philosopher, had a revelation that the structure of the universe
was mathematical and that nature obeyed mathematical rules.
In 1637, he invented analytic [Cartesian] geometry, in which lines
and geometric shapes can be described by algebraic equations and
vice-versa. All conic sections: circles, ellipses, parabolas, and
hyperbolas, could be represented by equations with two unknowns,
or variables, on a coordinate system in which each point is
represented by a pair of numbers representing distances from the
two axis lines. An algebraic equation with two unknowns, could be
represented as a shape thereon. An algebraic equation with one
unknown represented a straight line thereon. The points of
intersection geometrically was equivalent to the common solution
of the associated algebraic equations. He started the convention
of representing unknown quantities by x, y, and z and known
quantities by a, b, and c. So, for instance, a circle with center
at point 2,3 and a radius of 4 was represented by the equation:
(x-2) squared + (y-3) squared = 4. He pioneered the standard
exponential notation for cubes and higher powers of numbers.
Analytic geometry aided in making good lenses for eyeglasses. The
glass was first manufactured with attention to quality. Then,
after it cooled and solidified, the clearest pieces were picked
and their surfaces ground into the proper curvature.
Descartes formulated the law of refraction of light, which deduces
the angle of refraction [deflection] of light through a medium
from the lights' angle of incidence and the speed of light in each
media in which the light passes. This explained why a rainbow is
circular. In 1644, he described the universe in terms of matter
and motion and suggested that there were universal laws and an
evolutionary explanation for such. He opined that all effects in
nature could be explained by spatial extension and motion laws
that 1) each part of matter retains the shape, size, motion, or
rest unless collision with another part occurs; 2) one part of
matter can only gain as much motion through collision as is lost
by the part colliding with it; and 3) motion tends to be in a
straight line. Descartes feared persecution by the church because
his ideas did not correlate with the Biblical notion of God's
creation of the universe in the order of light, then sky and
oceans and dry land, then plants, then seasons and the sun and
moon and stars, then fish and birds, then all animals, and
finally man. Descartes believed in a good and perfect God, and
thought of the world as divided into matter and spirit. The human
mind was spirit and could exist outside the human body. Without
the mind, human body was a machine. The human mind had knowledge
without sense experience, e.g. the truths of mathematics and
physics. Ideas and imagination were innate. His observation that
sensory appearances are often misleading, such as in dreams or
hallucinations, led him to the conclusion that he could only
conclude that: "I think, therefore I am." He rejected the doctrine
that things had a proper behavior according to their natures, e.g.
the nature of acorns is to develop into oak trees. As an example
of erroneous forming of conceptions of substance with our senses
alone, he pointed out that honeycomb has a certain taste, scent,
and texture, but if exposed to fire, it loses all these forms and
assumes others. He considered to be erroneous the belief that
there are no bodies around us except those perceivable by our
senses. He was a strong proponent of the deductive method of
finding truths, e.g. arguing logically from a very few self-
evident principles, known by intuition, to determine the nature
of the universe.
Christian Huygens, a Dutch physicist, used the melting and the
boiling point of water as fixed points in a scale of measurements,
which first gave definiteness to thermometric tests.
There was much mining of coal, tin, copper, lead, and iron in the
1600s. Coal was transported from the coal pits down to the rivers
to be loaded onto ships on coal wagons riding on wooden rails. The
full coal cars could then be sent down by gravity and the empty
wagons pulled up by horses. Sheet metal, e.g. lead, was used for
roofing. Coal was much used for heating houses, and for laundry,
cooking, and industrial use, such as extraction of salt, soap
boilers, and manufacture of glass, bricks and tiles for buildings,
anchors for ships, and tobacco pipes. It was used in the trades:
bakers, confectioners, brewers, dyers, sugar refiners, coopers,
starch makers, copper workers, alum makers, and iron workers.
In 1604 the Haberdashers, who sold imported felt for hats, got a
charter of incorporation.
A tapestry factory was established in 1619.
Flax-working machines came into existence.
As Attorney General, Edward Coke was impassioned and melodramatic.
