The barges were hauled by horses or men from the land near the
river's edge. Now goods of many inland towns cheapened and reached
a national instead of just a local market. In 1761 an almost
illiterate man called James Brindley cut the first real canal at
Worsley for the Duke of Bridgewater, who owned the coal deposits
there. He kept the line of the canal at one level to avoid having
to make locks. It crossed one river as a forty foot high aqueduct.
He refused to use the beds of small rivers, whose sluggish flow
gave no adequate security against silting. Coal at the destination
point of Manchester fell to half its former price. After Wedgwood
headed a campaign to persuade Parliament to construct a certain
canal, he bought adjacent land on which he built a great factory.
In 1713, the maximum interest rate that could be charged was
reduced to 5% for the advancement of trade and improvement of
lands because that rate was the norm in foreign lands. Thus the
maximum interest rate fell from 10 to 8 to 6 and then to 5%. When
Issac Newton was Master of the Mint, he noted that too restricted
a currency caused a high interest rate to prevail, which was bad
for commerce and the plans to set the poor to work, but that too
large a quantity of money in circulation caused interest rates to
fall, which encouraged luxury imports and the export of bullion.
The Bank of England provided a safer deposit and lower interest
than goldsmiths or scriveners. It also issued notes for 10 and 15
(since 1759), and 20 pounds. Outside retail trade and wages
payments, business was conducted on a credit basis with a paper
promise to pay at some future date. Check use was still formal and
rare. Tradesmen typically authorized their apprentices to "write
off or draw" from their accounts, bringing their bank books.
Depositors authorized other people such as certain servants,
relatives, cashiers, or company secretaries to make use of their
accounts. After 1721, the Bank dividend was about 6% a year.
Promissory notes are assignable and endorsable and the holder may
recover against the signer or any endorser as is the case with
bills of exchange. In 1775, no more promissory or other notes,
bills of exchange, draughts, or undertakings in writing and being
negotiable or transferable may be made for under 20s., because it
was hard for the poorer sort of manufacturer, artificer, laborer
and others to use them without being subject to great extortion
and abuse. (Cash was to be used instead.)
By 1711, government finances had become so chaotic that the
Chancellor of the Exchequer sought to re-establish public credit
by means of a chartered commercial company, the shares of which
were offered in substitution for government stock. This South Sea
Company was established in 1711 with a monopoly to trade in South
America. The prospects of huge profits sent the share prices
soaring. There was also an increase in the money supply. These
factors led to a speculation bubble in 1720 in this stock. Also,
many stock-jobbers promoted companies of every description, such
as one to extract gold from seawater. There was an insurance boom
with about seventy insurance companies in existence, many
virtually gambling in life contingencies. There was speculation in
insurance for all types of occurrences, such as housebreaking,
highway robbery, death by gin-drinking, and horses becoming
disabled. The total capital invested in all these enterprises rose
to over five times the cash resources of all Europe. When the
bubble burst, 100 pound South Sea stock had gone up to 1050 pounds
and back down again to 120. Since the government had in effect
bought this stock at a low price and paid off its debt with this
stock at a high price, this bubble relieved the government of much
of its massive debt. It also redistributed wealth. After the
bubble burst, investors took refuge in investing in 3-4%
government fixed-interest securities. A result of this bubble
burst was the chartering of two corporations for marine insurance
and prohibition of such by any partnership or firm. Private
persons could continue to write policies, and they chose Lloyd's
Coffeehouse as their headquarters; it came to dominate the world
of marine insurance after the two chartered companies came to
concentrate on fire and life insurance. Lloyd's list became the
foundation for a new newspaper. There were specialty boxes at
Lloyd's such as on America or the Baltic. Many ships were reported
captured by enemies or pirates, but underwriting insurance was a
lucrative business for many.
In 1717 the gold guinea was assigned a value of 21s. In 1774, the
gold standard was introduced. In 1774, clipped and deficient gold
coin was called in to be exchanged for new coin.
