Transcriber Note
Text emphasis denoted by _Italics_ and =Bold=.
MANUAL
OF
THE APIARY,
BY
A. J. COOK,
_Professor of Entomology_
IN THE
MICHIGAN STATE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE.
FOURTH EDITION,
_REVISED, ENLARGED, MOSTLY RE-WRITTEN AND BEAUTIFULLY ILLUSTRATED._
SIXTH THOUSAND.
CHICAGO, ILLS.: THOMAS G. NEWMAN & SON
1879.
Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1878, by
THOMAS G. NEWMAN & SON,
In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, D. C.
TO THE
REVEREND L. L. LANGSTROTH,
THE
INVENTOR OF THE MOVABLE FRAME HIVE,
THE
HUBER OF AMERICA, AND THE GREATEST MASTER OF
PURE AND APPLIED SCIENCE, AS RELATING TO
APICULTURE, IN THE WORLD; THIS MANUAL
IS GRATEFULLY DEDICATED
BY
THE AUTHOR.
PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION.
THE APIARY.
Why another treatise on this subject? Have we not Langstroth, and
Quinby, and King, and Bevan, and Hunter? Yes; all of these. Each of
which has done excellent service in promoting an important industry.
Each of which possesses peculiar and striking excellences. Yet none
of these combine all of the qualities desirable in a popular manual.
Hence, the excuse for another claimant for public favor. Every cultured
apiarist laments that there is no text-book which possesses all of
the following very desirable characters: Simple style, full in its
discussions, cheap, disinterested, up with the times. It is for the
bee-keeping public to decide whether this treatise meets any more fully
the demands made by the latest discoveries and improvements, by the
wants of those eager to learn, and by the superior intelligence which
is now enlisted in the interests of the Apiary.
The following is, in substance, the same as the course of lectures
which I have given each year to the students of the Michigan
Agricultural College, and their desire, as expressed in repeated
requests, has led to this publication.
It will be my desire to consider subjects of merely scientific interest
and value, as fully as scientific students can reasonably desire; and,
that such discussions may not confuse or perplex those who only read or
study with practical ends in view, a very full index is added, so that
the whereabouts of any topic, either of practical or scientific value,
can be easily ascertained.
In considering the various subjects of interest to the bee-keeper, I
am greatly indebted to the authors mentioned above, and also to the
following journals, all worthy of high commendation: Gleanings in Bee
Culture, American Bee Journal, Bee-Keepers' Magazine, and Bee World.
The illustrations for this manual were nearly all drawn by the author
from the natural object.
Michigan Agricultural College, }
Lansing, May 1, 1876. }
PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION.
I little thought when I sent out, less than two years ago, the first
edition--3,000 copies--of my little, unpretending, "Manual of the
Apiary," that more than 2,000 copies would be sold in less than one
year, and that in less than two years a second edition would be
demanded by the apiarists of our country.
The very kindly reviews and flattering notices by apiarian, scientific,
and other journals, both American and foreign, and the approval, as
expressed by numerous friendly letters, of our most eminent apiarists,
as also the "unprecedented sale of this little work," have not only
been very gratifying, but also assure me that I was quite right in the
opinion that the time was ripe for some such treatise.
At the urgent request of many apiarian friends, in response to the
oft-repeated desire of my many students, some of whom are becoming
leading apiculturists in our country, and at the suggestion of many
noted apiarists with whom I have no personal acquaintance, I now
send forth this second edition, greatly enlarged, mostly re-written,
even more fully illustrated, and containing the latest scientific
discoveries, and most recent improvements in methods of apiarian
management and bee-keeping apparatus.
It is impossible for me to state how greatly I am indebted to our
excellent American bee periodicals, and enterprising and intelligent
apiarists, for many--yea, for most--of the valuable thoughts and
suggestions which may be found in the following pages. I am tempted
to mention names of those whose aid and favors have been especially
useful, but find the list so large that I must, perforce, forego the
privilege, and only refer to such persons in the text.
With the hope that this second edition may reach even more who desire
instruction in this pleasing art, and that it may still further advance
the interests of scientific apiculture. I send it forth to all those
who wish to study more deeply into the mysteries of insect life, or
to gain further knowledge of one of the most fascinating as well as
profitable of arts.
I make no apology for inserting so much of science in the following
pages. From the letters of inquiry which I am constantly receiving,
especially from apiarists, I am convinced that the people are mentally
hungry for just such food. To satisfy and stimulate just such
appetites is, I am sure, very desirable.
I recommend nothing in this treatise that I have not proved valuable by
actual trial, unless I mention some eminent person as advising it; nor
do I announce any fact or scientific truth that I have not verified,
except as I give it on the authority of some competent person.