He once described the parts of the penalty of treason as follows:
being drawn to the place of execution reflected the person's not
being worthy any more to tread upon the face of the earth; being
drawn backward at a horse tail was due to his retrograde nature;
being drawn head downward on the ground indicated that he was
unfit to breathe the common air; being hanged by the neck between
heaven and earth indicated that he was unworthy of either; being
cut down alive and his privy parts cut off and burnt before his
face indicated he was unworthily begotten and unfit to leave any
generation after him; having his bowels and inners taken out and
burnt indicated he had inwardly conceived and harbored such
horrible treason; his head cut off, which had imagined the
treason, and his body to be quartered and the quarters set up to
the view and detestation of men a prey for the fowls of the air.
Coke was subsequently elevated to the position of Chief of Common
Pleas and then to Chief of the King's Bench. But there Coke
propounded a doctrine of the supremacy of the law over the king as
well as over Parliament. For instance, Coke would not agree to
stay any case in which the king had a concern in power or profit,
to consult with him. But the other eleven justices did agree.
Since James I believed in the divine right of kings, he therefore
dismissed Coke from his position as Chief Justice of the King's
Bench. James even believed that he could suspend any law for
reasons known only to him and issue proclamations that were not
limited to the reinforcement of old laws, but made new offenses
with punishment of fine and/or imprisonment.
Coke then became a member of Parliament and led the Commons, where
he exalted the authority of Parliament vis a vis the king; that
is, the king could not make any changes in law, religion, or
taxation without consent of Parliament. James arrested Coke and
two other members of the Commons and put its leader John Pym under
house arrest for their outspoken opinions against the King's
intended alliance with Catholic Spain and intended taking of a
Spanish wife. Because of the deadlock that developed between the
king and Parliament, certain matters could not be addressed by
legislation and were left to be decided judicially. This made
judicial review of disputes important.
James vastly increased the number of peerages, selling many, for
example for 10,000 pounds. Since there was a tacit understanding
that members of Parliament would not accept remuneration, this
restricted eligibility for membership to the rich. The House of
Commons was composed mostly of attorneys, merchants from the large
towns, and country gentlemen. The gentry members had 600 pounds
[12,000s] annual income from land and the burgess members had 300
pounds [6,000s.] In addition to the two knights from every county
(elected by men holding at least forty-shilling freeholds), four
representatives from London, and one or two from every other
borough (generally elected by the top business families), there
was a representative from each of the two universities. For
Speaker, they always chose someone suggested to them by the Crown.
He decided who would talk and could hasten or delay bills, usually
for the benefit of the Crown. The Clerk, a lifetime appointment of
the Crown, wrote out the bills and their amendments and kept track
of proceedings. Many in the Commons were Puritan in sympathy. In
1607, the House of Commons developed a committee system to avoid
being presided over by the royally designated speaker. A committee
could consist of all the members of the House of Commons with an
elected chairman. An increasing number of issues were discussed in
committee before coming to the Commons and the Commons came to
ratify readily what had been done in committee.
By 1610, there had developed in the House of Commons an opposition
to feudal tenures, purveyance, wardships, and impositions (special
import and export duties on aliens set by the king without the
consent of Parliament that were supposed to be for the purpose of
regulating trade instead of for revenue). There was also a call
for free speech and an end to the King's habit at the end of
Parliament of imprisoning for a time those who had been too
outspoken. The Commons also asserted itself into foreign affairs
by expressing an opinion against a treaty proposed by the king on
which war could ensue. The treaty was abandoned. In London,
organized groups such as the apothecaries, the skinners, and the
grocers, were circulating printed statements of their cases to
members of committees of the House of Commons rather than just
seeking out a friendly Privy Council member. In 1621, the protests
made to committeemen about monopolies sold by James frightened him
into canceling many of them. He had made many grants against
competition in violation of law. The right of the Commons to expel
a member was asserted by the expulsion of a monopolist. By 1629,
the speeches of prominent members and the course of proceedings
were copied by stationers and sold in a weekly news report.
