The origin of the custom of Borough English has been much disputed.

Though frequently claimed to be of Saxon origin, there is no direct

evidence of such being the case. The first mention of the custom in

England occurs in Glanvil, without, however, any explanation as to its

origin. Littleton's explanation, which is the more usually accepted, is

that custom casts the inheritance upon the youngest, because after the

death of his parents he is least able to support himself, and more

likely to be left destitute of any other support. Blackstone derived

Borough English from the usages of pastoral life, the elder sons

migrating and the youngest remaining to look after the household. C.I.

Elton claims it to be a survival of pre-Aryan times. It was referred to

by the Normans as "the custom of the English towns." In the Yearbook of

22 Edward IV. fol. 32b it is described as the custom of Nottingham,

which is made clear by the report of a trial in the first year of Edward

III. where it was found that in Nottingham there were two districts, the

one the _Burgh-Frauncoyes_, the other the _Burgh-Engloyes_, where

descent was to the youngest son, from which circumstance the custom has

derived its name. On the European continent the custom of junior-rights

is not unknown, more particularly in Germany, and it has by some been

ascribed to the _jus primae noctis_ (q.v.). It is also said to exist

amongst the Mongols.

See also GAVELKIND; INHERITANCE; PRIMOGENITURE; TENURE; Blackstone's

_Commentaries_; Coke's _Institutes_; Comyn's _Digest of the Law_;

Elton's _Origin of English History_; Pollock and Maitland, _History of

English Law_.

BORROMEAN ISLANDS, a group of four islands on the W. side of Lago

Maggiore off Baveno and Stresa. The southernmost, the Isola Bella, is

famous for its chateau and terraced gardens, constructed by Count

Vitaliano Borromeo (d. 1690). To the N.W. is the Isola dei Pescatori,

containing a fishing village; and to the N.E. of this the Isola Madre,

the largest of the group, with a chateau and garden; and to the N.

again, off Pallanza, is the little Isola S. Giovanni.

BORROMEO, CARLO (1538-1584), saint and cardinal of the Roman Catholic

Church, son of Ghiberto Borromeo, count of Arona, and Margarita de'

Medici, was born at the castle of Arona on Lago Maggiore on the 2nd of

October 1538. When he was about twelve years old, Giulio Cesare Borromeo

resigned to him an abbacy, the revenue of which he applied wholly in

charity to the poor. He studied the civil and canon law at Pavia. In

1554 his father died, and, although he had an elder brother, Count

Federigo, he was requested by the family to take the management of their

domestic affairs. After a time, however, he resumed his studies, and in

1559 he took his doctor's degree. In 1560 his uncle, Cardinal Angelo de'

Medici, was raised to the pontificate as Pius IV. Borromeo was made

prothonotary, entrusted with both the public and the privy seal of the

ecclesiastical state, and created cardinal with the administration of

Romagna and the March of Ancona, and the supervision of the Franciscans,

the Carmelites and the knights of Malta. He was thus at the age of

twenty-two practically the leading statesman of the papal court. Soon

after he was raised to the archbishopric of Milan. In compliance with

the pope's desire, he lived in great splendour; yet his own temperance

and humility were never brought into question. He established an academy

of learned persons, and published their memoirs as the _Noctes

Vaticanae_. About the same time he also founded and endowed a college at

Pavia, which he dedicated to Justina, virgin and martyr. On the death of

his elder brother Federigo, he was advised to quit the church and

marry, that his family might not become extinct. He declined the

proposal, however, and became henceforward still more fervent in

exercises of piety, and more zealous for the welfare of the church.

Owing to his influence over Pius IV., he was able to facilitate the

final deliberations of the council of Trent, and he took a large share

in the drawing up of the Tridentine catechism (_Catechismus Romanus_).

On the death of Pius IV. (1566), the skill and diligence of Borromeo

contributed materially to suppressing the cabals of the conclave.

Subsequently he devoted himself wholly to the reformation of his

diocese, which had fallen into a most unsatisfactory condition owing to

the prolonged absences of its previous archbishops. He made a series of

pastoral visits, and restored decency and dignity to divine service. In

conformity with the decrees of the council of Trent, he cleared the

cathedral of its gorgeous tombs, rich ornaments, banners, arms, sparing

not even the monuments of his own relatives. He divided the nave of the

church into two compartments for the separation of the sexes. He

extended his reforms to the collegiate churches (even to the

fraternities of penitents and particularly that of St John the Baptist),

and to the monasteries. The great abuses which had overrun the church at

this time arose principally from the ignorance of the clergy. Borromeo,

therefore, established seminaries, colleges and communities for the

education of candidates for holy orders. The most remarkable, perhaps,

of his foundations was the fraternity of the Oblates, a society whose

members were pledged to give aid to the church when and where it might

be required. He further paved the way for the "Golden" or "Borromean"

league formed in 1586 by the Swiss Catholic cantons of Switzerland to

expel heretics if necessary by armed force.

In 1576, when Milan was visited by the plague, he went about giving

directions for accommodating the sick and burying the dead, avoiding no

danger and sparing no expense. He visited all the neighbouring parishes

where the contagion raged, distributing money, providing accommodation

for the sick, and punishing those, especially the clergy, who were

remiss in discharging their duties. He met with much opposition to his

reforms. The governor of the province, and many of the senators,

apprehensive that the cardinal's ordinances and proceedings would

encroach upon the civil jurisdiction, addressed remonstrances and

complaints to the courts of Rome and Madrid. But Borromeo had more

formidable difficulties to struggle with, in the inveterate opposition

of several religious orders, particularly that of the Humiliati

(Brothers of Humility). Some members of that society formed a conspiracy

against his life, and a shot was fired at him in the archiepiscopal

chapel under circumstances which led to the belief that his escape was

miraculous. The number of his enemies was increased by his successful

attack on his Jesuit confessor Ribera, who with other members of the

college of Milan was found to be guilty of unnatural offences. His

manifold labours and austerities appear to have shortened his life. He

was seized with an intermittent fever, and died at Milan on the 4th of

November 1584. He was canonized in 1610, and his feast is celebrated on

the 4th of November.

Besides the _Nodes Vaticanae_, to which he appears to have contributed,

the only literary relics of this intrepid and zealous reformer are some

homilies, discourses and sermons, with a collection of letters. His

sermons, which have little literary merit, were published by J.A. Sax (5

vols., Milan, 1747-1748), and have been translated into many languages.

The record of his episcopate is to be found in the two volumes of the

_Acta Ecclesiae Mediolanensis_ (Milan, 1599). Contrary to his last

wishes a memorial was erected to him in Milan cathedral, as well as a

statue 70 ft. high on the hill above Arona, by his admirers who regarded

him as the leader of a Counter-Reformation.

His nephew, Federigo Borromeo (1564-1631), was archbishop of Milan from

1595, and in 1609 founded the Ambrosian library in that city.

See G.P. Giussano, _Vita di S. Carlo Borromeo_ (1610, Eng. ed. by H.E.

Manning, London, 1884); A. Sala, _Documenti circa la vita e la gesta

di Borromeo_ (4 vols., Milan, 1857-1859); Chanoine Silvain, _Histoire

de St Charles Borromee_ (Milan, 1884); and A. Cantono, _Un grande

riformatore del secolo XVI_ (Florence, 1904); article "Borromaus" in

Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopadie_ (Leipzig, 1897).

BORROMINI, FRANCESCO (1599-1667), Italian architect, was born at Bissone

in 1599. He was the chief representative of the style known in

architecture as "baroque," which marked a fearless and often reckless

departure from the traditional laws of the Renaissance, and often

obtained originality only at the cost of beauty or wisdom. One of the

main opponents of this style was Barocchio (q.v.). Borromini was much

employed in the middle of the 17th century at Rome. His principal works

are the church of St Agnese in Piazza Navona, the church of La Sapienza

in Rome, the church of San Carlino alle Fontane, the church of the

Collegio di Propaganda, and the restoration of San Giovanni in Laterano.

He died by his own hand at Rome in 1667. Engravings of his chief

compositions are to be found in the posthumous work, _Francisci

Borromini opus Architectonicum_ (1727).

BORROW, GEORGE HENRY (1803-1881), English traveller, linguist and

author, was born at East Dereham, Norfolk, on the 5th of July 1803, of a

middle-class Cornish family. His father was a recruiting officer, and

his mother a Norfolk lady of French extraction. From 1816 to 1818 Borrow

attended, with no very great profit, the grammar school at Norwich.

After leaving school he was articled to a firm of Norwich solicitors,

where he neglected the law, but gave a great deal of desultory attention

to languages. He was encouraged in these studies by William Taylor, the

friend of Southey. On the death of his father, in 1824 he went to London

to seek his fortune as a literary adventurer. In 1826 he published a

volume of _Romantic Ballads_ translated from the Danish. Engaged by Sir

Richard Phillips, the publisher, as a hack-writer at starvation wages,

his experiences in London were bitter indeed. His struggles at last

became so dire that if he would escape Chatterton's doom, he must leave

London and either return to Norwich and share his mother's narrow

income, or turn to account in some way the magnificent physical strength

with which nature had endowed him. Determining on the latter of these

courses, he left London on tramp. As he stood considerably more than 6

ft. in height, was a fairly trained athlete, and had a countenance of

extraordinary impressiveness, if not of commanding beauty--Greek in type

with a dash of the Hebrew--we may assume that there had never before

appeared on the English high-roads so majestic-looking a tramp as he

who, on an afternoon in May, left his squalid lodging with bundle and

stick to begin life on the roads. Shaping his course to the south-west,

he soon found himself on Salisbury Plain. And then his extraordinary

adventures began. After a while he became a travelling hedge-smith, and

it was while pursuing this avocation that he made the acquaintance of

the splendid road-girl, born at Long Melford workhouse, whom he has

immortalized under the name of Isopel Berners. He was now brought much

into contact with the gipsies, and this fact gave him the most important

subject-matter for his writings. For picturesque as is Borrow's style,

it is this subject-matter of his, the Romany world of Great Britain,

which--if his pictures of that world are true--will keep his writings

alive. Now that the better class of gipsies are migrating so rapidly to

America that scarcely any are left in England, Borrow's pictures of them

are challenged as being too idealistic. It is unfortunate that no one

who knew Borrow, and the gryengroes or horse-dealers with whom he

associated, and whom he depicted, has ever written about him and them.

Full of "documents" as is Dr Knapp's painstaking biography, it cannot be

said to give a vital picture of Borrow and his surroundings during this

most interesting period of his life. It is this same peculiar class of

gipsies (the gryengroes) with whom the present writer was brought into

contact, and he can only refer, in justification of Borrow's

descriptions of them, to certain publications of his own, where the

whole question is discussed at length, and where he has set out to prove

that Borrow's pictures of the section of the English gipsies he knew are

not idealized. But there is one great blemish in _all_ Borrow's dramatic

scenes of gipsy life, wheresoever they may be laid. This was pointed

out by the gentleman who "read" _Zincali_ for Mr Murray, the

publisher:--

"The dialogues are amongst the best parts of the book; but in several

of them the tone of the speakers, of those especially who are in

humble life, is too correct and elevated, and therefore out of

character. This takes away from their effect. I think it would be very

advisable that Mr Borrow should go over them with reference to this

point, simplifying a few of the terms of expression and introducing a

few contractions--_don'ts, can'ts_, &c. This would improve them

greatly."