For most of the figures of the second edition lam indebted to one of my
pupils, Mr. W. L. Holdsworth, whose skill as an artist needs no praise.
_Appended to this volume is a very full index which will be a great aid
to the student._
CONTENTS.
INTRODUCTION.
Who May Keep Bees 11
Specialists 11
Amateurs 11
Who are Specially Interdicted 12
Inducements to Bee-Keeping 12
Recreation 12
Profit 13
Excellence as an Amateur Pursuit 15
Adaptation to Women 15
Improves the Mind and Observation 17
Yields Delicious Food 17
What Successful Bee-Keeping Requires 18
Mental Effort 18
Experience Necessary 18
Learn from Others 18
Aid from Conventions 19
Aid from Bee Papers 19
American Bee Journal 19
Gleanings in Bee Culture 20
Bee-Keepers' Magazine 21
Books for the Apiarist 21
Langstroth on the Honey-Bee 21
Quinby's Mysteries of Bee-Keeping 22
King's Text-Book 22
A, B, C of Bee Culture 22
Foreign Works 22
Promptitude 23
Enthusiasm 24
PART I.
Natural History of the Honey Bee.
CHAPTER I.
The Bee's Place in the Animal Kingdom 27
The Branch of the Honey-Bee 27
The Class of the Honey-Bee 28
The Order of the Honey-Bee 30
The Sub-Order of the Honey-Bee 31
The Family of the Honey-Bee 34
The Genus of the Honey-Bee 38
The Species of the Honey-Bee 41
The Varieties of the Honey-Bee 41
German, or Black Bee 41
Italian, or Ligurian 41
Fasciata, or Egyptian 42
Other Varieties 43
Bibliography 44
Valuable Books on Entomology 47
CHAPTER II.
Anatomy and Physiology 48
Anatomy of Insects 48
Organs of the Head 48
Appendages of the Thorax 55
Internal Anatomy 56
Secretory Organs 61
Sex Organs 62
Transformations 66
The Egg 67
The Larva 68
The Pupa 68
The Imago Stage 70
Incomplete Transformations 70
Anatomy and Physiology of the Honey Bee 71
Three Kinds of Bees in Each Colony 71
The Queen 71
The Drone 86
The Neuters or Workers 90
CHAPTER III.
Swarming, or Natural Method of increase 101
CHAPTER IV.
Products of Bees, their Origin and Function 104
Honey 104
Wax 106
Pollen, or Bee-Bread 111
Propolis 112
Bibliography 113
Part II.
The apiary, its Care and Management 115
INTRODUCTION.
Preparation 117
Read a Good Manual 117
Visit some Apiarist 117
Take a College Course 118
Decide on a Plan 118
How to Procure our Bees 118
Kind of Bees to Purchase 119
In What Kind of Hives 119
When to Purchase 119
How Much to Pay 120
Where to Locate 120
CHAPTER V.
Hives and Boxes 122
Box Hives 122
Movable Comb Hives 123
The Langstroth Hive 123
Character of the Hive 124
The Bottom Board 127
The Cover 129
The Frames 132
How to Construct the Frames 133
A Block for making Frames 134
Cover for Frames 136
Division Board 137
The Huber Hive 138
Apparatus for Securing Comb Honey 141
Boxes 142
Small Frames or Sections 144
Requisites of Good Sections 144
Description 144
How to Place Sections in Position 147
Sections in Frames 147
Sections in Racks 149
CHAPTER VI.
Position and Arrangement of the Apiary 152
Position 152
Arrangement of Ground 152
Preparation for each Colony 153
CHAPTER VII.
To Transfer Bees 156
CHAPTER VIII.
Feeding and Feeders 159
How Much to Feed 159
How to Feed 160
CHAPTER IX.
Queen Rearing 163
How to Rear Queens 163
Nuclei 165
Shall we Clip the Queen's Wing? 168
CHAPTER X.
Increase of Colonies 171
Swarming 171
Hiving Swarms 173
To Prevent Second Swarms 175
To Prevent Swarming 176
How Best to Increase 177
Dividing 177
How to Divide 177
CHAPTER XI.
Italians and Italianizing 180
All Should Keep Only Italians 183
How to Italianize 183
How to Introduce a Queen 183
To Get Italian Queens 185
Rearing and Shipping Queens 186
To Ship Queens 186
To Move Colonies 187
CHAPTER XII.
Extracting and the Extractors 188
Honey Extractor 188
What Style to Buy 189
Use of the Extractor 191
When to use the Extractor 192
How to Extract 194
CHAPTER XIII.
