas of the Crown, F.W. Maitland, 1888
140. Select Pleas in Manorial and Other Seignorial Courts, F.W.
Maitland, 1889
141. The Forms of Action at Common Law, F.W. Maitland, 1909
142. Equity, F.W. Maitland
143. The Story of the Declaration of Independence, Ira G. Corn,
Jr., 1977
144. Internet Medieval Sourcebook
145. Out of the Fiery Furnace video, Robert Raymond
146. A History of Chemistry, Charles Reichen, 1963
147. Seven Ideas that Shook the Universe, Nathan Spielberg, 1987
148. A History of the Warfare of Science with Theology in
Christendom, Andrew White, 1955
149. American Political and Social History, Harold Faulkner, 1941
150. Essays in Science, Albert Einstein, 1934
151. The Character of Physical Law, Richard Feynman, 1965
152. Dictionary of National Biography, George Smith, 1882
153. Elizabeth I: Collected Works, ed. Leah Marcus et al, 2000
154. The Crime of Galileo, Giorgio de Santillana, 1955
155. From Copernicus to Einstein, Hans Reichenbach, 1942
156. The Horizon Book of the Elizabethan World, Ed. Richard
Ketchum, 1967
157. Tower of London, Christopher Hibbert, 1971
158. Tudor Royal Proclamations, Ed. P.L. Hughes & J.F. Larkin,
1964
159. Selected Historical essays of F.W.Maitland, Ed. Helen Cam,
1957
160. Lloyd's of London, Raymond Flower & Michael Jones, 1974
161. Weather, Philip Thompson etc., 1965
162. Constitutional History of England, William Stubbs, 1891
163. Hillforts of England and Wales, James Dyer, 1981
164. The Last Two Million Years, Reader's Digest Association, 1973
165. London: The Civic Spirit, Robert Goldston, 1969
166. Domestic Life in England, Norah Lofts, 1976
167. Descartes, Tom Sorell, 1987
168. Life in the English Country House, Mark Girouard, 1978
169. Extraordinary Origins of Everyday Things, Charles Panati,
1987
170. God's Peace and King's Peace: The Laws of Edward the
Confessor, Bruce O'Brien, 1999
171. The Bill of Rights, Irving Brant, 1965
172. Issac Newton, Adventurer in Thought; A. Rupert Hall, 1992
173. The Life of Issac Newton, Richard S. Westfall, 1993
174. A History of the Circle, Ernest Zebrowski, 1999
175. The World of Water, J. Gordon Cook, 1957
176. The Western Intellectual Tradition, J. Bronowski & Mazlish, 1960
177. Human Accomplishment, Charles Murray, 2003
178. Magic, Myth and Medicine, D.T.Atkinson, M.D., 1956
179. Scientists Who Changed the World, Lynn and Gray Poole, 1960
180. The New Treasury of Science, Ed. Harlow Shapley, etc., 1965
181. Food in History, Reay Tannahill, 1973
182. Home, A Short History of an Idea, Witold Rybczynski, 1986
183. Pelican History of England:
1. Roman Britain, I.A. Richmond, 1955
2. The Beginnings of English Society, Dorothy Whitelock, 1952
3. English Society in the Early Middle Ages, Doris Stenton, 1951
4. England in the Late Middle Ages, A.R. Myers, 1952
5. Tudor England, S.T. Bindoff, 1950
6. England in the Seventeenth Century, Maurice Ashley, 1952
THE END
INDEX