It is the same with his pictures of the English gipsies. The reader has

only to compare the dialogues between gipsies given in that photographic

study of Romany life, _In Gipsy Tents_, by F.H. Groome, with the

dialogues in _Lavengro_ and _The Romany Rye_, to see how the illusion in

Borrow's narrative is disturbed by the uncolloquial locutions of the

speakers. It is true, no doubt, that all Romanies, especially perhaps

the English and Hungarian, have a passion for the use of high-sounding

words, and the present writer has shown this in his remarks upon the

Czigany Czindol, who is said to have taught the Czigany language to the

archduke Joseph, often called the "Gipsy Archduke." But after all

allowance is made for this racial peculiarity, Borrow's presentation of

it considerably weakens our belief in Mr and Mrs Petulengro, Ursula, and

the rest, to find them using complex sentences and bookish words which,

even among English people, are rarely heard in conversation. As to the

deep impression that Borrow made upon his gipsy friends, that is partly

explained by the singular nobility of his appearance, for the gipsies of

all countries are extremely sensitive upon matters of this kind. The

silvery whiteness of the thick crop of hair which Borrow retained to the

last seemed to add in a remarkable way to the nobility of his hairless

face, but also it gave to the face a kind of strange look "not a bit

like a Gorgio's," to use the words of one of his gipsy friends.

Moreover, the shy, defiant, stand-off way which Borrow assumed in the

company of his social equals left him entirely when he was with the

gipsies. The result of this was that these wanderers knew him better

than did his own countrymen.

Seven years after the events recorded in _Lavengro_ and _The Romany Rye_

Borrow obtained the post of agent to the Bible Society, in which

capacity he visited St Petersburg (1833-1835) (where he published

_Targum_, a collection of translations), and Spain, Portugal and Morocco

(1835-1839). From 1837 to 1839 he acted as correspondent to the _Morning

Herald_. The result of these travels and adventures was the publication,

in 1841, of _Zincali, or The Gypsies in Spain_, the original MS. of

which, in the hands of the present writer, shows how careful was

Borrow's method of work. In 1843 appeared _The Bible in Spain_, when

suddenly Borrow became famous. Every page of the book glows with

freshness, picturesqueness and vivacity. In 1840 he married Mary Clarke,

the widow of a naval officer, and permanently settled at Oulton Broad,

near Lowestoft, with her and her daughter. Here he began to write again.

Very likely Borrow would never have told the world about his vagabond

life in England as a hedge-smith had not _The Bible in Spain_ made him

famous as a wanderer. _Lavengro_ appeared in 1851 with a success which,

compared with that of _The Bible in Spain_, was only partial. He was

much chagrined at this, and although _Lavengro_ broke off in the midst

of a scene in the Dingle, and only broke off there because the three

volumes would hold no more, it was not until 1857 that he published the

sequel, _The Romany Rye_. In 1844 he travelled in south-eastern Europe,

and in 1854 he made a tour with his step-daughter in Wales. This tour he

described in _Wild Wales_, published in 1862. In 1874 he brought out a

volume of ill-digested material upon the Romany tongue, _Romano

Lavo-lil, or Word-book of the Gypsy Language_, a book which has been

exhaustively analysed and criticized by Mr John Sampson. In the summer

of 1874 he left London, bade adieu to Mr Murray and a few friends, and

returned to Oulton. On the 26th of July 1881 he was found dead in his

house at Oulton, in his seventy-ninth year.

Borrow was indisputably a linguist of wide knowledge, though he was not

a scholar in the strict sense. The variety of his attainments is shown

by his translation of the Church of England _Homilies_ into Manchu, of

the Gospel of St Luke into the Git dialect of the Gitanos, of _The

Sleeping Bard_ from the Cambrian-British, and of _Bluebeard_ into

Turkish. But it is not Borrow's linguistic accomplishments that have

kept his name fresh, and will continue to keep it fresh for many a

generation to come. It is his character, his unique character as

expressed, or partially expressed, in his books. Among all the

"remarkable individuals" (to use his favourite expression) who during

the middle of the 19th century figured in the world of letters, Borrow

was surely the most eccentric, the most whimsical, and in many ways the

most extraordinary. There was scarcely a point in which he resembled any

other writer of his time. With regard to _Lavengro_ and _The Romany

Rye_, there has been very much discussion as to how much _Dichtung_ is

mingled with the _Wahrheit_ in those fascinating books. Had it not been

for the amazingly clumsy pieces of fiction which he threw into the

narrative, few readers would have doubted the autobiographical nature of

the two books. Such incidents as are here alluded to shed an air of

unreality over the whole. It has been said by Dr Knapp that Borrow never

created a character, and that to one who thoroughly knows the times and

Borrow's writings the originals are easily recognizable. This is true,

no doubt, as regards people whom he knew at Norwich, and indeed

generally as regards those he knew before the period of his gipsy

wanderings. It must not be supposed, however, that such a character as

the man who "touched" to avert the evil chance is in any sense a

portrait of an individual with whom he had been brought into contact.

The character has so many of Borrow's own eccentricities that it might

rather be called a portrait of himself. There was nothing that Borrow

strove against with more energy than the curious impulse, which he seems

to have shared with Dr Johnson, to touch the objects along his path in

order to save himself from the evil chance. He never conquered the

superstition. In walking through Richmond Park with the present writer

he would step out of his way constantly to touch a tree, and he was

offended if the friend he was with seemed to observe it. Many of the

peculiarities of the man who taught himself Chinese in order to distract

his mind from painful thoughts were also Borrow's own. (T. W.-D.)

BORSIPPA (_Barsip_ in the Babylonian and Assyrian inscriptions; _Borsif_

in the Talmud; mod. Birs or Birs-Nimrud), the Greek name of an ancient

city about 15 m. S.W. of Babylon and 10 m. from Hillah, on the Nahr

Hindieh, or Hindieh canal, formerly known as "the Euphrates of

Borsippa," and even during the Arabic period called "the river of Birs."

Borsippa was the sister city of Babylon, and is often called in the

inscriptions Babylon II., also the "city without equal." Its patron god

was Nebo or Nabu. Like Babylon Borsippa is not mentioned in the oldest

inscriptions, but comes into importance first after Khammurabi had made

Babylon the capital of the whole land, somewhere before 2000 B.C. He

built or rebuilt the temple E-Zida at this place, dedicating it,

however, to Marduk (Bel-Merodach). But although Khammurabi himself does

not seem to have honoured Nebo (q.v.), subsequent kings recognized him

as the deity of E-Zida and made him the son of Marduk (q.v.). Each new

year his image was taken to visit his father, in Babylon, who in his

turn gave him escort homeward, and his temple was second in wealth and

importance only to E-Saggila, the temple of Marduk in Babylon. As with

Babylon, so with Borsippa, the time of Nebuchadrezzar was the period of

its greatest prosperity. In general Borsippa shared the fate of Babylon,

falling into decay after the time of Alexander, and finally in the

middle ages into ruins. The site of the ancient city is represented by

two large ruin mounds. Of these the north-westerly, the lower of the

two, but the larger in superficial area, is called Ibrahim Khalil, from

a _ziara_, or shrine, of Abraham, the friend of God, which stands on its

highest point. According to Arabic lore, based on Jewish legends, at

this spot Nimrod sought to throw Abraham into a fiery furnace, from

which he was saved by the grace of God. Excavations were first conducted

here by the French Expedition Scientifique en Mesopotamie in 1852, with

small result. In 1879 and 1880 Hormuzd Rassam conducted more extensive,

although unsystematic, excavations in this mound, finding a

considerable quantity of inscribed tablets and the like, now in the

British Museum; but by far the greater part of this ruin still remains

unexplored. The south-westerly mound, the Birs proper, is probably the

most conspicuous and striking ruin in all Irak. On the top of a hill

over 100 ft. high rises a pointed mass of vitrified brick split down the

centre, over 40 ft. high, about which lie huge masses of vitrified

brick, some as much as 15 ft. in diameter, and also single enamelled

bricks, generally bearing an inscription of Nebuchadrezzar, twisted,

curled and broken, apparently by great heat. Jewish and Arabic tradition

makes this the Tower of Babel, which was supposed to have been destroyed

by lightning. Excavations conducted here by Sir Henry Rawlinson in 1854

showed it to be the stage tower or _ziggurat_, called the "house of the

seven divisions of heaven and earth," of E-Zida, the temple of Nebo. On

a large platform rose seven solid terraces, each smaller than the one

below it, the lowest being 272 ft. square and 26 ft. high. Each of these

terraces was faced with bricks of a different colour. The approach to

this _ziggurat_ was toward the north-east, and on this side lay also the

principal rooms of the temple of which this was the tower. These rooms

were partly excavated by Hormuzd Rassam in 1879-1880. In its final form

this temple and tower were the work of Nebuchadrezzar, but from the clay

cylinders found by Sir Henry Rawlinson in two of the corners of the

tower it appears that he restored an incomplete _ziggurat_ of a former

king, "which was long since fallen into decay." Some of the best

authorities believe that it was this ambitious but incomplete and

ruinous _ziggurat_, existing before the time of Nebuchadrezzar, which

gave occasion to or afforded local attachment for the Biblical story of

the Tower of Babel.

AUTHORITIES.--H.C. Rawlinson, _Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society_

(1860); J. Oppert, _Expedition scientifique en Mesopotamie_ (Paris,

1863); F. Delitzsch, _Wo lag das Paradies?_ (Leipzig, 1881); J.P.

Peters, _Nippur_ (New York and London, 1896); H. Rassam, _Asshur and

the Land of Nimrod_ (London and New York, 1897); M. Jastrow, _Religion

of Babylonia and Assyria_ (Boston, 1898); see also BABYLON, BABEL.

(J. P. Pe.)

BORT, or BOART, an inferior kind of diamond, unfit for cutting but

useful as an abrasive agent. The typical bort occurs in small spherical

masses, of greyish colour, rough or drusy on the surface, and showing on

fracture a radiate crystalline structure. These masses, known in Brazil

as bolas, are often called "shot bort" or "round bort." Much of the bort

consists of irregular aggregates of imperfect crystals. In trade, the

term bort is extended to all small and impure diamonds, and crystalline

fragments of diamond, useless as gem-stones. A large proportion of the

output of some of the South African mines consists of such material.

This bort is crushed in steel mortars to form diamond powder, which is

largely used in lapidaries' work.

BORY DE SAINT-VINCENT, JEAN BAPTISTE GEORGE MARIE (1780-1846), French

naturalist, was born at Agen in 1780. He was sent as naturalist with

Captain Nicholas Baudin's expedition to Australia in 1798, but left the

vessel at Mauritius, and spent two years in exploring Reunion and other

islands. Joining the army on his return, he was present at the battles

of Ulm and Austerlitz, and in 1808 went to Spain with Marshal Soult. His

attachment to the Napoleonic dynasty and dislike to the Bourbons were

shown in various ways during 1815, and his name was consequently placed

on the list of the proscribed; but after wandering in disguise from

place to place he was allowed quietly to return to Paris in 1820. In

1829 he was placed at the head of a scientific expedition to the Morea,

and in 1839 he had charge of the exploration of Algeria. He died on the

23rd of December 1846. He was editor of the _Dictionnaire classique

d'histoire naturelle_, and among his separate productions were:--_Essais

sur les Iles Fortunees_ (1802); _Voyage dans les Iles d'Afrique_ (1803);

_Voyage souterrain, ou description du plateau de Saint-Pierre de

Maestricht et de ses vastes cryptes_ (1821); _L'Homme, essai zoologique

sur le genre humain_ (1827); _Resume de la geographie de la Peninsule_

(1838).

BORZHOM, a watering-place of Russian Transcaucasia, in the government of

Tiflis, and 93 m. by rail W. of the city of Tiflis. Pop. (1897) 5800.

It is situated at an altitude of 2750 ft. in the Borzhom gorge, a narrow

rift in the Little Caucasus mountains, and on the Kura. Its warm

climate, its two hot springs (71-1/2 deg.-82 deg. Fahr.) and its

beautiful parks make it a favourite summer resort, and give it its

popular name of "the pearl of Caucasus." The bottled mineral waters are

very extensively exported.

