[1] "Bow," the forepart or head of a ship, must be distinguished from
this word. It is the same word, and pronounced in the same way, as
"bough," an arm or limb of a tree, and represents a common Teutonic
word, seen in O. Eng. _bog_, Ger. _Bug_, shoulder, and is cognate
with Gr. [Greek: paechus], forearm. The sense of "shoulder" of a ship
is not found in O. Eng. _bog_. but was probably borrowed from Dutch
or Danish. "Bow," an inclination of the head or body, though
pronounced as "bough," is of the same origin as "bow," to bend.
[2] See F.J. Fetis, _Antoine Stradivari_, pp. 120-121 (Paris, 1856).
[3] Fetis, _op. cit._ p. 123.
[4] J. Ruhlmann, _Die Geschichte der Bogeninstrumente_ (Brunswick,
1882), p. 143.
[5] Fetis, _op. cit._ p. 119.
[6] Antoine Vidal, _Les Instruments a archet_ (Paris, 1876-1878),
tome i. p. 269
[7] _De Cantu et Musica Sacra_ (1774), tome ii. pl. xxxii. No. 18;
the MS. has since perished by fire.
[8] See, for an illustration of the bowed instrument on one of the
sides of a Byzantine ivory casket, 9th century, in the Carrand
Collection, Florence, A. Venturi, _Gallerie Nazionali Italiane_, iii.
(Rome, 1897), plate, p. 263; and _Add. MS. 19,352, British Museum_,
Greek Psalter, dated 1066.
[9] See Jean Cledat, "Le Monastere et la necropole de Baouit," in
_Mem. de l'Inst. franc. d'archeol. orient. du Caire_, vol. xii.
(1904), chap. xviii. pl. lxiv. (2); also Fernand Cabrol, _Dict.
d'archeol. chretienne, s.v._ "Baouit."
[10] For an illustration, see Sonnerat, _Voyage aux Indes orientales_
(Paris, 1806), vol. i. p. 182.
[11] _Op. cit._ pp. 4-10.
[12] _Op. cit._ vol. i. p. 3 and pl. ii.
[13] Edward Heron-Allen, _Violin-making as it was and is_ (London,
1884), pp. 37-42, figs. 5-10.
[14] MS. 774, fol. 30. For an illustration of it see Hyacinth Abele,
_Die Violine, ihre Geschichte und ihr Bau_ (Neuburg-a-D., 1874), pl.
5, No. 7.
[15] See CROWD for fig. from the Bible of Charles le Chauve; and also
King David in the Bible of St Paul _extra muros_, Rome (photographic
facsimile by J.O. Westwood, Oxford, 1876).
[16] See _Dictionnaire raisonne du mobilier francais_ (Paris, 1871),
vol. ii. part iv. pp. 265 D. and 266 note.
[17] Marin Mersenne, _L'Harmonie universelle_ (Paris, 1636-1637), pp.
184 and 192.
[18] Vuillaume's diagram and explanation are reproduced by Fetis, op.
cit. pp. 125-128.
BOWDICH, THOMAS EDWARD (1790-1824), English traveller and author, was
born at Bristol in 1790. In 1814, through his uncle, J. Hope-Smith,
governor of the British Gold Coast Settlements, he obtained a writership
in the service of the African Company of Merchants and was sent to Cape
Coast. In 1817 he was sent, with two companions, to Kumasi on a mission
to the king of Ashanti, and chiefly through his skilful diplomacy the
mission succeeded in its object of securing British control over the
coast natives (see ASHANTI: _History_). In 1818 Bowdich returned to
England, and in 1819 published an account of his mission and of the
study he had made of the barbaric court of Kumasi, entitled _Mission
from Cape Coast Castle to Ashantee, &c._ (London, 1819). His African
collections he presented to the British Museum. Bowdich publicly
attacked the management of the African committee, and his strictures
were instrumental in leading the British government to assume direct
control over the Gold Coast. From 1820 to 1822 Bowdich lived in Paris,
studying mathematics and the natural sciences, and was on intimate terms
with Cuvier, Humboldt and other savants. During his stay in France he
edited several works on Africa, and also wrote scientific works. In
1822, accompanied by his wife, he went to Lisbon, where, from a study of
historic MSS., he published _An Account of the Discoveries of the
Portuguese in ... Angola and Mozambique_ (London, 1824). In 1823 Bowdich
and his wife, after some months spent in Madeira and Cape Verde Islands,
arrived at Bathurst at the mouth of the Gambia, intending to go to
Sierra Leone and thence explore the interior. But at Bathurst Bowdich
died on the 10th of January 1824. His widow published an account of his
last journey, entitled _Excursions in Madeira and Porto Santo ... to
which is added.... A Narrative of the Continuance of the Voyage to its
Completion, &c._ (London, 1825). Bowdich's daughter, Mrs Hutchinson
Hale, republished in 1873, with an introductory preface, her father's
_Mission from Cape Coast Castle to Ashantee_.