Local taxes were collected for the church, the poor, county courts
of justice, borough administration, and highways. National taxes
included the income, customs, and excise taxes. When the
government tried to levy excise taxes on wine, tobacco, and then
on cider, there was a public protest with mobs demonstrating
against the power given to excise inspectors to search in people's
homes. These excise taxes were no longer levied.
Duties were placed on items for encouraging industries within the
country and to pay the expenses of government. There were more and
higher duties to pay for war. At various times there were duties
on hides, skins, seal skins, gilt and silver wire, malt, mum
(strong beer made from malted wheat), cider, perry, spices, tea,
coffee, cocoa nuts, chocolate, cocoa paste, snuff, chinaware,
drugs, calicoes, herrings, apples, oysters, raw Italian and
Chinese silk, gum arabic, gum senega, tallow, hogs-lard, grease,
beaver skins and wool, imported brandy, raisins, coals and coal
dust, coaches for one's own use or for hire (except licensed
hackney coaches); silver plate owned by persons, corporations, and
bodies politic; leases, bonds, and other deeds; licenses for
retailing wine, beer, and ale; 5% of salaries, fees, and
perquisites from office and employments including royal pensions
and gratuities over 100 pounds. When the price of wheat was high,
as in 1765, when it was 6s. per bushel, wheat products could not
be exported. (At other times, they could not be imported.) Duties
on imported wheat, barley, rye, oats, beans, rice, Indian corn
were also dropped. The prohibition of importing salted beef, pork,
bacon, and butter was dropped. In 1770, no live cattle, pigs,
mutton, pork, beef, either fresh or salted could be exported or
forfeit 50 pounds for every such animal or 5s. per pound of such
meat. In 1773, peas, beans, bacon, hams, and cheese could be
imported duty free, and in 1775 Labrador codfish. In 1775, raw
goat skins could be imported duty-free to improve the domestic
manufacture of red, green, and blue leather.
In 1773, there were given costs above which various commodities
could not be exported: wheat at 44s. per quarter, rye, peas, or
beans at 28s., barley and beer at 22s., oats at 14s. or else
forfeit the goods, 20s. per bushel and the ship or boat in which
laden. (There are 8 bushes in a quarter.)
A window tax replaced the hearth tax. These duties were 2s. on
dwelling houses, increased by 6d. per window for houses with 10-14
windows, and increased by 9d. per window for houses with 15-19
windows, and increased by 1s. per window for houses with 20 or
more windows, per year to be paid by the occupant. These were
increased three more times, until the dwelling house duty was 3s.
and the duty for 25 or more windows was 2s. Another duty for war
was that on imported starch, certain imported clothes, cards,
dice, soap, vellum, parchment, and paper made in the realm
(4d.-1s.6d. per ream depending on quality) or imported (1-16s. per
ream). For pamphlets and newspapers made in the realm there was a
duty of 2d. per sheet and 12d. for every advertisement. When the
duty was paid, the paper was stamped. The penalty for nonpayment
was 10 pounds for sellers and 5 pounds for those writing or
printing on the paper. Later, there was a penalty of imprisonment
in a House of Correction up to three months for sellers or hawkers
of pamphlets or newspapers, and the apprehender received a reward
of 20s. A parson marrying a couple without publishing banns or
license could forfeit 100 pounds.
Not paying duties was punishable by various forfeitures of money.
Officers for duties could search warehouses on suspicion of
concealment of coffee, tea, chocolate, or cocoa beans with an
intent to avoid duties after making an oath before a duty
commissioner or Justice of the Peace setting forth the grounds of
such suspicion. A special warrant could be issued authorizing the
officer to seize such goods.
Wars were funded not only by some duties, but by lotteries and
short-term funding purchased at 5% yearly interest from the Bank
of England and by long-term funding by the sale of annuities.