BOS, LAMBERT (1670-1717), Dutch scholar and critic, was born at Workum

in Friesland, where his father was headmaster of the school. He went to

the university of Franeker (suppressed by Napoleon in 1811), and was

appointed professor of Greek there in 1704; after an uneventful life he

died at Franeker in 1717. His most famous work, _Ellipses Graecae_

(1702), was translated into English by John Seager (1830); and his

_Antiquitates Graecae_ (1714) passed through several editions. He also

published _Vetus Testamentum_, Ex Versione lxx. Interpretum (1709);

notes on Thomas Magister (1698); _Exercitationes Philologicae_ (1700);

_Animadversiones ad Scriptores quosdam Graecos_ (1715); and two small

treatises on Accents and Greek Syntax.

BOSA, a seaport and episcopal see on the W. coast of Sardinia, in the

province of Cagliari, 30 m. W. of Macomer by rail. Pop. (1901) 6846. The

height above the town is crowned by a castle of the Malaspina family.

The cathedral, founded in the 12th century, restored in the 15th, and

rebuilt in 1806, is fine. There are some tanneries, and the fishing

industry is important, but the coral production of Sicily has entirely

destroyed that of Bosa since 1887. The district produces oil and wine.

The present town of Bosa was founded in 1112 by the Malaspina, 1-1/2 m.

from the site of the ancient town (Bosa or Calmedia), where a

well-preserved church still exists. The old town is of Roman origin, but

is only mentioned by Pliny and Ptolemy, and as a station on the

coast-road in the Itineraries (_Corp. Inscr. Lat._ x. 7939 seq.). One of

the inscriptions preserved in the old cathedral records the erection of

four silver statues, of Antoninus Pius, his wife Faustina and their two

sons.

BOSBOOM-TOUSSAINT, ANNA LOUISA GEERTRUIDA (1812-1886), Dutch novelist,

was born at Alkmaar in north Holland on the 16th of September 1812. Her

father, named Toussaint, a local chemist of Huguenot descent, gave her a

fair education, and at an early period of her career she developed a

taste for historical research, fostered, perhaps, by a forced indoor

life, the result of weak health. In 1851 she married the Dutch painter,

Johannes Bosboom (1817-1891), and thereafter was known as Mrs

Bosboom-Toussaint. Her first romance, _Almagro_, appeared in 1837,

followed by the _Graaf van Devonshire_ (_The Earl of Devonshire_) in

1838; the _Engelschen te Rome_ (_The English at Rome_) in 1840, and _Het

Huis Lauernesse (The House of Lauernesse_) in 1841, an episode of the

Reformation, translated into many European languages. These stories,

mainly founded upon some of the most interesting epochs of Dutch

history, betrayed a remarkable grasp of facts and situations, combined

with an undoubted mastery over her mother tongue, though her style is

sometimes involved, and not always faultless. Ten years (1840-1850) were

mainly devoted to further studies, the result of which was revealed in

1851-1854, when her _Leycester in Nederland_ (3 vols.), _Vrouwen van het

Leycestersche Tydperk (Women of Leicester's Epoch_, 3 vols.), and

_Gideon Florensz_ (3 vols.) appeared, a series dealing with Robert

Dudley's adventures in the Low Countries. After 1870 Mrs

Bosboom-Toussaint abandoned historical romance for the modern society

novel, but her _Delftsche Wonderdokter (The Necromancer of Delft_, 1871,

3 vols.) and _Majoor Frans_ (1875, 3 vols.) did not command the success

of her earlier works. _Major Frank_ has been translated into English

(1885). She died at the Hague on the 13th of April 1886. Her novels have

been published there in a collected edition (1885-1888, 25 vols.).

BOSC, LOUIS AUGUSTIN GUILLAUME (1759-1828), French naturalist, was born

at Paris on the 29th of January 1759. He was educated at the college of

Dijon, where he showed a taste for botany, and he followed up his

studies in Paris at the Jardin des Plantes, where he made the

acquaintance of Mme M.J.P. Roland. At the age of eighteen he obtained a

government appointment, and he rose to be one of the chief officials in

the postal department. Under the ministry of J.M. Roland in 1792 he also

held the post of superintendent of prisons, but the violent outbreaks of

1793 drove him from office, and compelled him to take refuge in flight.

For some months he lay concealed at Sainte-Radegonde, in the forest of

Montmorency, barely subsisting on roots and vegetables. He was enabled

to return to Paris on the fall of Robespierre, and under the title

_Appel a l'impartiale posterite par la citoyenne Roland_ published a

manuscript Mme Roland had entrusted to him before her execution. Soon

afterwards he set out for America, resolving to explore the natural

riches of that country. The immense materials he gathered were never

published in a complete form, but much went to enrich the works of

B.G.E. de Lacepede, P.A. Latreille and others. After his return, on the

establishment of the Directory, he was reinstated in his old office. Of

this he was again deprived by the _coup d'etat_ of 1799, and for a time

he was in great destitution; but by his copious contributions to

scientific literature he contrived to support himself and to lay the

foundations of a solid reputation. He was engaged on the new

_Dictionnaire d'histoire naturelle_, and on the _Encyclopedie

methodique_, he edited the _Dictionnaire raisonne et universel

d'agriculture_, and was one of the editors of the _Annales de

l'agriculture francaise_. He was made inspector of the gardens at

Versailles, and of the public nurseries belonging to the ministry of the

interior. The last years of his life were devoted to an elaborate work

on the vine, for which he had amassed an immense quantity of materials,

but his death at Paris on the 10th of July 1828 prevented its

completion.

BOSCAN ALMOGAVER, JUAN (1490?-1542), Spanish poet, was born about the

close of the 15th century. He was a Catalan of patrician birth, and,

after some years of military service, became tutor to the duke of Alva.

His poems were published in 1543 at Barcelona by his widow. They are

divided into sections which mark the stages of Boscan's poetical

evolution. The first book contains poems in the old Castilian metres,

written in his youth, before 1526, in which year he became acquainted

with the Venetian ambassador, Andrea Navagiero, who urged him to adopt

Italian measures, and this advice gave a new turn to Boscan's activity.

The remaining books contain a number of pieces in the Italian manner,

the longest of these being _Hero y Leander_, a poem in blank verse,

based on Musaeus. Boscan's best effort, the _Octava Rima_, is a skilful

imitation of Petrarch and Bembo. Boscan also published in 1534 an

admirable translation of Castiglione's _Il Cortegiano_. Italian measures

had been introduced into Spanish literature by Santillana and

Villalpando; it is Boscan's distinction to have naturalized these forms

definitively, and to have founded a poetic school.

The best edition of his poems is that issued at Madrid in 1875 by W.J.

Knapp; for his indebtedness to earlier writers, see Francesco Flamini,

_Studi di storia literaria italiana e straniera_ (Livorno, 1895).

BOSCASTLE, a small seaport and watering-place in the Launceston

parliamentary division of Cornwall, England, 5 m. N. of Camelford

station on the London & South-Western railway. Pop. (civil parish of

Forrabury, 1901) 329. The village rises steeply above a very narrow cove

on the north coast, sheltered, but difficult of access, vessels having

to be warped into it by means of hawsers. A mound on a hill above the

harbour marks the site of a Norman castle. The parish church of St

Symphorian, Forrabury, also stands high, overlooking the Atlantic from

Willapark Point. The tower is without bells, and the tradition that a

ship bearing a peal hither was wrecked within sight of the harbour, and

that the lost bells may still be heard to toll beneath the waves, has

been made famous by a ballad of the Cornish poet Robert Stephen Hawker,

vicar of Moorwinstow. The coast scenery near Boscastle is severely

beautiful, with abrupt cliffs fully exposed to the sea, and broken only

by a few picturesque inlets such as Crackington Cove and Pentargan Cove.

Inland are bare moors, diversified by narrow dales.

BOSCAWEN, EDWARD (1711-1761), British admiral, was born on the 19th of

August 1711. He was the third son of Hugh, 1st Viscount Falmouth. He

early entered the navy, and in 1739 distinguished himself at the taking

of Porto Bello. At the siege of Cartagena, in March 1741, at the head of

a party of seamen, he took a battery of fifteen 24-pounders, while

exposed to the fire of another fort. On his return to England in the

following year he married, and entered parliament as member for Truro.

In 1744 he captured the French frigate "Medee," commanded by M. de

Hocquart, the first ship taken in the war. In May 1747 he signalized

himself in the engagement off Cape Finisterre, and was wounded in the

shoulder with a musket-ball. Hocquart again became his prisoner, and the

French ships, ten in number, were taken. On the 15th of July he was made

rear-admiral and commander-in-chief of the expedition to the East

Indies. On the 29th of July 1748 he arrived off Fort St David's, and

soon after laid siege to Pondicherry; but the sickness of his men and

the approach of the monsoons led to the raising of the siege. Soon

afterwards he received news of the peace, and Madras was delivered up to

him by the French. In April 1750 he arrived in England, and was the next

year made one of the lords of the Admiralty, and chosen an elder brother

of the Trinity House. In February 1755 he was appointed vice-admiral,

and in April he intercepted the French squadron bound to North America,

and took the "Alcide" and "Lys" of sixty-four guns each. Hocquart became

his prisoner for the third time, and Boscawen returned to Spithead with

his prizes and 1500 prisoners. For this exploit, he received the thanks

of parliament. In 1758 he was appointed admiral of the blue and

commander-in-chief of the expedition to Cape Breton, when, in

conjunction with General Amherst, he took the fortress of Louisburg, and

the island of Cape Breton--services for which he again received the

thanks of the House of Commons. In 1759, being appointed to command in

the Mediterranean, he pursued the French fleet, commanded by M. de la

Clue, and after a sharp engagement in Lagos Bay took three large ships

and burnt two, returning to Spithead with his prizes and 2000 prisoners.

The victory defeated the proposed concentration of the French fleet in

Brest to cover an invasion of England. In December 1760 he was appointed

general of the marines, with a salary of L3000 per annum, and was also

sworn a member of the privy council. He died at his seat near Guildford

on the 10th of January 1761.

BOSCH (or Bos), JEROM (c. 1460-1518), the name generally given, from his

birthplace Hertogenbosch, to Hieronymus van Aeken, the Dutch painter. He

was probably a pupil of Albert Ouwater, and may be called the Breughel

of the 15th century, for he devoted himself to the invention of bizarre

types, _diableries_, and scenes of the kind generally associated with

Breughel, whose art is to a great extent based on Bosch's. He was a

satirist much in advance of his time, and one of the most original and

ingenious artists of the 15th century. He exercised great influence on

Lucas Cranach, who frequently copied his paintings. His works were much

admired in Spain, especially by Philip II., at whose court Bosch painted

for some time. One of his chief works is the "Last Judgment" at the

Berlin gallery, which also owns a little "St Jerome in the Desert." "The

Fall of the Rebellious Angels" and the "St Anthony" triptych are in the

Brussels museum, and two important triptychs are at the Munich gallery.

The Lippmann collection in Berlin contains an important "Adoration of

the Magi," the Antwerp museum a "Passion," and a practically unknown

painting from his brush is at the Naples museum.