BOWDITCH, NATHANIEL (1773-1838), American mathematician, was born at
Salem, Massachusetts. He was bred to his father's business as a cooper,
and afterwards apprenticed to a ship-chandler. His taste for mathematics
early developed itself; and he acquired Latin that he might study
Newton's _Principia_. As clerk (1795) and then as supercargo (1796,
1798, 1799) he made four long voyages; and, being an excellent
navigator, he afterwards (1802) commanded a vessel, instructing his
crews in lunar and other observations. He edited two editions of
Hamilton Moore's _Navigation_, and in 1802 published a valuable work,
_New American Practical Navigator_, founded on the earlier treatise by
Moore. In 1804 he became president of a Salem insurance company. In the
midst of his active career he undertook a translation of the _Mecanique
celeste_ of P.S. Laplace, with valuable annotations (vol. i., 1829). He
was offered, but declined, the professorship of mathematics and
astronomy at Harvard. Subsequently he became president of the Mechanics'
Institute in Boston, and also of the American Academy of Arts and
Sciences. He died at Boston on the 16th of March 1838.
A life of Bowditch was written by his son Nathaniel Ingersoll Bowditch
(1805-1861), and was prefixed to the fourth volume (1839) of the
translation of Laplace. In 1865 this was elaborated into a separate
biography by another son, Henry Ingersoll Bowditch (1808-1892), a
famous Boston physician.
BOWDLER, THOMAS (1754-1825), editor of the "family" Shakespeare, younger
son of Thomas Bowdler, a gentleman of independent fortune, was born at
Ashley, near Bath, on the 11th of July 1754. He studied medicine at the
universities of St Andrews and Edinburgh, graduating M.D. in 1776. After
four years spent in foreign travel, he settled in London, where he
became intimate with Mrs Montague and other learned ladies. In 1800 he
left London to live in the Isle of Wight, and later on he removed to
South Wales. He was an energetic philanthropist, and carried on John
Howard's work in the prisons and penitentiaries. In 1818 he published
_The Family Shakespeare_ "in ten volumes, in which nothing is added to
the original text; but those words and expressions are omitted which
cannot with propriety be read aloud in a family." Criticisms of this
edition appeared in the _British Critic_ of April 1822. Bowdler also
expurgated Edward Gibbon's _History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman
Empire_ (published posthumously, 1826); and he issued a selection from
the Old Testament for the use of children. He died at Rhyddings, near
Swansea, on the 24th of February 1825.
From Bowdler's name we have the word to "bowdlerize," first known to
occur in General Perronet Thompson's _Letters of a Representative to his
Constituents during the Session of 1836_, printed in Thompson's
_Exercises_, iv. 126. The official interpretation is "to expurgate (a
book or writing) by omitting or modifying words or passages considered
indelicate or offensive." Both the word and its derivatives, however,
are associated with false squeamishness. In the ridicule poured on the
name of Bowdler it is worth noting that Swinburne in "Social Verse"
(_Studies in Prose and Poetry_, 1894, p. 98) said of him that "no man
ever did better service to Shakespeare than the man who made it possible
to put him into the hands of intelligent and imaginative children," and
stigmatized the talk about his expurgations as "nauseous and foolish
cant."
BOWDOIN, JAMES (1726-1790), American political leader, was born of
French Huguenot descent, in Boston, Massachusetts, on the 7th of August
1726. He graduated at Harvard in 1745, and was a member of the lower
house of the general court of Massachusetts in 1753-1756, and from 1757
to 1774 of the Massachusetts council, in which, according to Governor
Thomas Hutchinson, he "was without a rival," and, on the approach of the
War of Independence, was "the principal supporter of the opposition to
the government." From August 1775 until the summer of 1777 he was the
president of the council, which had then become to a greater extent than
formerly an executive as well as a legislative body. In 1779-1780 he was
president of the constitutional convention of Massachusetts, also
serving as chairman of the committee by which the draft of the
constitution was prepared. Immediately afterward he was a member of a
commission appointed "to revise the laws in force in the state; to
select, abridge, alter and digest them, so as to be accommodated to the
present government." From 1785 to 1787 he was governor of Massachusetts,
suppressing with much vigour Shays' Rebellion, and failing to be
re-elected largely because it was believed that he would punish the
insurrectionists with more severity than would his competitor, John
Hancock. Bowdoin was a member of the state convention which in February
1788 ratified for Massachusetts the Federal Constitution, his son being
also a member. He died in Boston on the 6th of November 1790. He took
much interest in natural philosophy, and presented various papers before
the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, of which he was one of the
founders and, from 1780 to 1790, the first president. Bowdoin College
was named in his honour.
His son, JAMES BOWDOIN (1752-1811), was born in Boston on the 22nd of
September 1752, graduated at Harvard in 1771, and served, at various
times, as a representative, senator and councillor of the state. From
1805 until 1808 he was the minister plenipotentiary of the United States
in Spain. He died on Naushon Island, Dukes county, Massachusetts, on the
11th of October 1811. To Bowdoin College he gave land, money and
apparatus; and he made the college his residuary legatee, bequeathing to
it his collection of paintings and drawings, then considered the finest
in the country.