County militias could be raised and called out to march together
in order to be better prepared to suppress insurrections or
invasions. Their horsemen were to be provided with broad sword, a
case of pistols with 12 inch barrels, a carabine with belt and
bucket, a saddle, and a bit and bridle. Each foot soldier was to
be provided with a bayonet, a cartouch-box, and a sword. In the
militia act of 1757, there were quotas for each parish, to be
chosen by lot from lists of men 18-50 years old. After militia
service for three years, one could not be called again until by
rotation, and, if married, he was allowed to practice any trade
in which he was able in any town or place. While he was in the
militia, his parish had to pay an allowance to his family, if
distressed, the usual price of an agricultural laborer, according
to the number and ages of the children. Quakers could provide a
substitute or pay money to defray expenses of a substitute for
three years. Exempt were peers, commissioned officers in royal
army or royal castle, other military personnel, members of either
university, clergymen, teachers of any separate congregation,
constables and peace officers, and watermen of the Thames River.
This militia act was due to an invasion scare in 1756 because
Great Britain then had no allies on the continent. The old
strategy of maintaining a small army of 17,000 men and relying on
volunteers had really depended on England's allies to tie down
France's land forces. The militia act of 1757 was designed to
reassure squires they would not be used as adjuncts to the army.
Only those with much property would be officers. Enlistees could
still carry on their trades and jobs. Costs were to be from
general taxation rather than by locality. But it was almost
impossible to get officers and there were many riots when parish
authorities tried to draw up lists of those liable to serve. In
1759 the navy prevented French invasion.
Able-bodied men without a calling, employment, or visible means of
maintenance or livelihood may be searched for and conscripted into
the army. Volunteers who enlist were to be paid 40s. and were not
to be taken out of her majesty's service by any process other than
for some criminal matter. King George II was the last king to lead
his troops into battle. Later, parishes were given 20s. for every
soldier they summoned. Also, persons who had a vote for member of
Parliament were exempted.
Whipping was the usual punishment for offenses. A soldier who
deserted or joined in any mutiny or sedition in the royal army
within the realm was to suffer death or any other punishment
determined by court martial. In 1760, a soldier (later, or a
marine) who slept at his post, left his post before being
relieved, communicated with any rebel or enemy, struck or
disobeyed any superior officer could suffer death, including those
soldiers in America.
During war, chief officers of towns quartered and billeted royal
army officers and soldiers in inns, livery stables, alehouses, and
victualing houses for 4d. a day, but not in any private house
without consent of the owner. From 1714 to 1739, the army
regiments were split up and scattered among the ale-houses of
small towns for maintenance; this was to disperse the soldiers. It
was easier to count them, thereby keeping a check on their number,
which might be exaggerated if they were in large groups in
barracks. The towns protested having to maintain soldiers and town
magistrates imposed severe penalties for small offenses by
soldiers. Their drunkenness and violence were not tolerated as it
was for ordinary people. Their officers not being with them, the
soldiers retaliated with troublesomeness. As of 1763 English
troops could be quartered in unoccupied houses or barns and
supplied with necessities such as bedding, firewood, candles,
vinegar, salt, cooking utensils, and beer or cider. The Royal
Hospital gave pensions to maimed and worn out soldiers treated
there.
Sailors had more status than soldiers because they had regular
work as seamen in times of peace and they did not remind the
people of the idea of a standing army, which they had hated
especially since Cromwell.
Justices of the Peace, mayors, and other officers could bind boys
as apprentices to sea service if they were at least ten and their
parents were chargeable to the parish or begged for alms. This
indenture to the masters or owners of ships lasted until the boy
reached 21. The boy's parish paid 50s. for clothing and bedding
for such sea service. No such apprentice could be impressed into
the navy until at least 18 years of age. Master and owners of
ships that carried 30-50 tuns had to take one such apprentice and
one more boy for the next 50 tuns, and one more boy for every 100
tuns over 100 tuns, or else forfeit 10 pounds to the boy's parish.
Boys voluntarily binding themselves to such sea service were
exempt from impressment for the next three years. This was to
increase the number of able and experience mariners and seamen for
the navy and for the trade and commerce of the nation.