BOSCOVICH, ROGER JOSEPH (1711?-1787), Italian mathematician and natural

philosopher, one of the earliest of foreign _savants_ to adopt Newton's

gravitation theory, was born at Ragusa in Dalmatia on the 18th of May

1711, according to the usual account, but ten years earlier according to

Lalande (_Eloge_, 1792). In his fifteenth year, after passing through

the usual elementary studies, he entered the Society of Jesus. On

completing his noviciate, which was spent at Rome, he studied

mathematics and physics at the Collegium Romanum; and so brilliant was

his progress in these sciences that in 1740 he was appointed professor

of mathematics in the college. For this post he was especially fitted by

his acquaintance with recent advances in science, and by his skill in a

classical severity of demonstration, acquired by a thorough study of the

works of the Greek geometricians. Several years before this appointment

he had made himself a name by an elegant solution of the problem to find

the sun's equator and determine the period of its rotation by

observation of the spots on its surface. Notwithstanding the arduous

duties of his professorship he found time for investigation in all the

fields of physical science; and he published a very large number of

dissertations, some of them of considerable length, on a wide variety of

subjects. Among these subjects were the transit of Mercury, the Aurora

Borealis, the figure of the earth, the observation of the fixed stars,

the inequalities in terrestrial gravitation, the application of

mathematics to the theory of the telescope, the limits of certainty in

astronomical observations, the solid of greatest attraction, the

cycloid, the logistic curve, the theory of comets, the tides, the law of

continuity, the double refraction micrometer, various problems of

spherical trigonometry, &c. In 1742 he was consulted, with other men of

science, by the pope, Benedict XIV., as to the best means of securing

the stability of the dome of St Peter's, Rome, in which a crack had been

discovered. His suggestion was adopted. Shortly after he engaged to take

part in the Portuguese expedition for the survey of Brazil, and the

measurement of a degree of the meridian; but he yielded to the urgent

request of the pope that he would remain in Italy and undertake a

similar task there. Accordingly, in conjunction with Christopher Maire,

an English Jesuit, he measured an arc of two degrees between Rome and

Rimini. The operations were begun towards the close of 1750, and were

completed in about two years. An account of them was published in 1755,

entitled _De Litteraria expeditione per pontificam ditionem ad

dimetiendos duos meridiani gradus a PP. Maire et Boscovich_. The value

of this work was increased by a carefully prepared map of the States of

the Church. A French translation appeared in 1770. A dispute having

arisen between the grand duke of Tuscany and the republic of Lucca with

respect to the drainage of a lake, Boscovich was sent, in 1757, as agent

of Lucca to Vienna, and succeeded in bringing about a satisfactory

arrangement of the matter. In the following year he published at Vienna

his famous work, _Theoria philosophiae naturalis redacta ad unicam legem

virium in natura existentium_, containing his atomic theory (see

MOLECULE). Another occasion for the exercise of his diplomatic ability

soon after presented itself. A suspicion having arisen on the part of

the British government that ships of war had been fitted out in the port

of Ragusa for the service of France, and that the neutrality of Ragusa

had thus been violated, Boscovich was selected to undertake an embassy

to London (1760), to vindicate the character of his native place and

satisfy the government. This mission he discharged successfully, with

credit to himself and satisfaction to his countrymen. During his stay in

England he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society. He soon after paid

this society the compliment of dedicating to it his Latin poem, entitled

_De Solis et Lunae Defectibus_ (London, 1764). This prolix composition,

one of a class which at that time was much in vogue--metrical epitomes

of the facts of science--contains in about five thousand lines,

illustrated by voluminous notes, a compendium of astronomy. It was for

the most part written on horseback, during the author's rides in the

country while engaged in his meridian measurements. The book is

characterized by G.B.J. Delambre as "uninstructive to an astronomer and

unintelligible to any one else."

On leaving England Boscovich travelled in Turkey, but ill-health

compelled him soon to return to Italy. In 1764 he was called to the

chair of mathematics at the university of Pavia, and this post he held,

together with the directorship of the observatory of Brera, for six

years. He was invited by the Royal Society of London to undertake an

expedition to California to observe the transit of Venus in 1769; but

this was prevented by the recent decree of the Spanish government for

the expulsion of the Jesuits from its dominions. The vanity, egotism and

petulance of Boscovich provoked his rivals and made him many enemies, so

that in hope of peace he was driven to frequent change of residence.

About 1770 he removed to Milan, where he continued to teach and to hold

the directorship of the observatory of Brera; but being deprived of his

post by the intrigues of his associates he was about to retire to his

native place, when the news reached him (1773) of the suppression of his

order in Italy. Uncertainty as to his future led him to accept an

invitation from the king of France to Paris, where he was naturalized

and was appointed director of optics for the marine, an office

instituted for him, with a pension of 8000 livres. He remained there ten

years, but his position became irksome, and at length intolerable. He

continued, however, to devote himself diligently to the pursuits of

science, and published many remarkable memoirs. Among them were an

elegant solution of the problem to determine the orbit of a comet from

three observations, and memoirs on the micrometer and achromatic

telescopes. In 1783 he returned to Italy, and spent two years at

Bassano, where he occupied himself with the publication of his _Opera

pertinentia ad opticam et astronomiam, &c._, which appeared in 1785 in

five volumes quarto. After a visit of some months to the convent of

Vallombrosa, he went to Milan and resumed his literary labours. But his

health was failing, his reputation was on the wane, his works did not

sell, and he gradually sank a prey to illness and disappointment. He

fell into melancholy, imbecility, and at last madness, with lucid

intervals, and died at Milan on the 15th (13th) of February 1787. In

addition to the works already mentioned Boscovich published _Elementa

universae matheseos_ (1754), the substance of the course of study

prepared for his pupils; and a narrative of his travels, entitled

_Giornale di un viaggio da Constantinopoli in Polonia_, of which several

editions and a French translation appeared. His latest labour was the

editing of the Latin poems of his friend Benedict Stay on the philosophy

of Descartes, with scientific annotations and supplements.

(W. L. R. C.)

BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA, or BOSNIA-HERZEGOVINA, two provinces formerly

included in European Turkey, which now, together with Dalmatia, form the

southernmost territories of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy. The name

_Herzegovina_ is also written _Hertzegovina, Hertsegovina_ or, in

Croatian, _Hercegovina_. In shape roughly resembling an equilateral

triangle, with base uppermost, Bosnia and Herzegovina cover an area of

19,696 sq. m., in the north-west of the Balkan Peninsula. They are

bounded N. and N.W. by Croatia-Slavonia; W. and S.W. by Dalmatia; S.E.

by Montenegro and the Sanjak of Novibazar; and N.E. by Servia. Opposite

to the promontory of Sabbioncello, and at the entrance to the Bocche di

Cattaro, the frontier of Herzegovina comes down to the Adriatic; but

these two strips of coast do not contain any good harbour, and extend

only for a total distance of 14-1/2 m. Bosnia is altogether an inland

territory.

1. _Physical Features._--Along the Dalmatian border, and through the

centre of Bosnia, runs the backbone of the Dinaric Alps, which attain

their greatest altitudes (6000-7500 ft.) near Travnik, Serajevo and

Mostar. There are numerous high valleys shut in among the mountains of

this range; the most noteworthy being the plain of Livno, which lies

parallel to the Dalmatian border, at a height of 500 ft. above the sea.

The zone of highlands throughout Bosnia and Herzegovina reaches a mean

altitude of 1500 ft., while summits of more than 4000 ft. occur

frequently. To the north-east of the Dinaric Alps extends a region of

mountain, moor and forest, with deeply sunk alluvial basins, which

finally expand into the lowlands of the Posavina, or Vale of the Save,

forming the southernmost fringe of the Hungarian Alfold. Bosnia belongs

wholly to the watershed of the Save, and its rivers to the Danubian

system, no large stream finding a way to the Adriatic. The Save flows

eastward along the northern frontier for 237 m. It is joined by four

main tributaries, the Drina, Bosna, Vrbas and Una. The Drina is formed

on the Montenegrin frontier by the united streams of the Tara and Piva;

curving north-eastwards past Visegrad, it marches for 102 m. with

Servian territory, and falls into the Save at Racha, after a total

course of 155 m. The Bosna issues from many springs near Serajevo, and

winds for 107 m. northward, through a succession of fertile glens,

reaching the Save 1 m. west of Samac. Farther west, the Vrbas cuts a

channel through the Dinaric Alps, and, after passing Jajce and

Banjaluka, meets the Save 94 m. from its own headwaters. The Una rises

on the Croatian border, and, after skirting the Pljesevica Planina, in

Croatia, turns sharply to the north-east; serving as a frontier stream

for 37 m. before entering the Save at Jasenovac. Its length is 98 m. At

Novi it is joined by the Sana, a considerable affluent.

Herzegovina, which lies south of Bosnia, in a parallelogram defined by

Montenegro, Dalmatia, the Dinaric Alps, and an irregular line drawn from

a point 25 m. west-north-west of Mostar to the bend of the river

Narenta, differs in many respects from the larger territory. Its

mountains, which belong to the Adriatic watershed, and form a

continuation of the Montenegrin highlands, are less rounded and more

dolomitic in character. They descend in parallel ridges of grey Karst

limestone, south-westwards to the sea; their last summits reappear in

the multitude of rocky islands along the Dalmatian littoral. As in the

peaks of Orjen, Orobac, Samotica and Veliki Kap, their height often

exceeds 6000 ft. West of the Narenta, their flanks are in places covered

with forests of beech and pine, but north-east of that river they

present for the most part a scene of barren desolation. Their monotony

is varied only by the fruitful river-valleys and _poljes_, or upland

hollows, where the smaller towns and villages are grouped; the districts

or cantons thus formed are walled round by a natural rampart of

limestone. These _poljes_ may be described as oases in what is otherwise

a desert expanse of mountains. The surface of some, as notably the

_Mostarsko Blato_, lying west of Mostar, is marshy, and in spring forms

a lake; others are watered by streams which disappear in swallow-holes

of the rock, and make their way by underground channels either to the

sea or the Narenta. The most conspicuous example of these is the

Trebinjcica, which disappears in two swallow-holes in Popovopolye, and

after making its way by a subterranean passage through a range of

mountains, wells up in the mighty source of Ombla near Ragusa, and

hurries in undiminished volume to the Adriatic. The Narenta, or Neretva,

is the one large river of Herzegovina which flows above ground

throughout its length. Rising on the Montenegrin border, under the

Lebrsnik mountains, it flows north-westwards at the foot of the Dinaric

Alps; and, near Konjica, sweeps round suddenly to the south, and falls

into the Adriatic near Metkovic, after traversing 125 m. North of

Mostar, it cleaves a passage through the celebrated Narenta defile, a

narrow gorge, 12 m. long, overshadowed by mountains which rise on either

side and culminate in Lupoglav (6796 ft.) on the east, and Cvrstnica

(7205 ft.) on the west.

2. _Geology and Minerals._--Geologically, the highlands of Bosnia and

Herzegovina are to be regarded, in both their orographic and tectonic

character, as a continuation of the South Alpine calcareous belt. Along

the west frontier there appear broad and strongly marked zones of

Cretaceous limestone, alternating with Jurassic and Triassic, joined by

a strip of Palaeozoic formations running from the north-west corner of

Bosnia. Next, proceeding from this region in an easterly direction, are

the Neogene freshwater formations, filling up the greatest part of the

north-east of Bosnia, as also a zone of flysch intermingled with several

strips of eruptive rock. In the south-east of Bosnia the predominant

formations are Triassic and Palaeozoic strata with red sandstone and

quartzite. Along the whole northern rim of Bosnia, as also in the

fluvial and Karst valleys (_poljes_), are found diluvial and alluvial

formations, interrupted at one place by an isolated granite layer.

Bosnia is rich in minerals, including coal, iron, copper, chrome,

manganese, cinnabar, zinc and mercury, besides marble and much excellent

building stone. Among the mountains, gold and silver were worked by the

Romans, and, in the middle ages, by the Ragusans. After 1881 the Mining

Company of Bosnia began to develop the coal and iron fields; and from

1886 its operations were continued by the government. Valuable salt is

obtained from the pits at Dolnja Tuzla, and the southern part of

Herzegovina yields asphalt and lignite. Mineral springs also abound, and

those of Ilidze, near Serajevo, have been utilized since the days of

the Romans; but the majority remained unexploited at the beginning of

the 20th century.

3. _Climate._--In climate Bosnia differs considerably from Herzegovina.

In both alike the _scirocco_, bringing rain from the south-west, is a

prevalent wind, as well as the _bora_, the fearful north-north-easter of

Illyria, which, sweeping down the lateral valleys of the Dinaric Alps,

overwhelms everything in its path. The snow-fall is slight, and, except

on a few of the loftier peaks, the snow soon melts. In Bosnia the

weather resembles that of the south Austrian highlands, generally mild,

though apt to be bitterly cold in winter. In Serajevo the mean annual

temperature is 50 deg. Fahr. Herzegovina has more affinity to the

Dalmatian mountains, oppressively hot in summer, when the mercury often

rises beyond 110 deg. Fahr. The winter rains of the Karst region show

that it belongs to the sub-tropical climatic zone.