BOWELL, SIR MACKENZIE (1823- ), Canadian politician, son of John
Bowell, carpenter and builder, was born at Ricking-hall, England, on the
27th of December 1823. In 1833 he moved with his family to Belleville,
Canada, where he finally became editor and proprietor of the
_Intelligencer_. He was elected grand master of the Orange Association
of British America, and was long the exponent in the Canadian parliament
of the claims of that order. From 1867 till 1892 he represented North
Hastings in the House, after which he retired to the senate. From 1878
till 1891 he was minister of customs in the cabinet of Sir John
Macdonald; then minister of militia; and under the premiership of Sir
John Thompson, minister of trade and commerce. From December 1894 till
April 1896 he was premier of Canada, and endeavoured to enforce remedial
legislation in the question of the Manitoba schools. But his policy was
unsuccessful, and he retired from the government. From 1896 till 1906 he
led the Conservative party in the senate. In 1894 he presided over the
colonial conference held in Ottawa, and in 1895 was created K.C.M.G.
BOWEN, CHARLES SYNGE CHRISTOPHER BOWEN, BARON (1835-1894), English
judge, was born on the 1st of January 1835, at Woolaston in
Gloucestershire, his father, the Rev. Christopher Bowen of Hollymount,
Co. Mayo, being then curate of the parish. He was educated at Lille,
Blackheath and Rugby schools, leaving the latter with a Balliol
scholarship in 1853. At Oxford he made good the promise of his earlier
youth, winning the principal classical scholarships and prizes of his
time. He was made a fellow of Balliol in 1858. From Oxford Bowen went to
London, where he was called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn in 1861, and
while studying law he wrote regularly for the _Saturday Renew_, and also
later for the _Spectator_. For a time he had little success at the bar,
and came near to exchanging it for the career of a college tutor, but he
was induced by his friends, who recognized his talents, to persevere.
Soon after he had begun to make his mark he was briefed against the
claimant in the famous "Tichborne Case." Bowen's services to his leader,
Sir John Coleridge, helped to procure for him the appointment of junior
counsel to the treasury when Sir John had passed, as he did while the
trial proceeded, from the office of solicitor-general to that of
attorney-general; and from this time his practice became a very large
one. The strain, however, of the Tichborne trials had been great, so
that his physical health became unequal to the tasks which his zeal for
work imposed upon it, and in 1879 his acceptance of a judgeship in the
queen's bench division, on the retirement of Mr Justice Mellor, gave him
the opportunity of comparative rest. The character of Charles Bowen's
intellect hardly qualified him for some of the duties of a puisne judge;
but it was otherwise when, in 1882, in succession to Lord Justice
Holker, he was raised to the court of appeal. As a lord justice of
appeal he was conspicuous for his learning, his industry and his
courtesy to all who appeared before him; and in spite of failing health
he was able to sit more or less regularly until August 1893, when, on
the retirement of Lord Hannen, he was made a lord of appeal in ordinary,
and a baron for life, with the title of Baron Bowen of Colwood. By this
time, however, his health had finally broken down; he never sat as a law
lord to hear appeals, and he gave but one vote as a peer, while his last
public service consisted in presiding over the commission which sat in
October 1893 to inquire into the Featherstone riots. He died on the 10th
of April 1894.
Lord Bowen was regarded with great affection by all who knew him either
professionally or privately. He had a polished and graceful wit, of
which many instances might be given, although such anecdotes lose force
in print. For example, when it was suggested on the occasion of an
address to Queen Victoria, to be presented by her judges, that a passage
in it, "conscious as we are of our shortcomings," suggested too great
humility, he proposed the emendation "conscious as we are of one
another's shortcomings"; and on another occasion he defined a jurist as
"a person who knows a little about the laws of every country except his
own." Lord Bowen's judicial reputation will rest upon the series of
judgments delivered by him in the court of appeal, which are remarkable
for their lucid interpretation of legal principles as applied to the
facts and business of life. Among good examples of his judgment may be
cited that given in advising the House of Lords in _Angus_ v. _Dalton_
(6 App. Cas. 740), and those delivered in _Abrath_ v. _North Eastern
Railway_ (11 Q.B.D. 440); _Thomas_ v. _Quartermaine_ (18 Q.B.D. 685);
_Vagliano_ v. _Bank of England_ (23 Q.B.D. 243) (in which he prepared
the majority judgment of the court, which was held to be wrong in its
conclusion by the majority of the House of Lords); and the _Mogul
Steamship Company_ v. _M'Gregor_ (23 Q.B.D. 598). Of Lord Bowen's
literary works besides those already indicated may be mentioned his
translation of Virgil's _Eclogues_, and _Aeneid_, books i.-vi., and his
pamphlet, _The Alabama Claim and Arbitration considered from a Legal
Point of View._ Lord Bowen married in 1862 Emily Frances, eldest
daughter of James Meadows Rendel, F.R.S., by whom he had two sons and a
daughter.