Handling Bees 195
The Best Bee Veil 196
To Quiet Bees 197
Bellows Smoker 198
The Quinby Smoker 198
The Bingham Smoker 199
How to Smoke Bees 201
To Cure Stings 201
The Sweat Theory 201
CHAPTER XIV.
Comb Foundation 203
History 203
American Foundation 204
How Foundation is Made 206
To Secure the Wax Sheets 206
Use of Foundation 207
To Fasten the Foundation 209
Save the Wax 211
Methods 211
CHAPTER XV.
Marketing Honey 213
How to Invigorate the Market 213
Extracted Honey 214
How to Tempt the Consumer 214
Comb Honey 215
Rules to be Observed 215
CHAPTER XVI.
Honey Plants 218
What are the Valuable Honey Plants? 220
Description with Practical Remarks 222
April Plants 223
May Plants 225
June Plants 228
July Plants 237
August and September Plants 242
Books on Botany 244
Practical Conclusions 244
CHAPTER XVII.
Wintering Bees 246
The Cause of Disastrous Wintering 246
Requisite to Safe Wintering--Good Food 248
Secure Late Breeding 249
To Secure and Maintain Proper Temperature 249
Box for Packing 250
Chaff Hives 251
Wintering in Cellar or House 252
Burying Bees 254
Spring Dwindling 254
CHAPTER XVIII.
The House Apiary 255
Description 255
Are they Desirable 256
The Case as it Now Stands 256
CHAPTER XIX.
Evils that Confront the Apiarist 258
Robbing 258
Disease 259
Foul Brood 259
Remedies 260
Enemies of Bees 262
The Bee Moth 262
History 266
Remedies 266
Bee Killer 267
Bee Louse 268
Important Suggestion 269
Bee Hawk 269
Tachina Fly 270
Spiders 271
Ants 271
Wasps 271
The King Bird 272
Toads 272
Mice 272
CHAPTER XX.
Calendar and Axioms 274
Work for Different Months 274
January 274
February 274
March 274
April 275
May 275
June 275
July 275
August 275
September 276
October 276
November 276
December 276
Axioms 277
ILLUSTRATIONS.
1. Trachea 28
2. Respiratory Apparatus of a Bee 29
3. Bee's Wings 38
4. Head of Drone 39
5. Head of Worker 39
6. Head of Bee 49
7. Thorax of Bee 55
8. Nervous System of Drone 58
9. Alimentary Canal 60
10. Male Organs of Bee 63
11. Queen Organs 64
12. Larva of Bee 68
13. Pupa of Bee 69
14. Queen Bee 72
15. Labium of Queen 73
16. Part of Queen's Leg 74
17. Drone 86
18. Part of Drone's Leg 87
19. Worker Bee 90
20. Tongue of Worker Bee 91
21. Jaw of Queen, Drone and Worker 92
22. Part of Posterior Leg of Worker--outside 93
23. Part of Posterior Leg of Worker--inside 94
24. Anterior Leg of Worker 94
25. Sting of Worker 95
26. Egg and Brood 97
27. Wax Scales 106
28. Honey-Comb 109
29. Langstroth Hive 124
30. Body of Hive 125
31. Bevel Gauge 126
32. Bottom-Board 128
33. Two-Story Hive 130
34. Cover to Hive 131
35. Frame 133
36. Frame, with Cross-Section of Top-Bar 134
37. Block for making Frames 135
38. Division-Board 137
39. Part of Quinby Hive 139
40. Part of Bingham Hive 140
41. Glass Honey Box 142
42. Isham Honey Box 143
43. Harbison Section Frame 143
44. Chisel 144
45. Block for Section Making 145
46. Hetherington Separator 146
47. Dove-tailed Section 146
48. Phelps Section 147
49. Section Frame 148
50. Sections in Frame 149
51. Southard's Section Back 150
52. Wheeler's Section Back 150
53. Hive in Shade of Ever-green 155
54. Feeder 160
55. Simplicity Feeder 161
56. Queen-cell Inserted in Comb 167
57. Shipping Queen Cage 187
58. Everett's Extractor 189
59. Comb Basket for Extractor 190
60. Knife for Uncapping 191
61. Knife with Curved Point 191
62. Bee-Veil 196
63. Quinby Smokers 199
64. Bingham Smoker 199
65. Comb Foundation 203
66. Comb Foundation Machine 205
67. Comb Foundation Cutter 206
68. Block for Fastening Foundation 210
69. Presser for Block 211
70. Wax Extractor 212
71. Prize Crate 216
72. Heddon Crate 217
73. Maple 222
74. Willow 223
75. Judas Tree 224
76. American Wistaria 225
77. Chinese Wistaria 226
78. Barberry 226
79. White Sage 227
80. White or Dutch Clover 228
81. Alsike Clover 229
82. Melilot Clover 230
83. Borage 230
84. Mignonette 231
85. Okra 231
86. Mint 232
87. Pollen of Milk-Weed 233
88. Black Mustard 233
89. Rape 234
90. Tulip 235
91. Teasel 236
92. Cotton 236
93. Basswood 237
94. Figwort 238
95. Button-Bush 240
96. Rocky Mountain Bee Plant 239
97. Boneset 241
98. Buckwheat 242
99. Golden Rod 243
100. Sun Flower 243
101. Packing-Box for Winter 250
102. Gallery of Moth Larva 262
103. Moth Larva in Comb 263
104. Moth Larvæ 264