4. _Fauna._--In 1893 the bones of a cave-bear (_Ursus spelaeus_) were

taken from a cavern of the Bjelasnica range, in Herzegovina, a discovery

without parallel in the Balkan Peninsula. Of existing species the bear,

wild-boar, badger, roe-deer and chamois may occasionally be seen in the

remotest wilds of mountain and forest. Hares are uncommon, and the last

red-deer was shot in 1814; but wolves, otters and squirrels abound.

Snipe, woodcock, ducks and rails, in vast flocks, haunt the banks of the

Drina and Save; while the crane, pelican, wild-swan and wild-goose are

fairly plentiful. The lammergeier (_Gypaetus barbatus_) had almost

become extinct in 1900; but several varieties of eagle and falcon are

left. Falconry was long a pastime of the Moslem landlords. The

destruction of game, recklessly carried out under Turkish rule, is

prevented by the laws of 1880, 1883 and 1893, which enforced a close

time, and rendered shooting-licences necessary. The list of reptiles

includes the venomous _Vipera ammodytes_ and _Pelias berus_, while

scorpions and lizards infest the stony wastes of the Karst. In the

museum at Serajevo there is a large entomological collection, including

the remarkable _Pogonus anophthalmus_, from the underground Karst caves.

The caves are rich in curious kinds of fish, _Paraphoxinus Gethaldii_,

which is unknown elsewhere, _Chondrostoma phoximus, Phoxinellus

alepidatus_ and others, which are caught and eaten by the peasantry. In

Herzegovina, although many of the high mountain tarns are unproductive,

the eel-fisheries of the Narenta are of considerable value.

Leech-gathering is a characteristic Bosnian industry. The streams of

both territories yield excellent trout and crayfish; salmon, sturgeon

and sterlet, from the Danube, are netted in the Save.

Forests.

5. _Flora._--Serajevo museum has a collection of the Bosnian flora,

representing over 3000 species; among them, the rare _Veronica crinita,

Pinus leucodermis, Picea omorica_ and _Daphne Blagayana_. About 50% of

the occupied territory is clothed with forest. "Bosnia begins with the

forest," says a native proverb, "Herzegovina with the rock"; and this

account is, broadly speaking, accurate, although the Bosnian Karst is as

bare as that of Herzegovina. Below the mountain crests, where only the

hardiest lichens and mosses can survive, comes a belt of large timber,

including many giant trees, 200 ft. high, and 20 ft. in girth at the

level of a man's shoulder. Dense brushwood prevails on the foothills.

There are three main zones of woodland. Up to 2500 ft. among the ranges

of northern Bosnia, the sunnier slopes are overgrown by oaks, the

shadier by beeches. Farther south, in central Bosnia, the oak rarely

mounts beyond the foothills, being superseded by the beech, elm, ash,

fir and pine, up to 5000 ft. The third zone is characterized by the

predominance, up to 6000 ft., of the fir, pine and other conifers. In

all three zones occur the chestnut, aspen, willow (especially _Salix

laurea_), hornbeam, birch, alder, juniper and yew; while the mountain

ash, hazel, wild plum, wild pear and other wild fruit trees are found at

rarer intervals. Until 1878 the forests were almost neglected;

afterwards, the government was forced to levy a graduated tax on goats,

owing to the damage they inflicted upon young trees, and to curtail the

popular rights of cutting timber and fir-wood and of pasturage. These

measures were largely successful, but in 1902 the export of oak staves

was discontinued owing to a shortage of supply.

6. _Agriculture._--In 1895, according to the agricultural survey, the

surface of Bosnia and Herzegovina was laid out as follows:--

Acres.

Plough-land. 2,355,499

Garden-ground. 103,040

Meadow. 739,200

Vineyards. 12,598

Pasture. 1,875,840

Forest. 5,670,619

Unproductive. 210,998

Apart from the arid wastes of the Karst, the soil is well adapted for

the growing of cereals, especially Indian corn; olives, vines,

mulberries, figs, pomegranates, melons, oranges, lemons, rice and

tobacco flourish in Herzegovina and the more sheltered portions of

Bosnia. Near Doboj, on the Bosna, there is a state sugar-refinery, for

which beetroot is largely grown in the vicinity. _Pyrethrum

cinerariaefolium_ is exported for the manufacture of insect-powder, and

sunflowers are cultivated for the oil contained in their seeds. The

plum-orchards of the Posavina furnish prunes and a spirit called

_slivovica, shlivovitsa_ or _sliwowitz_. This district is the

headquarters of a thriving trade in pigs. Poultry, bees and silkworms

are commonly kept. On the whole agriculture is backward, despite the

richness of the soil; for the cultivators are a very conservative race,

and prefer the methods and implements of their ancestors. Many

improvements were, nevertheless, introduced by the government after

1878. Machinery was lent to the farmers, and free grants of seed were

made. Model farms were established at Livno and at Gacko, on the

Montenegrin border; a school of viticulture near Mostar; a model

poultry-farm at Prijedor, close to the Croatian boundary; a school of

agriculture and dairy farming at Ilidze; and another school at Modric,

near the mouth of the Bosna, where a certain number of village

schoolmasters are annually trained, for six weeks, in practical

husbandry. Seed is distributed, and agricultural machinery lent, by the

government. To better the breeds of live-stock, a stud-farm was opened

near Serajevo, and foreign horses, cattle, sheep and poultry are

imported.

7. _Land Tenure._--The _zadruga_, or household community, more common in

Servia (q.v.), survives to a small extent in Bosnia and Herzegovina;

but, as a rule, the tenure of land resembles the system called

_metayage_. At the time of the Austrian occupation (1878) it was

regulated by a Turkish enactment[1] of the 12th of September 1859. Apart

from gardens and house-property, all land was, according to this

enactment, owned by the state; in practice, it was held by the Moslem

_begs_ or _beys_ (nobles) and _agas_ (landlords), who let it to the

peasantry. The landlord received from his tenant (_kmet_) a fixed

percentage, usually one third (_tretina_), of the annual produce; and,

of the remaining two thirds, the cash equivalent of one tenth

(_desetina_) went to the state. The amount of the _desetina_ was always

fixed first, and served as a basis for the assessment of the _tretina_,

which, however, was generally paid in kind. At any time the tenant could

relinquish his holding; but he could only be evicted for refusing to pay

his _tretina_, for wilful neglect of his land or for damage done to it.

The landlord was bound to keep his tenants' dwellings and outhouses in

repair. Should he desire to sell his estates, the right of pre-emption

belonged to the tenants, or, in default, to the neighbours. Thus foreign

speculators in land were excluded, while a class of peasant proprietors

was created; its numbers being increased by the custom that, if any man

reclaimed a piece of waste land, it became his own property after ten

years. The Turkish land-system remained in force during the entire

period of the occupation (1878-1908). It had worked, on the whole,

satisfactorily; and between 1885 and 1895 the number of peasants farming

their own land rose from 117,000 to 200,000. One conspicuous feature of

the Bosnian land-system is the Moslem _Vakuf_, or ecclesiastical

property, consisting of estates dedicated to such charitable purposes as

poor-relief, and the endowment of mosques, schools, hospitals,

cemeteries and baths. It is administered by a central board of Moslem

officials, who meet in Sarajevo, under state supervision. Its income

rose to L25,000 in 1895, having quadrupled itself in ten years. The

_Vakuf_ tenants were at that time extremely prosperous, for their rent

had been fixed for ten years in advance on the basis of the year's

harvest, and so had not risen proportionately to the value of their

holdings.

8. _Industries and Commerce._--Beside agriculture, which employed over

88% of the whole population in 1895, the other industries are

insignificant. Chief among them are weaving and leather and metal work,

carried on by the workmen in their own houses. There are also government

workshops, opened with a view to a higher technical and artistic

development of the house industry. More particularly, chased and inlaid

metallic wares, _bez_ (thin cotton) and carpet-weaving receive

government support. Besides the sugar-refinery already mentioned, there

were in 1900 four tobacco factories, a national printing-press, an

annular furnace for brick-burning, an iron-foundry and several

blast-furnaces, under the management of the state. Among the larger

private establishments there existed in the same year seven breweries,

one brandy distillery, two jam, two soap and candle factories, two

building and furniture works, a factory for spinning thread, one iron

and steel works, one paper and one ammonia and soda factory, and one

mineral-oil refinery.

In respect of foreign trade Bosnia and Herzegovina were in 1882 included

in the customs and commercial system of Austria-Hungary, to the

extinction of all intermediate imposts. Since 1898 special statistics

have been drawn up respecting their trade also with Austria and Hungary.

According to these statistics the most important articles of export are

coal and turf, fruit, minerals, soda, iron and steel, and cattle. Other

articles of export are chemicals, dyeing and tanning stuffs, tobacco,

sugar-beet and kitchen-salt. The imports consist principally of food

stuffs, building materials, drinks, sugar, machinery, glass, fats,

clothes, wooden and stone wares, and various manufactured goods.

There is a national bank in Serajevo, which carries on a hypothecary

credit business and manages the wholesale trade of the tobacco

factories. There are savings banks in Banjaluka, Bjelina and Brcka.

9. _Communications._--The construction of carriage-roads, wholly

neglected by the Turks, was carried out on a large scale by the

Austrians. Two railways were also built, in connexion with the Hungarian

state system. One crosses the Una at Kostajnica, and, after skirting the

right bank of that river as far as Novi, strikes eastward to Banjaluka.

The other, a narrow-gauge line, crosses the Save at Bosna Brod, and

follows the Bosna to Serajevo, throwing out branches eastward beyond

Dolnja Tuzla, and westward to Jajce and Bugojno. It then pierces through

the mountains of northern Herzegovina, traverses the Narenta valley, and

runs almost parallel with the coast to Trebinje, Ragusa and the Bocche

di Cattaro. Up to this point the railways of the occupied territory were

complete in 1901. A farther line, from Serajevo to the frontiers of

Servia and Novibazar, was undertaken in 1902, and by 1906 782 m. of

railway were open. Small steamers ply on the Drina, Save and Una, but

the Bosna, though broad from its very source, is, like the Vrbas, too

full of shallows to be utilized; while the Narenta only begins to be

navigable when it enters Dalmatia. All the railway lines, like the

postal, telegraphic and telephonic services, are state property. In many

of the principal towns there are also government hotels.

Serajevo, with 41,543 inhabitants in 1895, is the capital of the

combined provinces, and other important places are Mostar (17,010), the

capital of Herzegovina, Banjaluka (14,812), Dolnja Tuzla (11,034),

Travnik (6626), Livno (5273), Visoko(5000), Foca (4217), Jajce (3929)

and Trebinje (2966). All these are described in separate articles.

10. _Population and National Characteristics._--In 1895 the population,

which tends to increase slowly, with a preponderance of males over

females, numbered 1,568,092. The alien element is small, consisting

chiefly of Austro-Hungarians, gipsies, Italians and Jews. Spanish is a

comomon language of the Jews, whose ancestors fled hither, during the

16th century, to escape the Inquisition. The natives are officially

described as Bosniaks, but classify themselves according to religion.