The King's Privy Council dealt constantly with foreign affairs,
and also with the great companies, and problems arising such as
gold leaving the country, the Dutch ships increased efficiency in
transporting goods, the declining market for English cloth,
strikes in the mining industry, decaying harbor works, the quality
of food and drink, the wrongs done to the poor, and above all, the
general peace and order. They formed commissions to study
situations and sent orders to Justices of the Peace on methods to
address certain problems and to Sheriffs to carry out certain
acts. About 1618, a group within the Privy Council began to
concentrate on foreign affairs, especially "cabinet counsels",
that is, with secret matters. James sold high offices of state to
supplement his income. His income from customs had increased so
much that it was now three times that from Crown lands.
The Sheriff looked after Crown lands and revenues in his county.
He gathered the rents, the annuities, the stray animals, the
deodands, the fees due to the King, the goods of felons and
traitors. He was still a means of communication between the Privy
Council and the county. He announced new statutes of Parliament
and proclamations by the king at the county courts and in the
markets. He used posse comitatus to disperse riots. He was the
functionary of the assize court, impaneling its juries, bringing
accused men before it, and carrying out its penalties. He carried
out elections of members of the House of Commons.
There were two high constables for each hundred. They were chosen
by the Justices of the Peace at quarter sessions, and were usually
small gentry or well-to-do yeomen. They were the intermediaries
between the justices and the petty constables. The petty constable
was the executive official of the village. He was usually elected
by the suitors to the leet court of the manor for a year. He might
be a farmer, an artisan, a carpenter, a shoemaker, or many times a
tradesman, a butcher, or baker. He often visited the alehouse to
learn of any trouble in the making. He would intervene in quarrels
and riots and tell the participants to desist in the King's name.
If they didn't, he could call on all bystanders to help him "force
a quiet". He had to lead the rioters and causers of injuries to
others, hold them there until he could bring him before the
nearest justice. He would inform the justice of plots to trespass
or forcibly enter land to take possession. He saw to it that no
new cottages were built in the villages without due authority. He
supervised markets and inns. He reported lapses of care for
apprentices by their masters to the justice. At harvest time, he
called upon all able bodied persons to assist and punished those
who didn't respond by putting them in the stocks or fining them
forty shillings. He arrested and whipped vagrants and sturdy
rogues and sent them back to their place of birth through
constables on the way. If a horse was stolen, he raised the hue
and cry to all neighboring constables. He made inquiry into the
paternity of the coming child of an unmarried pregnant girl to
make him take responsibility for the child and pay her 8d. a week
lest it fall into the responsibility of the village. In a town, he
might have watchmen to help him see that the streets were peaceful
at night. The constable assisted the Justice of the Peace, the
high constable, and the Sheriff. He pressed men into military
service. He collected taxes for the Sheriff and collected the
money for purveyance, the money for the poor, maimed soldiers, and
various kinds of prisoners, which the parish had to pay. He was
often the spokesman for the village in village concerns, such as
too many alehouses, brought to the attention of justices at
quarter sessions. The constable and churchwardens together
collected money for the parish, looked after the needy, and kept
in close touch with the overseers of the poor, who cared for the
sick and old, found work for the idle, took charge of bastards,
apprenticed orphan children, and provided supplies for the
workhouse.
In 1609 the East India Company was given a monopoly by the Crown
that was indefinitely long as long as it was profitable to the
realm in the King's opinion. Interlopers were to forfeit their
ships and goods, one-half to the Company and one-half to the
Crown. Monopoly status made the Company competitive with the Dutch
and Portuguese monopoly companies. The Crown received a gift or a
loan from the Company in return. At first, the Company raised
capital for each separate voyage. But voyages tried to undercut
each other and rival factions squabbled over cargoes. So the
company then raised a "terminable joint-stock" for a period of
years. The first of these was issued in 1613-16 and financed a
fleet every year for four years. Subscriptions were called in by
yearly installments and dividends paid out yearly. The voyage of
1613 brought shareholders a profit equivalent to about 11% a year.