See _Lord Bowen_, by Sir Henry Stewart Cunningham.
BOWEN, FRANCIS (1811-1890), American philosophical writer and
educationalist, was born in Charlestown, Massachusetts, on the 8th of
September 1811. He graduated at Harvard in 1833, taught for two years at
Phillips Exeter Academy, and then from 1835 to 1839 was a tutor and
instructor at Harvard. After several years of study in Europe, he
settled in Cambridge, Massachusetts, and was editor and proprietor of
the _North American Review_ from 1843 to 1854. In 1850 he was appointed
professor of history at Harvard; but his appointment was disapproved by
the board of overseers on account of reactionary political opinions he
had expressed in a controversy with Robert Carter (1819-1879) concerning
the Hungarian revolution. In 1853 his appointment as Alford professor of
natural religion, moral philosophy and civil polity was approved, and he
occupied the chair until 1889. In 1876 he was a member of the Federal
commission appointed to consider currency reform, and wrote (1877) the
minority report, in which he opposed the restoration of the double
standard and the remonetization of silver. He died in Boston,
Massachusetts, on the 22nd of January 1890. His writings include lives
of Sir William Phipps, Baron von Steuben, James Otis and Benjamin
Lincoln in Jared Sparks' "Library of American Biography"; _Critical
Essays on the History and Present Condition of Speculative Philosophy_
(1842); _Lowell Lectures on the Application of Metaphysical and Ethical
Science to the Evidences of Religion_ (1849); _The Principles of
Political Economy applied to the Condition, Resources and Institutions
of the American People_ (1856); _A Treatise on Logic_ (1864); _American
Political Economy_ (1870); _Modern Philosophy from Descartes to
Schopenhauer and Hartmann_ (1877); and _Gleanings from a Literary Life,
1838-1880_ (1880).
BOWEN, SIR GEORGE FERGUSON (1821-1899), British colonial governor,
eldest son of the Rev. Edward Bowen, afterwards rector of Taughboyne,
Co. Donegal, was born on the 2nd of November 1821. Educated at
Charterhouse school and Trinity College, Oxford, he took a first class
in classics in 1844, and was elected a fellow of Brasenose. In 1847 he
was chosen president of the university of Corfu. Having served as
secretary of government in the Ionian Islands, he was appointed in 1859
the first governor of Queensland, which colony had just been separated
from New South Wales. He was interested in the exploration of Queensland
and in the establishment of a volunteer force, but incurred some
unpopularity by refusing to sanction the issue of inconvertible paper
money during the financial crisis of 1866. In 1867 he was made governor
of New Zealand, in which position he was successful in reconciling the
Maoris to the English rule, and saw the end of the struggle between the
colonists and the natives. Transferred to Victoria in 1872, Bowen
endeavoured to reduce the expenses of the colony, and in 1879 became
governor of Mauritius. His last official position was that of governor
of Hong-Kong, which he held from 1882 to 1887. He was made a K.C.M.G. in
1856, a privy councillor in 1886, and received honorary degrees from
both Oxford and Cambridge. In December 1887 he was appointed chief of
the royal commission which was sent to Malta with regard to the new
constitution for the island, and all the recommendations made by him
were adopted. He died at Brighton on the 21st of February 1899, having
been married twice, and having had a family of one son and four
daughters. Bowen wrote _Ithaca in 1850_ (London, 1854), translated into
Greek in 1859; and _Mount Athos, Thessaly and Epirus_ (London, 1852);
and he was the author of Murray's _Handbook for Greece_ (London, 1854).
A selection of his letters and despatches, _Thirty Years of Colonial
Government_ (London, 1889), was edited by S. Lane-Poole.
BOWER, WALTER (1385-1449), Scottish chronicler, was born about 1385 at
Haddington. He was abbot of Inchcolm (in the Firth of Forth) from 1418,
was one of the commissioners for the collection of the ransom of James
I., king of Scots, in 1423 and 1424, and in 1433 one of the embassy to
Paris on the business of the marriage of the king's daughter to the
dauphin. He played an important part at the council of Perth (1432) in
the defence of Scottish rights. During his closing years he was engaged
on his work the _Scotichronicon_, on which his reputation now chiefly
rests. This work, undertaken in 1440 by desire of a neighbour, Sir David
Stewart of Rosyth, was a continuation of the _Chronica Gentis Scotorum_
of Fordun. The completed work, in its original form, consisted of
sixteen books, of which the first five and a portion of the sixth (to
1163) are Fordun's--or mainly his, for Bower added to them at places. In
the later books, down to the reign of Robert I. (1371), he was aided by
Fordun's _Gesta Annalia_, but from that point to the close the work is
original and of contemporary importance, especially for James I., with
whose death it ends. The task was finished in 1447. In the two remaining
years of his life he was engaged on a reduction or "abridgment" of this
work, which is known as the _Book of Cupar_, and is preserved in the
Advocates' library, Edinburgh (MS. 35. 1. 7). Other abridgments, not by
Bower, were made about the same time, one about 1450 (perhaps by Patrick
Russell, a Carthusian of Perth) preserved in the Advocates' library (MS.