Thus the Roman Catholics prefer the name of Croats, Hrvats or Latins;

the Orthodox, of Serbs; the Moslems, of Turks. All alike belong to the

Serbo-Croatian branch of the Slavonic race; and all speak a language

almost identical with Servian, though written by the Roman Catholics in

Latin instead of Cyrillic letters. A full account of this language, and

its literature, is given under SERVIA and CROATIA-SLAVONIA. To avoid

offending either "Serbs" or "Croats," it is officially designated

"Bosnisch." In some parts of Herzegovina the dress, manners and physical

type of the peasantry are akin to those of Montenegro. The Bosnians or

Bosniaks resemble their Servian kinsfolk in both appearance and

character. They have the same love for poetry, music and romance; the

same intense pride in their race and history; many of the same

superstitions and customs. The Christians retain the Servian costume,

modified in detail, as by the occasional use of the turban or fez. The

"Turkish" women have in some districts abandoned the veil; but in others

they even cover the eyes when they leave home. Polygamy is almost

unknown, possibly because many of the "Turks" are descended from the

austere Bogomils, who were, in most cases, converted to Islam, but more

probably because the "Turks" are as a rule too poor to provide for more

than one wife on the scale required by Islamic law. In general, the

people of Bosnia and Herzegovina are sober and thrifty, subsisting

chiefly on Indian corn, dried meat, milk and vegetables. Their houses

are built of timber and thatch, or clay tiles, except in the Karst

region, where stone is more plentiful than wood. Family ties are strong,

and the women are not ill-treated, although they share in all kinds of

manual labour.

11. _Government._--At the time of the Austrian annexation in 1908, the

only remaining token of Ottoman suzerainty was that the foreign consuls

received their _exequatur_ from Turkey, instead of Austria; otherwise

the government of the country was conducted in the name of the Austrian

emperor, through the imperial minister of finance at Vienna, who

controlled the civil service for the occupied territory. Its central

bureau, with departments of the interior, religion and education,

finance and justice, was established at Serajevo; and its members were

largely recruited among the Austrian Slavs, who were better able than

the Germans to comprehend the local customs and language. A consultative

assembly, composed of the highest ecclesiastical authorities, together

with 12 popular representatives, also met at Serajevo. For

administrative purposes the country was divided into 6 districts or

prefectures (_kreise_), which were subdivided into 49 subprefectures

(_bezirke_).

Every large town has a mayor and deputy mayor, appointed by the

government, and a town council, of whom one third are similarly

appointed, while the citizens choose the rest; a proportionate number of

councillors representing each religious community. To ensure economy,

the decisions of this body are supervised by a government commissioner.

The commune is preserved, somewhat as in Servia (q.v.), but with

modified powers. Each district has its court of law, where cases are

tried by three official judges and two assessors, selected from the

leading citizens. The assessors vote equally with the judges, and three

votes decide the verdict. Except where the litigants and witnesses are

German, the Serbo-Croatian language is used. An appeal, on points of law

alone, may be carried to the supreme court in Serajevo, and there tried

by five judges without assessors. In cases not involving a sum greater

than 300 florins (L25), no appeal will lie; and where only 50 florins

(L4:3:4) are in question, the case is summarily decided at the

_Bagatelle Gericht_, or court for trifling cases. The number of lawyers

admitted to practice is strictly limited. As far as possible, the

Turkish law was retained during the period of occupation; all cases

between Moslems were settled in separate courts by Moslem judges,

against whom there was an appeal to the supreme court, aided by

assessors. All able-bodied males are liable, on reaching their 21st

year, for 3 years' service with the colours, and 9 years in the reserve.

The garrison numbers about 20,000 Austrian troops, and there are 7100

native troops. The principal military stations are Bjelina, Zvornik,

Visegrad, Gorazda, Foca, Bilek, Avtovac and Trebinje, along the eastern

frontier; Mostar and Stolac in the south; Livno in the west; and Bihac

in the north.

12. _Religion._--In 1895 43% of the population were Orthodox Christians,

35% Moslems and 21% Roman Catholics. The patriarch of Constantinople is

the nominal head of the Orthodox priesthood; but by an arrangement

concluded in 1879, his authority was delegated to the Austrian emperor,

in exchange for a revenue equal to the tribute previously paid by the

clergy of the provinces; and his nominations for the metropolitanate of

Serajevo, and the bishoprics of Dolnja Tuzla, Banjaluka and Mostar

require the imperial assent. Under Turkish rule the communes chose their

own parish priests, but this right is now vested in the government. The

Roman Catholics have an archbishop in Serajevo, a bishop in Mostar and

an apostolic administrator in Banjaluka. Serajevo is also the seat of

the Jewish chief rabbi; and of the highest Moslem ecclesiastic, or

_reis-el-ulema_, who with his council is nominated and paid by the

government. The inferior Moslem clergy draw their stipends from the

_Vakuf_. Considerable bitterness prevails between the rival confessions,

each aiming at political ascendancy, but the government favours none. In

order to conciliate even the Moslems, who include the bulk of the great

landholders and of the urban population, its representatives visit the

mosques in state on festivals; grants are made for the Mecca pilgrimage;

and even the howling Dervishes in Serajevo are maintained by the state.

13. _Education._--Education for boys and girls between the ages of seven

and fifteen is free, but not compulsory. The state supports primary

schools (352 in 1905), where reading, writing, arithmetic and history

are taught; and separate instruction is given by the Orthodox, Roman

Catholic, Jewish and Moslem clergy. There are also various private

schools, belonging to the different religious communities. These receive

a grant from the government, which nevertheless encourages all parents

to send their children to its own schools. One of the earliest and

best-known private schools is the orphanage at Serajevo, founded in 1869

by two English ladies, Miss Irby and Miss Mackenzie. In the Moslem

schools, which, in 1905, comprised 855 _mektebs_ or primary schools, and

41 _madrasas_ or high schools, instruction is usually given in Turkish

or Arabic; while in Orthodox schools the books are printed in Cyrillic

characters.

For higher education there were in 1908 three gymnasia, a real-school at

Banjaluka, a technical college and a teachers' training-college at

Serajevo, where, also, is the state school for Moslem law-students,

called _scheriatschule_ from the _sheri_ or Turkish code; and various

theological, commercial and art institutes. Promising pupils are

frequently sent to Vienna University, with scholarships, which may be

forfeited if the holders engage in political agitation.

14. _Antiquities._--Up to 1900 no traces of palaeolithic man had been

discovered in Bosnia or Herzegovina; but many later prehistoric remains

are preserved in Serajevo museum. The neolithic station of Butmir, near

Ilidze, was probably a lake-dwellers' colony, and has yielded numerous

stone and horn implements, clay figures and pottery. Not far off,

similar relics were found at Sobunar, Zlatiste and Debelobrdo; iron and

bronze ornaments, vessels and weapons, often of elaborate design, occur

in the huts and cemeteries of Glasinac, and in the cemetery of Jezerine,

where they are associated with objects in silver, tin, amber, glass, &c.

Among the numerous finds made in other districts may be mentioned the

discovery, at Vrankamer, near Bihac, of 98 African coins, the oldest of

which dates from 300 B.C. Many vestiges of Roman rule survive, such as

roads, mines, ruins, tombs, coins, frescoes and inscriptions. Such

remains occur frequently near Bihac, Foca, Livno, Jajce and Serajevo;

and especially near the sources of the Drina. The period between the

downfall of Roman power, late in the 5th century, and the growth of a

Bosnian state, in the 11th, is poorer in antiquities. The later middle

ages are represented by several monasteries, and many castles, such as

those of Dervent, Doboj, Maglaj, Zepce and Vranduk, on the Bosna; Bihac,

on the Una; Prijedor and Kljuc, on the Sana; and Stolac, Gabela,

Irebinje and Konjica, in Herzegovina. The bridge across the Narenta, at

Konjica, is said to date from the 10th century. A group of signs carved

on some rocks near Visegrad have been regarded as cuneiform writing, but

are probably medieval masonic symbols. In a few cases, such as the

Begova Dzamia at Serajevo, the Foca mosques and the Mostar bridge, the

buildings raised by the Turks are of high architectural merit. More

remarkable are the tombstones, generally measuring 6 ft. in length, 3 in

height and 3 in breadth, which have been supposed to mark the graves of

the Bogomils. These are, as a rule, quite unadorned, a few only being

decorated with rude has-reliefs of animals, plants, weapons, the

crescent and star, or, very rarely, the cross.

Formation of the Banate.

15. _History._--Under Roman rule Bosnia had no separate name or history,

and until the great Slavonic immigration of 636 it remained an

undifferentiated part of Illyria (q.v.). Owing to the scarcity of

authoritative documents, it is impossible to describe in detail the

events of the next three centuries. During this period Bosnia became the

generally accepted name for the valley of the Bosna (ancient

_Basanius_); and subsequently for several outlying and tributary

principalities, notably those of Soli, afterwards Tuzla; Usora, along

the south-eastern bank of the Save; Donji Kraj, the later Krajina,

Kraina or Turkish Croatia, in the north-west; and Rama, the modern

district of Livno. The old Illyrian population was rapidly absorbed or

expelled, its Latin institutions being replaced by the autonomous tribal

divisions, or _Zupanates_, of the Slavs. Pressure from Hungary and

Byzantium gradually welded these isolated social units into a single

nation, whose ruler was known as the Ban (q.v.). But the central power

remained weak, and the country possessed no strong natural frontiers. It

seems probable that the bans were originally viceroys of the Croatian

kings, who resumed their sovereignty over Bosnia from 958 to 1010.

Thenceforward, until 1180, the bans continued subject to the Eastern

empire or Hungary, with brief intervals of independence. The territory

now called Herzegovina was also subject to various foreign powers. It

comprised the principalities of Tribunia or Travunja, with its capital

at Trebinje; and Hlum or Hum, the Zachlumia of Constantine

Porphyrogenitus, who gives a clear picture of this region as it was in

the 10th century.[2]

Religious controversies.

The schism between Eastern and Western Christendom left Bosnia divided

between the Greek and Latin Churches. Early in the 12th century a new

religion, that of the Bogomils (q.v.), was introduced, and denounced as

heretical. Its converts nevertheless included many of the Bosnian nobles

and the ban Kulin (1180-1204), whose reign was long proverbial for its

prosperity, owing to the flourishing state of commerce and agriculture,

and the extensive mining operations carried on by the Ragusans. An

unusually able ruler, connected by marriage with the powerful Servian

dynasty of Nemanya, and by treaty with the republic of Ragusa,[3] Kulin

perceived in the new doctrines a barrier between his subjects and

Hungary. He was compelled to recant, under strong pressure from Pope

Innocent III. and Bela III. of Hungary; but, despite all efforts,

Bogomilism incessantly gained ground. In 1232 Stephen, the successor of

Kulin, was dethroned by the native magnates, who chose instead Matthew

Ninoslav, a Bogomil. This event illustrates the three dominant

characteristics of Bosnian history: the strength of the aristocracy; the

corresponding weakness of the central authority, enhanced by the lack of

any definite rule of inheritance; and the supreme influence of religion.

Threatened by Pope Gregory IX. with a crusade, Ninoslav was baptized,

only to abjure Christianity in 1233. For six years he withstood the

Hungarian crusaders, led by Kaloman, duke of Croatia; in 1241 the Tatar

invasion of Hungary afforded him a brief respite; and in 1244 peace was

concluded after a Bosnian campaign against Croatia. A renewal of the

crusade proving equally vain, in 1247 Pope Innocent III. entered into

friendly negotiations with the ban, whose country was for the moment an

independent and formidable state. The importance attached to its

conversion is well attested by the correspondence of Pope Gregory IX.

with Ninoslav and various Bosnian ecclesiastics.[4]

Period of Hungarian supremacy.

On the death of Ninoslav in 1250, vigorous efforts were made to

exterminate the Bogomil heresy; and to this end, Bela IV., who appeared

as the champion of Roman Catholicism, secured the election of his

nominee Prijesda to the banate. Direct Hungarian suzerainty lasted until

1299, the bans preserving only a shadow of their former power. From 1299

to 1322 the country was ruled by the Croatian princes, Paul and Mladen

Subic, who, though vassals of Hungary, reunited the provinces of Upper

and Lower Bosnia, created by the Hungarians in order to prevent the

growth of a dangerous national unity. A rising of the native magnates in

1322 resulted in the election of the Bogomil, Stephen Kotromanic, last

and greatest of the Bosnian bans.

Stephen Kotromanic.