By 1620, the Company operated thirty to forty "tall ships", many
built in its own dockyards. These dockyards were so
technologically advanced that they were daily viewed by visitors
and ambassadors. Here, besides wet and dry docks, there were
timber yards, a foundry and cordage works for supplying the ships'
hardware and a bakery and saltings for their provisioning. More
than 200 craftsmen were directly employed in the yard. Overall the
company was one of London' largest employers.
In 1606, the first charter of the Virginia Company was issued for
trading purposes. It gave the settlers "all liberties, franchises,
and immunities" they had in England. To oversee this colony, the
Crown appointed a council. Virginia established the Episcopal
Church by law. Virginia became a joint-stock company in 1609. But
exports were few (timber, soap ashes, pitch, tar, and dyes) for
several years, and then tobacco emerged as a source of profit.
King James imposed a heavy duties on imported tobacco because it
corrupted man's breath with a stinking smoke.
In 1607, the Muscovy Company, hired Henry Hudson to find a
northwest passage through North America to the Pacific Ocean.
Life was difficult for Puritan Separatists, who wanted to separate
from the established church. They were imprisoned and their houses
were watched day and night for illegal meetings. In 1620, after
trying Holland and when there was a depression in England, a few
Puritan Separatists, along with other pilgrims, left for Virginia
in the Mayflower, but landed in New England and founded Plymouth
Colony. They were led by William Bradford and William Brewster,
their spiritual leader. They planted fields and made friends with
the Indians. In 1621, they secured a patent to the merchants and
planters together for a voluntary joint-stock company in New
England. Later, it became the self-governing Massachusetts Bay
Colony.
The canons of the church of 1604 provided for excommunication for
anyone who propounded that the king did not have the same
authority in ecclesiastical matters as the godly kings among the
Jews and Christian emperors in the primitive church, that the
Church of England was not a true and apostolic church, that
worship according the Book of Common prayer and administration of
sacraments was corrupt or superstitious, or that other methods of
the church were wicked, unchristian, or superstitious.
Church sanctuary was abolished for those accused of criminal
offenses because it had been abused by thieves paying their rent
by thieving at night. It remained available to those accused of
civil offenses.
- The Law -
Churchwardens of every parish shall oversee the poor in their
parish. They shall, with consent of the Justices of the Peace, set
to work children whose parents cannot maintain them and also set
to work married or unmarried persons who have no trade and no
means to maintain themselves. Churchwardens shall tax every
inhabitant, including parson and vicar and every occupier of land
and houses, as they shall think fit. There will be a convenient
stock of flax, hemp, wool, thread, iron and other necessary ware
and stuff to set the poor on work. There will be competent sums of
money for the relief of the lame, impotent, old, blind, and others
not able to work, and also for the putting out of children to be
apprentices. Child apprentices may be bound until 21 years of age
or until time of marriage. They shall account to the Justices of
the Peace for all money received and paid. The penalty for absence
or neglect is 20s. If any parish cannot raise sufficient funds,
the Justices of the Peace may tax other nearby parishes to pay,
and then the hundred, and then the county. Grandparents, parents,
and children of every poor, old, blind, lame, or impotent person
not able to work, being of sufficient ability, shall at their own
charge, relieve and maintain every such poor person in that manner
and according to that rate as Justices of the Peace of that county
determine, or else forfeit 20s. per month. Two Justices of the
Peace may commit to gaol or house of correction persons refusing
to work and disobedient churchwardens and overseers. The overseers
may, with the consent of the lord of the manor, build houses on
common or waste land for the poor at the expense of the parish, in
which they may place more than one family in each house.
Every parish shall pay weekly 2-10d. toward the relief of sick,
hurt, and maimed soldiers and mariners. Counties with more than
fifty parishes need pay only 2-6d. The county treasurer shall
keep registers and accounts. Soldiers begging shall lose their
pension and shall be adjudged common rogues or vagabonds subject
to imprisonment and punishment.
Sheriffs summoning defendants without a writ shall pay 200s. and
damages to the defendant, and 400s. to the King.
Persons stealing crops from lands or fruit from trees shall be
whipped.