35. 6. 7) and another in 1461 by an unknown writer, also preserved in
the same collection (MS. 35. 5. 2). Copies of the full text of the
_Scotichronicon_, by different scribes, are extant. There are two in the
British Museum, in _The Black Book of Paisley_, and in Harl. MS. 712;
one in the Advocates' library, from which Walter Goodall printed his
edition (Edin., 1759), and one in the library of Corpus Christi,
Cambridge.
Goodall's is the only complete modern edition of Bower's text. See
also W.F. Skene's edition of Fordun in the series of _Historians of
Scotland_ (1871). Personal references are to be found in the
_Exchequer Rolls of Scotland_, iii. and iv. The best recent account is
that by T.A. Archer in the _Dict, of Nat. Biog._
BOWERBANK, JAMES SCOTT (1797-1877), English naturalist and
palaeontologist, was born in Bishopsgate, London, on the 14th of July
1797, and succeeded in conjunction with his brother to his father's
distillery, in which he was actively engaged until 1847. In early years
astronomy and natural history, especially botany, engaged much of his
attention; he became an enthusiastic worker at the microscope, studying
the structure of shells, corals, moss-agates, flints, &c., and he also
formed an extensive collection of fossils. The organic remains of the
London Clay attracted particular attention, and about the year 1836 he
and six other workers founded "The London Clay Club"--the members
comprising Dr Bowerbank, Frederick E. Edwards (1799-1875), author of
_The Eocene Mollusca_ (Palaeontograph. Soc.), Searles V. Wood, John
Morris, Alfred White (zoologist), N.T. Wetherell, surgeon of Highgate
(1800-1875), and James de Carle Sowerby. In 1840 Bowerbank published _A
History of the Fossil Fruits and Seeds of the London Clay_, and two
years later he was elected F.R.S. In 1847 he suggested the establishment
of a society for the publication of undescribed British Fossils, and
thus originated the Palaeontographical Society. From 1844 until 1864 he
did much to encourage a love of natural science by being "at home" every
Monday evening at his residence in Park Street, Islington, and
afterwards in Highbury Grove, where the treasures of his museum, his
microscopes, and his personal assistance were at the service of every
earnest student. In the study of sponges he became specially interested,
and he was author of _A Monograph of the British Spongiadae_ in 4
vols., published by the Ray Society, 1864-1882. He retired in 1864 to St
Leonards, where he died on the 8th of March 1877.
BOWIE, JAMES (1796-1836), American pioneer, was born in Logan county,
Kentucky. He was taken to Louisiana about 1802, and in 1818-1820 was
engaged with his brothers, John J. and Rezin P., in smuggling negro
slaves into the United States from the headquarters of the pirates led
by Jean Lafitte on Galveston Island. Bowie removed to Texas in 1828 and
took a prominent part in the revolt against Mexico, being present at the
battles of Nacogdoches (1832), Concepcion (1835) and the Grass Fight
(1835). He was one of the defenders of the Alamo (see SAN ANTONIO), but
was ill of pneumonia at the time of the final assault on the 6th of
March 1836, and was among the last to be butchered. Bowie's name is now
perpetuated by a county in north-eastern Texas, and by its association
with that of the famous hunting-knife, which he used, but probably did
not invent.
BOW-LEG (_Genu Varum_), a deformity characterized by separation of the
knees when the ankles are in contact. Usually there is an outward
curvature of both femur and tibia, with at times an interior bend of the
latter bone. At birth all children are more or less bandy-legged. The
child lies on its nurse's knee with the soles of the feet facing one
another; the tibiae and femora are curved outwards; and, if the limbs
are extended, although the ankles are in contact, there is a distinct
space between the knee-joints. During the first year of life a gradual
change takes place. The knee-joints approach one another; the femora
slope downwards and inwards towards the knee-joints; the tibiae become
straight; and the sole of the foot faces almost directly downwards.
While these changes are occurring, the bones, which at first consist
principally of cartilage, are gradually becoming ossified, and in a
normal child by the time it begins to walk the lower limbs are prepared,
both by their general direction and by the rigidity of the bones which
form them, to support the weight of the body. If, however, the child
attempts either as the result of imitation or from encouragement to walk
before the normal bandy condition had passed off, the result will
necessarily be either an arrest in the development of the limbs or an
increase of the bandy condition. If the child is weakly, either rachitic
or suffering from any ailment which prevents the due ossification of the
bones, or is improperly fed, the bandy condition may remain persistent.