No masters or commanders of merchant ships were to proceed on a
voyage beyond the seas without first agreeing in writing on wages
with the seamen, except for apprentices. Such agreement had to be
signed by the seamen. Offenders were to forfeit 5 pounds per
seaman, which sum went to the use of Greenwich Hospital. Any
seaman leaving the ship before being discharged in writing was to
forfeit one month's pay because too many left the ship before it
was unladen.
There were some ships of 2000 tons. The steering wheel had been
introduced because a sudden heavy sea could wrest a tiller from
the hands of the helmsman. Triangular head-sails with jib boom and
stay-sails on stays between masts were in use so that ships could
sail closer into the wind. The length of ships was still
determined by the same length of trees that could be grown.
Sailing ships were still vulnerable to a lee shore. Latitude was
easy to determine using the reflecting octant invented by John
Hadley in 1731, and a sextant invented in 1757, with mirrors and a
small telescope to measure the angle between a celestial body such
as the sun or north star and the horizon. But longitude could not
be determined with any degree of accuracy. One method relied on
accurate predictions of the future position of the moon as
observed from a fixed reference point, such as Greenwich. By
precisely observing the local time of the moon's occultation of a
known star at a particular place, and looking up in a table the
predicted time of the event at Greenwich, one could approximate
the time difference of the place from Greenwich. There were so
many shipwrecks on this account that the government offered a
reward to anyone who found a way to measure longitude accurately.
In 1763 carpenter and clockmaker John Harrison made the
chronometer to do this with an accuracy of 2 1/2 seconds per month,
and received 5,000 pounds. He was promised 10,000 pounds to
explain the principle of his timekeeper and build three more. The
chronometer kept time with extreme accuracy and was mounted to
remove the effect of the ship's motion. To find a ship's position,
a navigator noted the time and measured the positions of certain
stars. He compared these positions with tables that showed the
stars' positions at Greenwich mean time, and then calculated the
ship's position.
Officer positions were no longer bought, but were subject to
examination for a minimum of knowledge, especially in navigation.
In 1729 the Naval Academy was established. Boys entered at age 13
to 16 and spent two or three years there.
Only about 15% of the crew of navy ships were volunteers. Many
were gaolbirds, having chosen the Navy over more gaol time for
debt. Press gangs seized men in the port towns and from ships
coming into harbor. From 10% to 20% of the crew were foreigners,
many of these pressed men. About 1756, the Marine Society was
founded for training and placing poor boys in work in naval and
merchant ships. This not only supplied men and boys for the Navy,
but saved boys from a life of vagrancy and crime. These boys
usually became reliable and obedient sailors.
The life of a sailor was a hard one, requiring much strength.
Sailors did not know how to swim, so falling overboard usually
meant death. Flogging was the usual punishment in the Navy, even
for small offenses. The amount of flogging due for each offense
rose over time. If flogging were fatal, there would be an inquiry
and occasionally punishment. A sailor's meals were usually hard
bread invested with weevils and maggots, dried or salted meat or
fish, and small quantities of oatmeal, butter, and cheese. Many
sailors had scurvy or other deficiency diseases. Experiments with
lime and lemon juice as remedies for scurvy were made around 1764,
but were not used in the Navy until about 1800. Many more sailors
died from these diseases than from battle. Rum and water was a
daily ration introduced in 1745. The ordinary sailor was paid
about one pound a month, a rate established in 1650s and now out
of date. This was not in cash, but in a ticket which entitled him
to payment in full if he presented it at the pay office in London,
but was subject to swinging deductions if he tried to cash it in
another port.
Prize money from conquered ships was substantial. To encourage
seamen to enter the navy, Parliament provided that it be divided
among flag officers, commanders, other officers, seamen, marines,
and soldiers on board every ship of war, including private ships
commissioned by the Admiral, as directed by the king, or as agreed
with the owner of a private ship. It included an enemy's ships,
and goods and arms on the ships or in fortresses on the land.
There was also bounty money for enemy ships taken or destroyed.
For retaking or salvaging English goods taken by the enemy, 1/8th
their value was to be paid. Privateers colluding with others to
fraudulently take their merchant ships by were to forfeit their
ships, with 1/3rd going to the person who made the discovery and
prosecuted.