Since administrators of goods of people dying intestate who fail
to pay the creditors of the deceased often can't pay the debts
from their own money, the people (who are not creditors) receiving
the goods shall pay the creditors.
Every person shall receive the holy communion in church at least
once a year or else forfeit 20 pounds for the first year and 40
pounds for the second year, and threescore pounds for every year
after until he takes the said sacrament.
No person convicted of Catholicism may practice the common law as
a counsellor, clerk, attorney, or solicitor, nor may practice
civil law as advocate, or proctor, nor shall be justice, minister,
clerk, or steward in any court, nor practice medicine, nor perform
as apothecary, nor be officer in a town, in the army, or navy, or
forfeit 100 pounds as punishment. Nor may they be administrators
of estates, or have custody of any child as guardian. Nor may they
possess any armor, gunpowder, or arms. Nor may anyone print or
import Popish books rosaries, or else forfeit 40s.
No merchant may dress black rabbit skins, nor export them, unless
dressed by skinners and bought from them because the skinners have
been thus deprived of their livelihoods to their impoverishment
throughout the realm.
Beer may be exported when malt is at 16s. per quarter because
exporting beer instead of barley and malt will (1) increase the
export tax to the King, (2) increase income for coopers and
brewers, and (3) provide more jobs in transporting beer, which is
more voluminous, to the great comfort of the port towns.
Fish which are spawning and growing in harbors may not be taken by
any net or weirs because this practice has hurt fishermen and the realm.
London may make a trench to bring water to the north part of the
city and shall compensate the owners of lands by agreement with
them of an amount or an amount determined by commissioners.
Actors profaning God, Jesus, or the Holy Ghost on stage are to be
penalized 200s.
No one shall sell beer or ale to an unlicensed alehousekeeper
because abuses there have become intolerable.
Every person convicted of drunkenness shall be penalized 5s. or
else placed in the stocks for six hours, because the loathsome and
odious sin of drunkenness has grown into common use lately and it
is the root of many other sins, such as bloodshed, stabbings,
murder, swearing, fornication, and adultery, and is detrimental to
the arts and manual trades and diverse workmen, who become
impoverished. Offenders convicted a second time shall be bound
with two sureties to the sum of 200s.
No person at least 18 years of age may be naturalized or restored
in blood after being attainted unless he takes the sacrament and
the Oath of Supremacy [of the king over the church of England],
and Oath of Allegiance [to the king].
Money given by will for the apprenticeship of poor children shall
be managed by incorporated towns and unincorporated parishes.
Masters receiving such apprentices shall become bound with
sufficient sureties.
Houses of correction shall be built in every county.
Lewd women, having bastards, chargeable to the parish, shall be
committed to the house of correction to be punished and set to
work for one year.
Persons deserting their families shall be deemed incorrigible
rogues and punished as such.
Persons such as sorters who purloin or embezzle wool or yarn
delivered to them by clothiers and the receivers thereof, knowing
the same, shall recompense the party grieved or else be whipped
and set in the stocks.
All hospitals and abiding places for the poor, lame, maimed, and
impotent persons or for houses of correction founded according to
the statute of Elizabeth shall be incorporated and have perpetual
succession.
Only lands and hereditaments paying rents to the Crown within the
last sixty years shall be claimed by the Crown; the title of all
persons and corporation who have enjoyed uninterruptedly against
the Crown for the last sixty years are confirmed against the
Crown.
A seminal patent-protection law was passed in 1624. It stated that
all monopolies to any person or persons, bodies politic or
corporate for the sole buying, selling, making, working, or using
of anything within the realm are void. This does not include
London or towns. Parties aggrieved by such may recover treble
damages in the superior courts, with double costs. Excepted are
existing patents, for 21 years or less, for new inventions and for
future patents for 14 years or less. Excepted also are patents for
printing or making saltpeter, gunpowder, shot or ordinance, etc.;
patents concerning allum mines or Newcastle coal or glass making
or export of calves' skins or making smalts [deep-blue pigment or
glass] or melting iron ore; grants of office; and licenses for
taverns.