Thus the chief cause of this deformity is rickets (q.v.). The remaining
causes are occupation, especially that of a jockey, and traumatism, the
condition being very likely to supervene after accidents involving the
condyles of the femur. In the rickety form the most important thing is
to treat the constitutional disease, at the same time instructing the
mother never to place the child on its feet. In many cases this is quite
sufficient in itself to effect a cure, but matters can be hastened
somewhat by applying splints. When in older patients the deformity
arises either from traumatism or occupation, the only treatment is that
of operation.
A far commoner deformity than the preceding is that known as
_knock-knee_ (or _Genu Valgum_). In this condition there is close
approximation of the knees with more or less separation of the feet, the
patient being unable to bring the feet together when standing.
Occasionally only one limb may be affected, but the double form is the
more common. There are two varieties of this deformity: (i.) that due to
rickets and occurring in young children (the rachitic form), and (ii.)
that met with in adolescents and known as the static form. In young
children it is practically always due to rickets, and the constitutional
disease must be most rigorously dealt with. It is, however, especially
in these cases that cod-liver oil is to be avoided, since it increases
the body weight and so may do harm rather than good. The child if quite
young must be kept in bed, and the limbs manipulated several times a
day. Where the child is a little older and it is more difficult to keep
him off his feet, long splints should be applied from the axilla or
waist to a point several inches below the level of the foot. It is only
by making the splints sufficiently long that a naturally active child
can be kept at rest. The little patient should live in the open air as
much as possible.
The static form of Genu Valgum usually occurs in young adolescents,
especially in anaemic nurse-girls, young bricklayers, and young people
who have outgrown their strength, yet have to carry heavy weights.
Normally in the erect posture the weight of the body is passed through
the outer condyle of the femur rather than the inner, and this latter is
lengthened to keep the plane of the knee-joint horizontal. This throws
considerable strain on the internal lateral ligament of the knee-joint,
and after standing of long duration or with undue weight the muscles of
the inner side of the limb also become over-fatigued. Thus the ligament
gradually becomes stretched, giving the knee undue mobility from side to
side. If the condition be not attended to, the outer condyle becomes
gradually atrophied, owing to the increased weight transmitted through
it, and the inner condyle becomes lengthened. These changes are the
direct outcome of a general law, namely, that diminished pressure
results in increased growth, increased pressure in diminished growth.
The best example of the former principle is the rapid growth that takes
place in the child that is confined to bed during a prolonged illness.
The distorted, stunted, shortened and fashionable foot of the Chinese
lady is an example of the latter. Flat-foot (see CLUB-FOOT) and lateral
curvature of the spine, scoliosis, are often associated with this form
of Genu Valgum, the former being due to relaxation of ligaments, the
latter being compensatory where the deformity only affects one leg,
though often found merely in association with the more common bilateral
variety. In the early stages of the static form attention to general
health, massage and change of air, will often effect a cure. But in the
more aggravated forms an apparatus is needed. This usually consists of
an outside iron rod, jointed at the knee, attached above to a pelvic
band and below to the heel of the boot. By the gradual tightening of
padded straps passing round the limbs the bones can be drawn by degrees
into a more natural position. But if the patient has reached such an age
that the deformity is fixed, then the only remedy is that of operation.
BOWLES, SAMUEL (1826-1878), American journalist, was born in
Springfield, Massachusetts, on the 9th of February 1826. He was the son
of Samuel Bowles (1779-1851) of the same city, who had established the
weekly _Springfield Republican_ in 1824. The daily issue was begun in
1844, as an evening newspaper, afterwards becoming a morning journal. To
its service Samuel Bowles, junior, devoted his life (with the exception
of a brief period during which he was in charge of a daily in Boston),
and he gave the paper a national reputation by the vigour, incisiveness
and independence of its editorial utterances, and the concise and
convenient arrangement of its local and general news-matter. During the
controversies affecting slavery and resulting in the Civil War, Bowles
supported, in general, the Whig and Republican parties, but in the
period of Reconstruction under President Grant his paper represented
anti-administration or "Liberal Republican" opinions, while in the
disputed election of 1876 it favoured the claims of Tilden, and
subsequently became independent in politics. Bowles died at Springfield
on the 16th of January 1878. During his lifetime, and subsequently, the
_Republican_ office was a sort of school for young journalists,
especially in the matter of pungency and conciseness of style, one of
his maxims being "put it all in the first paragraph." Bowles published
two books of travel, _Across the Continent_ (1865) and _The Switzerland
of America_ (1869), which were combined into one volume under the title
_Our New West_ (1869). He was succeeded as publisher and editor-in-chief
of the _Republican_ by his son Samuel Bowles (b. 1851).
A eulogistic _Life and Times of Samuel Bowles_ (2 vols., New York,
1885), by George S. Merriam, is virtually a history of American
political movements after the compromise of 1850.