Later, any able seaman volunteering for the navy was to receive 5
pounds bounty. Any seaman volunteering for the navy was to receive
a bounty of 3 pounds. If a navy seaman was killed or drowned, his
widow was to receive a year's pay as bounty. No seaman in a
merchant ship was to receive more than 35s. per month because of
the present war.
Still later, anyone who has run goods or avoided customs was
excused and indemnified if he enlisted in the navy as a common
sailor for three years.
Those under 18 or over 55 were made exempt from impressment into
the king's service. The time of service was limited to five years
if the serviceman so demanded. Worn out and decrepit seamen no
longer being treated at the Royal Hospital for Seamen at Greenwich
are to receive a pension as determined by the hospital.
In war, the Navy favored blockading tactics over attack by
fireships, which grew obsolete. In peace, when not used in convoys
to remote lands, many ships of war were used as cruisers to guard
the coast, to trade, and to accompany merchant ships going out and
returning home. About 1755, marine forces of the navy were raised
and quartered on shore.
No war ship may carry goods except gold, silver, and jewels and
except the goods of a ship in danger of shipwreck or already
shipwrecked.
The king was authorized to prohibit the export of gunpowder,
saltpeter, ammunition, and arms.
When a ship had been forced on shore or stranded on the coast, it
had been the practice for people to plunder it and to demand high
payment for salvaging its goods. So a statute required that
salvage only be done by sheriff, mayors, and other officials. A
person who defaced the marks on goods or hindered the saving of
the ship had to pay double satisfaction to the person aggrieved
and spend 12 months at hard labor in a House of Correction. If a
person unduly carried off goods, he forfeited treble damages. If
he made a hole in the ship or stole the pump from the ship, he was
guilty of felony without benefit of clergy.
The owner of the island of Skerries was allowed to erect a
lighthouse and charge passing ships other than Navy ships 1d. per
tun.
Only pilots examined and admitted into the society of pilots and,
if no such pilot is readily available, a ship's own owner, master,
or mate was to pilot ships up the Thames River, or else forfeit 10
pounds for the first offense, 20 pounds for the second, and 40
pounds thereafter. Any pilot losing a ship was no longer to be a
pilot. There must be at least 120 qualified pilots. The prices of
piloting were 3 pounds 10s. for ships drawing 7 feet of water, and
10s. more for each additional foot drawn up to 8 pounds 10s. for
ships drawing 17 feet of water.
To preserve navigation, ships are not to throw any ballast, filth,
rubbish, gravel, earth, stone, or filth into rivers or ports where
the tide or water flows or runs or else forfeit 50s.- 5 pounds.
Ships on the Thames River could take as ballast to stabilize a
ship without cargo: dung, compost, earth, or soil from laystalls
in London. There was a toll on ships entering the port of London
to pay for repairs to its walls.
Many persons insuring ships for large premiums became bankrupt,
thus ruining or impoverishing many merchants and traders. So the
king was authorized to grant charters to two distinct corporations
for the insurance of ships, goods, and merchandise or going to sea
or for lending money upon bottomry. Each corporation had to pay
300,000 pounds to the Exchequer and to have sufficient ready money
to pay for losses insured by them. They were to raise capital
stock and could make calls of money from their members in
proportion to their stocks for any further money required.
Any owner, master, or mariner who cast away, burned, or otherwise
destroyed a ship to the prejudice of underwriters of policies of
insurance or of any merchants whose goods have been loaded on the
ship was to suffer death.
The owners of ships are not liable for losses by reason of theft
without their knowledge by the master or mariners of goods beyond
the value of the ship. This is to prevent the discouragement of
owning ships.
The insurance of merchant ships must give salvage rights [rights to
take what may be left of the ships insured after paying the
insurance on them] to the insurer. A lender on bottomry shall have
benefit of salvage. No insurance may be for a greater amount than
the value of one's interest in the ship or in the goods on board.