At this period the Servian empire had reached its zenith; Hungary,

governed by the feeble monarch, Charles Robert of Anjou, was striving to

crush the insurgent magnates of Croatia; Venice, whose commercial

interests were imperilled, desired to restore peace and maintain the

balance of power. Dread of Servia impelled Kotromanic to aid Hungary. In

an unsuccessful war against the Croats (1322-26), from which Venice

derived the sole advantage, the ban appears to have learned the value of

sea-power; immediately afterwards he occupied the principality of Hlum

and the Dalmatian littoral between Spalato and the river Narenta. Ragusa

furnished him with money and a fleet, in return for a guarantee of

protection; commercial treaties with Venice further strengthened his

position; and the Vatican, which had instigated the Croats to invade the

dominions of their heretical neighbour (1337-40), was conciliated by his

conversion to Roman Catholicism. Defeated by the Servian tsar Dushan,

and driven to ally himself with Servia and Venice against Louis I. of

Hungary, Kotromanic returned to his allegiance in 1344. Four years later

his influence brought about a truce between Hungary and the Venetians,

who had agreed with Bosnia for mutual support against the Croats; and in

1353, the year of his death, his daughter Elizabeth was married to King

Louis.

Establishment of the Bosnian kingdom.

Stephen Tvrtko, the nephew and successor of Kotromanic, was a minor, and

for thirteen years his mother, Helena, acted as regent. Confronted by

civil war, and deprived of Hlum by the Hungarians, she was compelled to

acknowledge the suzerainty of Stephen Dushan, and afterwards of Louis.

But in 1366 Tvrtko overcame all opposition at home, and forthwith

embarked on a career of conquest, recapturing Hlum and annexing part of

Dalmatia. The death of Stephen Dushan, in 1356, had left his empire

defenceless against the Hungarians, Turks and other enemies; and to win

help from Bosnia the Servian tsar Lazar ceded to Tvrtko a large tract of

territory, including the principality of Tribunia. In 1376 Tvrtko was

crowned as "Stephen I., king of Bosnia, Servia, and all the Sea-coast,"

although Lazar retained his own title and a diminished authority. The

death of Louis in 1392, the regency of his widow Elizabeth, and a fresh

outbreak in Croatia, enabled Tvrtko to fulfil his predecessor's designs

by establishing a maritime state. With Venetian aid he wrested from

Hungary the entire Adriatic littoral between Fiume and Cattaro, except

the city of Zara; thus adding Dalmatia to his kingdom at the moment when

Servia was lost through the Ottoman victory of Kossovo (1389). At his

coronation he had proclaimed his purpose to revive the ancient Servian

empire; in 1378 he had married the daughter of the last Bulgarian tsar;

and it is probable that he dreamed of founding an empire which should

extend from the Adriatic to the Black Sea. The disaster of Kossovo,

though fatal to his ambition, did not immediately react on Bosnia

itself; and when Tvrtko died in 1391, his kingdom was still at the

summit of its prosperity.

Decline of the Bosnian kingdom.

Kotromanic and Tvrtko had known how to crush or conciliate their

turbulent magnates, whose power reasserted itself under Dabisa (Stephen

II., 1391-1398), a brother of Tvrtko. Sigismond of Hungary profited by

the disorder that ensued to regain Croatia and Dalmatia; and in 1398 the

Turks, aided by renegade Slavs,[5] overran Bosnia. Ostoja (Stephen III.,

1398-1418), an illegitimate son of Tvrtko, proved a puppet in the hands

of Hrvoje Vukcic, duke of Spalato, Sandalj Hranic,[6] and other leaders

of the aristocracy, who fought indifferently against the Turks, the

Hungarians, the king or one another. Some upheld a rival claimant to the

throne in Tvrtkovic, a legitimate son of Tvrtko, and all took sides in

the incessant feud between Bogomils and Roman Catholics. During the

reigns of Ostojic (Stephen IV., 1418-1421) and Tvrtkovic (Stephen V.,

1421-1444) Bosnia was thus left an easy prey to the Turks, who exacted a

yearly tribute, after again ravaging the country, and carrying off many

thousands of slaves, with a vast store of plunder.

Turkish conquest.

The losses inflicted on the Turks by Hunyadi Janos, and the attempt to

organize a defensive league among the neighbouring Christian lands,

temporarily averted the ruin of Bosnia under Thomas Ostojic (Stephen

VI., 1444-1461). Hoping to gain active support from the Vatican, Ostojic

renounced Bogomilism, and persecuted his former co-religionists, until

the menace of an insurrection forced him to grant an amnesty. His

position was endangered by the growing power of his father-in-law,

Stephen Vukcic, an ardent Bogomil, who had united Tribunia and Hlum into

a single principality. Vukcic--or _Cosaccia_, as he is frequently called

by the contemporary chroniclers, from his birthplace, Cosac--was the

first and last holder of the title "Duke of St Sava," conferred on him

by the emperor Frederick III. in 1448; and from this title is derived

the name _Herzegovina_, or "the Duchy." Hardly had the king become

reconciled with this formidable antagonist, when, in 1453, the death of

Hunyadi, and the fall of Constantinople, left Bosnia defenceless against

the Turks. In 1460 it was again invaded. Venice and the Papacy were

unable, and Hungary unwilling, to render assistance; while the Croats

proved actively hostile. Ostojic died in 1461, and his successor

Tomasevic (Stephen VII., 1461-1463) surrendered to the Turks and was

beheaded. Herzegovina, where Vukcic offered a desperate resistance, held

out until 1483; but apart from the heroic defence of Jajce, the efforts

of the Bosnians were feeble and inglorious, many of the Bogomils joining

the enemy. From 1463 the greater part of the country submitted to the

Turks; but the districts of Jajce and Srebrenica were occupied by

Hungarian garrisons, and organized as a separate "banate" or "kingdom of

Bosnia," until 1526, when the Hungarian power was broken at Mohacs. In

1528 Jajce surrendered, after repelling every attack by the Turkish

armies for 65 years.

The fall of Jajce was the consummation of the Turkish conquest. It was

followed by the flight of large bodies of Christian refugees. Many of

the Roman Catholics withdrew into Croatia-Slavonia and south Hungary,

where they ultimately fell again under Ottoman dominion. Others found

shelter in Rome or Venice, and a large number settled in Ragusa, where

they doubtless contributed to the remarkable literary development of the

16th and 17th centuries in which the use of the Bosnian dialect was a

characteristic feature. Some of the most daring spirits waged war on

their conquerors from Clissa in Dalmatia, and afterwards from Zengg in

maritime Croatia, where they formed the notorious pirate community of

the Uskoks (q.v.). There was less inducement for the Orthodox

inhabitants to emigrate, because almost all the neighbouring lands were

governed by Moslems or Roman Catholics; and at home the peasants were

permitted to retain their creed and communal organization. Judged by its

influence on Bosnian politics, the Orthodox community was relatively

unimportant at the Turkish conquest; and its subsequent growth is

perhaps due to the official recognition of the Greek Church, as the

representative of Christianity in Turkey. The Christian aristocracy lost

its privileges, but its ancient titles of duke (_vojvod_) and count

(_knez_) did not disappear. The first was retained by the leaders who

still carried on the struggle for liberty in Montenegro; the second was

transferred to the headmen of the communes. Many of the Franciscans

refused to abandon their work, and in 1463 they received a charter from

the sultan Mahomet II., which is still preserved in the monastery of

Fojnica, near Travnik. This toleration of religious orders, though it

did not prevent occasional outrages, remained to the last characteristic

of Turkish policy in Bosnia; and even in 1868 a colony of Trappist monks

was permitted to settle in Banjaluka.

Bosnia under Turkish rule.

The Turkish triumph was the opportunity of the Bogomils, who

thenceforth, assuming a new character, controlled the destinies of their

country for more than three centuries. Bosnia was regarded by successive

sultans as the gateway into Hungary; hatred of the Hungarians and their

religion was hereditary among the Bogomils. Thus the desire for

vengeance and the prospect of a brilliant military career impelled the

Bogomil magnates to adopt the creed of Islam, which, in its austerity,

presented some points of resemblance to their own doctrines. The nominal

governor of the country was the Turkish _vali_, who resided at Banjaluka

or Travnik, and rarely interfered in local affairs, if the taxes were

duly paid. Below him ranked the newly converted Moslem aristocracy, who

adopted the dress, titles and etiquette of the Turkish court, without

relinquishing their language or many of their old customs. They dwelt in

fortified towns or castles, where the vali was only admitted on

sufferance for a few days; and, at the outset, they formed a separate

military caste, headed by 48 _kapetans_--landholders exercising

unfettered authority over their retainers and Christian serfs, but

bound, in return, to provide a company of mounted troops for the service

of their sovereign. Their favourite pursuits were fighting, either

against a common enemy or among themselves, hunting, hawking and

listening to the minstrels who celebrated their exploits. Their yearly

visits to Serajevo assumed in time the character of an informal

parliament, for the discussion of national questions; and their rights

tended always to increase, and to become hereditary, in fact, though not

in law. In every important campaign of the Turkish armies, these

descendants of the Bogomils were represented; they amassed considerable

wealth from the spoils of war, and frequently rose to high military and

administrative positions. Thus, in 1570, Ali Pasha, a native of

Herzegovina, became grand vizier; and he was succeeded by the

distinguished soldier and statesman, Mahomet Beg Sokolovic, a Bosnian.

Below the feudal nobility and their Moslem soldiers came the Christian

serfs, tillers of the soil and taxpayers, whose lives and property were

at the mercy of their lords. The hardships of their lot, and, above all,

the system by which the strongest of their sons were carried off as

recruits for the corps of janissaries (q.v.), frequently drove them to

brigandage, and occasionally to open revolt.

External history 1528-1821.

These conditions lasted until the 19th century, and meanwhile the

country was involved in the series of wars waged by the Turks against

Austria, Hungary and Venice. In the Krajina and all along the

Montenegrin frontier, Moslems and Christians carried on a ceaseless

feud, irrespective of any treaties concluded by their rulers; while the

Turkish campaigns in Hungary provided constant occupation for the nobles

during a large part of the 16th and 17th centuries. But after the

Ottoman defeat at Vienna in 1683, the situation changed. Instead of

extending the foreign conquests of their sultan, the Bosnians were hard

pressed to defend their own borders. Zvornik fell before the

Austro-Hungarian army in 1688, and the Turkish vali, who was still

officially styled the "vali of Hungary," removed his headquarters from

Banjaluka to Travnik, a more southerly, and therefore a safer capital.

Two years later, the imperial troops reached Dolnja Tuzla, and retired

with 3000 Roman Catholic emigrants. Serajevo was burned in 1697 by

Eugene of Savoy, who similarly deported 40,000 Christians. The treaties

of Carlowitz (1699) and Passarowitz (1718) deprived the Turks of all the

Primorje, or littoral of Herzegovina, except the narrow enclaves of Klek

and Suttorina, left to sunder the Ragusan dominions from those of

Venice. At the same time a strip of territory in northern Bosnia was

ceded to Austria, which was thus able to control both banks of the Save.

This territory was restored to Turkey in 1739, at the peace of

Belgrade;[7] but in 1790 it was reoccupied by Austrian troops. Finally,

in 1791, the treaty of Sistova again fixed the line of the Save and Una

as the Bosnian frontier.

Moslem rebellions.

The reform of the Ottoman government contemplated by the sultan Mahmud

II. (1808-1839) was bitterly resented in Bosnia, where Turkish prestige

had already been weakened by the establishment of Servian autonomy under

Karageorge. Many of the janissaries had married and settled on the land,

forming a strongly conservative and fanatical caste, friendly to the

Moslem nobles, who now dreaded the curtailment of their own privileges.