BOWLES, WILLIAM LISLE (1762-1850), English poet and critic, was born at
King's Sutton, Northamptonshire, of which his father was vicar, on the
24th of September 1762. At the age of fourteen he entered Winchester
school, the head-master at the time being Dr Joseph Warton. In 1781 he
left as captain of the school, and proceeded to Trinity College, Oxford,
where he had gained a scholarship. Two years later he won the
chancellor's prize for Latin verse. In 1789 he published, in a small
quarto volume, _Fourteen Sonnets_, which met with considerable favour at
the time, and were hailed with delight by Coleridge and his young
contemporaries. The _Sonnets_ even in form were a revival, a return to
the older and purer poetic style, and by their grace of expression,
melodious versification, tender tone of feeling and vivid appreciation
of the life and beauty of nature, stood out in strong contrast to the
elaborated commonplaces which at that time formed the bulk of English
poetry. After taking his degree at Oxford he entered the Church, and was
appointed in 1792 to the vicarage of Chicklade in Wiltshire. In 1797 he
received the vicarage of Dumbleton in Gloucestershire, and in 1804 was
presented to the vicarage of Bremhill in Wiltshire. In the same year he
was collated by Bishop Douglas to a prebendal stall in the cathedral of
Salisbury. In 1818 he was made chaplain to the prince regent, and in
1828 he was elected residentiary canon of Salisbury. He died at
Salisbury on the 7th of April 1850, aged 88.
The longer poems published by Bowles are not of a very high standard,
though all are distinguished by purity of imagination, cultured and
graceful diction, and great tenderness of feeling. The most extensive
were _The Spirit of Discovery_ (1804), which was mercilessly ridiculed
by Byron; _The Missionary of the Andes_ (1815); _The Grave of the Last
Saxon_ (1822); and _St John in Patmos_ (1833). Bowles is perhaps more
celebrated as a critic of poetry than as a poet. In 1806 he published an
edition of Pope's works with notes and an essay on the poetical
character of Pope. In this essay he laid down certain canons as to
poetic imagery which, subject to some modification, have been since
recognized as true and valuable, but which were received at the time
with strong opposition by all admirers of Pope and his style. The "Pope
and Bowles" controversy brought into sharp contrast the opposing views
of poetry, which may be roughly described as the natural and the
artificial. Bowles maintained that images drawn from nature are
poetically finer than those drawn from art; and that in the highest
kinds of poetry the themes or passions handled should be of the general
or elemental kind, and not the transient manners of any society. These
positions were vigorously assailed by Byron, Campbell, Roscoe and others
of less note, while for a time Bowles was almost solitary. Hazlitt and
the _Blackwood_ critics, however, came to his assistance, and on the
whole Bowles had reason to congratulate himself on having established
certain principles which might serve as the basis of a true method of
poetical criticism, and of having inaugurated, both by precept and by
example, a new era in English poetry. Among other prose works from his
prolific pen was a _Life of Bishop Ken_ (2 vols., 1830-1831).
His _Poetical Works_ were collected in 1855, with a memoir by G.
Gilfillan.
BOWLINE (a word found in most Teutonic languages, probably connected
with the "bow" of a ship), a nautical term for a rope leading from the
edge of a sail to the bows, for the purpose of steadying the sail when
sailing close to the wind--"on a bowline."
BOWLING (Lat. _bulla_, a globe, through O. Fr. _boule_, ball), an indoor
game played upon an alley with wooden balls and nine or ten wooden pins.
It has been played for centuries in Germany and the Low Countries, where
it is still in high favour, but attains its greatest popularity in the
United States, whence it was introduced in colonial times from Holland.
The Dutch inhabitants of New Amsterdam, now New York, were much addicted
to it, and up to the year 1840 it was played on the green, the principal
resort of the bowlers being the square just north of the Battery still
called Bowling Green. The first covered alleys were made of hardened
clay or of slate, but those in vogue at present are built up of
alternate strips of pine and maple wood, about 1 X 3 in. in size, set on
edge, and fastened together and to the bed of the alley with the nicest
art of the cabinet-maker. The width of the alley is 4l-1/2 in., and its
whole length about 80 ft. From the head, or apex, pin to the foul-line,
over which the player may not step in delivering the ball, the distance
is 60 ft. On each side of the alley is a 9-in. "gutter" to catch any
balls that are bowled wide. Originally nine pins, set up in the diamond
form, were used, but during the first part of the 19th century the game
of "nine-pins" was prohibited by law, on account of the excessive
betting connected with it. This ordinance, however, was soon evaded by
the addition of a tenth pin, resulting in the game of "ten-pins," the
pastime in vogue to-day. The ten pins are set up at the end of the alley
in the form of a right-angled triangle in four rows, four pins at the
back, then three, then two and one as head pin. The back row is placed 3
in. from the alley's edge, back of which is the pin-pit, 10 in. deep and
about 3 ft. wide. The back wall is heavily padded (often with a heavy,
swinging cushion), and there are safety corners for the pin-boys, who
set up the pins, call the scores and place the balls in the sloping
"railway" which returns them to the players' end of the alley. The pins
are made of hard maple and are 15 in. high, 2-1/4 in. in diameter at
their base and 15 in. in circumference at the thickest point. The balls,
which are made of some very hard wood, usually lignum vitae, may be of
any size not exceeding 27 in. in circumference and 16-1/2 lb. in weight.
They are provided with holes for the thumb and middle finger. As many
may play on a side as please, five being the number for championship
teams, though this sometimes varies. Each player rolls three balls,
called a _frame_, and ten frames constitute a game, unless otherwise
agreed upon. In first-class matches two balls only are rolled. If all
ten pins are knocked down by the first ball the player makes a _strike_,
which counts him 10 plus whatever he may make with the first two balls
of his next frame. If, however, he should then make another strike, 10
more are added to his score, making 20, to which are added the pins he
may knock down with his first ball of the third frame. This may also
score a strike, making 30 as the score of the first frame, and, should
the player keep up this high average, he will score the maximum, 300, in
his ten frames. If all the pins are knocked down with two balls it is
called a _spare_, and the player may add the pins made by the first ball
of his second frame. This seemingly complicated mode of scoring is
comparatively simple when properly lined score-boards are used. Of
course, if all three balls are used no strike or spare is scored, but
the number of pins overturned is recorded. The tens of thousands of
bowling clubs in the United States and Canada are under the jurisdiction
of the American Bowling Congress, which meets once a year to revise the
rules and hold contests for the national championships.
Several minor varieties of bowling are popular in America, the most in
vogue being "Cocked Hat," which is played with three pins, one in the
head-pin position and the others on either corner of the back row. The
pins are usually a little larger than those used in the regular game,
and smaller balls are used. The maximum score is 90, and all balls,
even those going into the gutter, are in play. "Cocked hat and
Feather" is similar, except that a fourth pin is added, placed in the
centre. Other variations of bowling are "Quintet," in which five pins,
set up like an arrow pointed towards the bowler, are used; the "Battle
Game," in which 12 can be scored by knocking down all but the centre,
or king, pin; "Head Pin and Four Back," in which five pins are used,
one in the head-pin position and the rest on the back line; "Four
Back"; "Five Back"; "Duck Pin"; "Head Pin," with nine pins set up in
the old-fashioned way, and "Candle Pin," in which thin pins tapering
towards the top and bottom are used, the other rules being similar to
those of the regular game.
The American bowling game is played to a slight extent in Great
Britain and Germany. In the latter country, however, the old-fashioned
game of nine-pins (_Kegelspiel_) with solid balls and the pins set up
diamond-fashion, obtains universally. The alleys are made with less
care than the American, being of cement, asphalt, slate or marble.
BOWLING GREEN, a city and the county-seat of Warren county, Kentucky,
U.S.A., on the Barren river, 113 m. S. by W. of Louisville. Pop. (1890)
7803; (1900) 8226, of whom 2593 were negroes; (1910) 9173. The city is
served by the Louisville & Nashville railway (which maintains car shops
here), and by steamboats navigating the river. Macadamized or gravel
roads also radiate from it to all parts of the surrounding country, a
rich agricultural and live-stock raising region, in which there are
deposits of coal, iron ore, oil, natural gas, asphalt and building
stone. The city is the seat of Potter College (for girls; non-sectarian,
opened 1889); of Ogden College (non-sectarian, 1877), a secondary
school, endowed by the bequest of Major Robert W. Ogden (1796-1873); of
the West Kentucky State Normal School, opened (as the Southern Normal
School and Business College) at Glasgow in 1875 and removed to Bowling
Green in 1884; and of the Bowling Green Business University, formerly a
part of the Southern Normal School and Business College. Bowling Green
has two parks, a large horse and mule market, and a trade in other
live-stock, tobacco and lumber; among its manufactures are flour,
lumber, tobacco and furniture. The municipality owns and operates the
water-works and the electric lighting plant. Bowling Green was
incorporated in 1812. During the early part of the Civil War Bowling
Green was on the right flank of the first line of Confederate defence in
the West, and was for some time the headquarters of General Albert
Sidney Johnston. It was abandoned, however, after the capture by the
Federals of Forts Henry and Donelson.
BOWLING GREEN, a city and the county-seat of Wood county, Ohio, U.S.A.,
20 m. S. by W. of Toledo, of which it is a residential suburb. Pop.
(1890) 3467; (1900) 5067 (264 foreign-born); (1910) 5222. Bowling Green
is served by the Cincinnati, Hamilton & Dayton and the Toledo & Ohio
Central railways, and by the Toledo Urban & Interurban and the Lake
Erie, Bowling Green & Napoleon electric lines, the former extending from
Toledo to Dayton. It is situated in a rich agricultural region which
abounds in oil and natural gas. Many of the residences and business
places of Bowling Green are heated by a privately owned central
hot-water heating plant. Among the manufactures are cut glass, stoves
and ranges, kitchen furniture, guns, thread-cutting machines, brooms and
agricultural implements. Bowling Green was first settled in 1832, was
incorporated as a town in 1855, and became a city in 1904.