Their opportunity came in 1820, when the Porte was striving to repress

the insurrections in Moldavia, Albania and Greece. A first Bosnian

revolt was crushed in 1821; a second, due principally to the massacre of

the janissaries, was quelled with much bloodshed in 1827. After the

Russo-Turkish War of 1828-29, a further attempt at reform was initiated

by the sultan and his grand vizier, Reshid Pasha. Two years later came a

most formidable outbreak; the sultan was denounced as false to Islam,

and the Bosnian nobles gathered at Banjaluka, determined to march on

Constantinople, and reconquer the Ottoman empire for the true faith. A

holy war was preached by their leader, Hussein Aga Berberli, a brilliant

soldier and orator, who called himself _Zmaj Bosanski_, the "Dragon of

Bosnia," and was regarded by his followers as a saint. The Moslems of

Herzegovina, under Ali Pasha Rizvanbegovic, remained loyal to the Porte,

but in Bosnia Hussein Aga encountered little resistance. At Kossovo he

was reinforced by 20,000 Albanians, led by the rebel Mustapha Pasha; and

within a few weeks the united armies occupied the whole of Bulgaria, and

a large part of Macedonia. Their career was checked by Reshid Pasha, who

persuaded the two victorious commanders to intrigue against one another,

secured the division of their forces, and then fell upon each in turn.

The rout of the Albanians at Prilipe and the capture of Mustapha at

Scutari were followed by an invasion of Bosnia. After a desperate

defence, Hussein Aga fled to Esseg in Croatia-Slavonia; his appeal for

pardon was rejected, and in 1832 he was banished for life to Tribizond.

The power of the Bosnian nobles, though shaken by their defeat, remained

unbroken; and they resisted vigorously when their kapetanates were

abolished in 1837; and again when a measure of equality before the law

was conceded to the Christians in 1839. In Herzegovina, Ali Pasha

Rizvanbegovic reaped the reward of his fidelity. He was left free to

tyrannize over his Christian subjects, a king in all but name. In 1840

he descended from his mountain stronghold of Stolac to wage war upon the

vladika Peter II. of Montenegro, and simultaneously to suppress a

Christian rising. Peace was arranged at Ragusa in 1842, and it was

rumoured that Ali had concluded a secret alliance with Montenegro,

hoping to shake off the suzerainty of the sultan, and to found an

entirely independent kingdom. It is impossible to verify this charge,

but during the troubled years that ensued, Ali pursued an elaborate

policy of intrigue. He sent large bribes to influential persons at

Constantinople; he aided the Turkish vali to repress the Christians, who

had again revolted; and he supported the Bosnian nobles against reforms

imposed by the vali. At last, in 1850, a Turkish army was despatched to

restore quiet. Ali Pasha openly professed himself a loyal subject, but

secretly sent reinforcements to the rebel aristocracy. The Turks proved

everywhere successful. After a cordial reception by their commander Omer

or Omar Pasha, Ali was imprisoned; he was shortly afterwards

assassinated, lest his lavish bribery of Turkish officials should

restore him to favour, and bring disgrace on his captor (March 1851).

Condition of the serfs.

The downfall of the Moslem aristocracy resulted in an important

administrative change: Serajevo, which had long been the commercial

centre of the country, and the jealously guarded stronghold of the

nobles, superseded Travnik as the official capital, and the residence of

the vali. A variety of other reforms, including the reorganization of

Moslem education, were introduced by Omer Pasha, who governed the

country until 1860. But as the administration grew stronger, the

position of the peasantry became worse. They had now to satisfy the

imperial tax-farmers and excisemen, as well as their feudal lords. The

begs and agas continued to exact their forced labour and one-third of

their produce; the central government imposed a tithe which had become

an eighth by 1875. Three kinds of cattle-tax, the tax for exemption from

military service, levied on every newborn male, forced labour on the

roads, forced loan of horses, a heavy excise on grapes and tobacco, and

a variety of lesser taxes combined to burden the Christian serfs; but

even more galling than the amount was the manner in which these dues

were exacted--the extortionate assessments of tax-farmers and excisemen,

the brutal licence of the soldiery who were quartered on recalcitrant

villagers. A crisis was precipitated by the example of Servian

independence, the hope of Austrian intervention, and the public

bankruptcy of Turkey.

Christian rising of 1875.

Sporadic insurrections had already broken out among the Bosnian

Christians, and on the 1st of July 1875 the villagers of Nevesinje,

which gives its name to a mountain range east of Mostar, rose against

the Turks. Within a few weeks the whole country was involved. The

Herzegovinians, under their leaders Peko Pavlovic, Socica, Ljubibratic,

and others, held out for a year against all the forces that Turkey could

despatch against them.[8] In July 1876 Servia and Montenegro joined the

struggle, and in April 1877 Russia declared war on the sultan.

Austro-Hungarian occupation, 1878-1908.

The Austro-Hungarian occupation, authorized on the 13th of July 1878 by

the treaty of Berlin (arts. 23 and 26), was not easily effected; and,

owing to the difficulty of military operations among the mountains, it

was necessary to employ a force of 200,000 men. Haji Loja, the native

leader, was supported by a body of Albanians and mutinous Turkish

troops, while the whole Moslem population bitterly resented the proposed

change. The losses on both sides were very heavy, and, besides those who

fell in battle, many of the insurgents were executed under martial law.

But after a series of stubbornly contested engagements, the Austrian

general, Philippovic, entered Serajevo on the 19th of August, and ended

the campaign on the 20th of September, by the capture of Bihac in the

north-west, and of Klobuk in Herzegovina. The government of the country

was then handed over to the imperial ministry of finance; but the

bureaucratic methods of the finance ministers, Baron von Hoffmann and

Joseph de Szlavy, resulted only in the insurrection of 1881-82. Order

was restored in June 1882, when the administration was entrusted to

Benjamin von Kallay (q.v.), as imperial minister of finance. Kallay

retained this position until his death on the 13th of July 1903, when he

was succeeded by Baron Stephan Burian de Rajecz. During this period life

and property were rendered secure, and great progress was achieved, on

the lines already indicated, in creating an efficient civil service,

harmonizing Moslem law with new enactments, promoting commerce, carrying

out important public works, and reorganizing the fiscal and educational

systems. All classes and creeds were treated impartially; and, although

the administration has been reproached alike for undue harshness and

undue leniency, neither accusation can be sustained. Critics have also

urged that Kallay fostered the desire for material welfare at the cost

of every other national ideal; that, despite his own popularity, he

never secured the goodwill of the people for Austria-Hungary; that he

left the agrarian difficulty unsolved, and the hostile religious

factions unreconciled. These charges are not wholly unfounded; but the

chief social and political evils in Bosnia and Herzegovina may be traced

to historical causes operative long before the Austro-Hungarian

occupation, and above all to the political ambition of the rival

churches. Justly to estimate the work done by Kallay, it is only

necessary to point to the contrast between Bosnia in 1882 and Bosnia in

1903; for in 21 years the anarchy and ruin entailed by four centuries of

misrule were transformed into a condition of prosperity unsurpassed in

south-eastern Europe.

Austrian annexation.

It was no doubt natural that Austrian statesmen should wish to end the

anomalous situation created by the treaty of Berlin, by incorporating

Bosnia and Herzegovina into the Dual Monarchy. The treaty had

contemplated the evacuation of the occupied provinces after the

restoration of order and prosperity; and this had been expressly

stipulated in an agreement signed by the Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman

plenipotentiaries at Berlin, as a condition of Turkish assent to the

provisions of the treaty. But the Turkish reform movement of 1908 seemed

to promise a revival of Ottoman power, which might in time have enabled

the Turks to demand the promised evacuation, and thus to reap all the

ultimate benefits of the Austrian administration. The reforms in Turkey

certainly encouraged the Serb and Moslem inhabitants of the occupied

territory to petition the emperor for the grant of a constitution

similar to that in force in the provinces of Austria proper. But the

Austro-Hungarian government, profiting by the weakness of Russia after

the war with Japan, and aware that the proclamation of Bulgarian

independence was imminent, had already decided to annex Bosnia and

Herzegovina, in spite of the pledges given at Berlin, and although the

proposal was unpopular in Hungary. Its decision, after being

communicated to the sovereigns of the powers signatory to the treaty of

Berlin, in a series of autograph letters from the emperor Francis

Joseph, was made known to Bosnia and Herzegovina in an imperial rescript

published on the 7th of October 1908. The Serb and Moslem delegates, who

had started on the same day for Budapest, to present their petition to

the emperor, learned from the rescript that the government intended to

concede to their compatriots "a share in the legislation and

administration of provincial affairs, and equal protection for all

religious beliefs, languages and racial distinctions." The separate

administration was, however, to be maintained, and the rescript did not

promise that the new provincial diet would be more than a consultative

assembly, elected on a strictly limited franchise.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--G. Capus, _A travers la Bosnie et l'Herzegovine_

(Paris, 1896) contains a detailed and fully illustrated account of the

combined provinces, their resources and population. J. Asboth, _An

Official Tour through Bosnia and Herzegovina_ (London, 1890) is

valuable for details of local history, antiquities and topography: A.

Bordeaux, _La Bosnie populaire_ (Paris, 1904) for social life and

mining. Much information is also contained in the works by Lamouche,

Miller, Thomson, Joanne, Cambon, Millet, Hamard and Laveleye, cited

under the heading BALKAN PENINSULA. See also B. Nikasinovic, _Bosnien

und die Herzegovina unter der Verwaltung der osterreich-ungarischen

Monarchie_ (Berlin, 1901, &c.), and M. Oransz, _Auf dem Rade durch

Kroatien und Bosnien_ (Vienna, 1903). The best map is that of the

Austrian General Staff. See also for geology, J. Cvijic,

_Morphologische und glaciale Studien aus Bosnien_ (Vienna, 1900); F.

Katzer, _Geologischer Fuhrer durch Bosnien und Herzegovina_ (Serajevo,

1903); P. Ballif, _Wasserbauten in Bosnien und Herzegovina_ (Vienna,

1896). Sport: "Snaffle," _In the Land of the Bora_ (London, 1897).

Agriculture and Commerce: annual British consular reports, and the

official _Ergebnisse der Viehzahlungen_ (1879 and 1895), and

_Landwirtschaft in Bosnien und Herzegovina_ (1899). The chief official

publications are in German. For antiquities, see R. Munro, _Through

Bosnia-Herzegovina and Dalmatia_ (Edinburgh, 1900); A.J. Evans,

_Illyrian Letters_ (London, 1878); W. Radimsky, _Die neolithische

Station von Butmir_ (Vienna 1895-1898); P. Ballif, _Romische Strassen

in Bosnien und Herzegovina_ (Vienna, 1893, &c.). No adequate history

of Bosnia was published up to the 20th century; but the chief

materials for such a work are contained in the following books:--A.

Theiner, _Vetera monumenta historica Hungariam sacram illustrantia_

(Rome, 1860) and _Vetera monumenta Slavorum Meridionalium_ (1. Rome,

1863; 2. Agram, 1875),--these are collections of Latin documents from

the Vatican library; V. Makushev, _Monumenta historica Slavorum

Meridionalium_ (Belgrade, 1885); Y. Shafarik, _Acta archivi Veneti

spectantia ad historiam Serborum_, &c. (Belgrade, 1860-1862); F.

Miklosich, _Monumenta Serbica_ (Vienna, 1858). Other important

authorities are G. Lucio, _De Regno Dalmatiae et Croatiae_ (Amsterdam,

1666); M. Orbini, _Regno degli Slavi_ (Pesaro 1601); D. Farlatus and

others, _Illyricum Sacrum_ (Venice, 1751-1819); C. du Fresne du Cange,

_Illyricum vetus et novum_ (1746); M. Simek, _Politische Geschichte

des Konigreiches Bosnien und Rama_ (Vienna, 1787). The best modern

history, though valueless for the period after 1463, is by P.

Coquelle, _Histoire du Montenegro et de la Bosnie_ (Paris, 1895). See

also V. Klaic, _Geschichte Bosniens_ (Leipzig 1884). J. Spalaikovitch

(Spalajkovic), in _La Bosnie et l'Herzegovine_ (Paris, 1897), give a

critical account of the Austro-Hungarian administration.

(K. G. J.)