105. Moth Cocoons 264
106. Moth with Wings Spread 264
107. Male and Female Moths 265
108. Bee-Killer 268
109. Bee Louse 268
110. Tachina Fly 270
111. Munn Hive 279
112. Munn's Triangular Hive 280
113. Lecanium Tulipiferas 288
114. Stem of Motherwort 289
115. Fruit and Leaf of Motherwort 290
116. Motherwort Bloom 291
117. Sour-Wood 292
118. Stinging-Bug--natural size 294
119. Magnified twice 294
120. Beak, magnified 294
121. Antenna, magnified 295
122. Anterior leg, exterior view 295
123. " " interior view 295
124. Claw, extended 296
125. Middle leg, magnified 296
126. Southern Bee-Killer 297
127. Wings extended 297
128. Head of 298
129. Wing of 299
131. Foot of 298
130. Wing of Asilus Missouriensis 300
132. Honey-Comb Coral 301
133. Wasp-stone Coral 302
INTRODUCTION.
WHO MAY KEEP BEES.
SPECIALISTS.
Any person who is cautious, observing, and prompt to do whatever the
needs of his business require, with no thought of delay, may make
apiculture a specialty, with almost certain prospects of success.
He must also be willing to work with Spartan energy during the busy
season, and must persist, though sore discouragement, and even dire
misfortune, essay to thwart his plans and rob him of his coveted gains.
As in all other vocations, such are the men who succeed in apiculture.
I make no mention of capital to begin with, or territory on which
to locate; for men of true metal--men whose energy of mind and body
bespeak success in advance--will solve these questions long before
their experience and knowledge warrant their assuming the charge of
large apiaries.
AMATEURS.
Apiculture, as an avocation, may be safely recommended to those of
any business or profession, who possess the above named qualities,
and control a little space for their bees, a few rods from street and
neighbor, or a flat roof whereupon hives may securely rest (C. F. Muth,
of Cincinnati, keeps his bees very successfully on the top of his
store, in the very heart of a large city), and who are able to devote
a little time, when required, to care for their bees. The amount of
time will of course vary with the number of colonies kept, but with
proper management this time may be granted at any period of the day or
week, and thus not interfere with the regular business. Thus residents
of country, village, or city, male or female, who may wish to be
associated with and study natural objects, and add to their income and
pleasure, will find here, an ever-waiting opportunity. To the ladies,
shut out from fresh air and sunshine, till pallor and languor point
sadly to departing health, and vigor, and to men the nature of whose
business precludes air and exercise, apiculture cannot be too highly
recommended as an avocation.
WHO ARE SPECIALLY INTERDICTED.
There are a few people, whose systems seem to be specially susceptible
to the poison intruded with the bee's sting. Sometimes such persons, if
even stung on the foot, will be so thoroughly poisoned that their eyes
will swell so they cannot see, and will suffer with fever for days,
and, very rarely, individuals are so sensitive to this poison that a
bee-sting proves fatal. I hardly need say, that such people should
never keep bees. Many persons, among whom were the noted Kleine and
Gunther, are at first very susceptible to the poison, but spurred on by
their enthusiasm, they persist, and soon become so inoculated that they
experience no serious injury from the stings. It is a well-recognized
fact, that each successive sting is less powerful to work harm. Every
bee-keeper is almost sure to receive an occasional sting, though with
the experienced these are very rare, and the occasion neither of fear
nor anxiety.
INDUCEMENTS TO BEE-KEEPING.
RECREATION.
Among the attractive features of apiculture, I mention the pleasure
which it offers its votaries. There is a fascination about the
apiary which is indescribable. Nature is always presenting the most
pleasurable surprises to those on the alert to receive them. And among
the insect hosts, especially bees, the instincts and habits are so
inexplicable and marvelous, that the student of this department of
nature never ceases to meet with exhibitions that move him, no less
with wonder than with admiration. Thus, bee-keeping affords most
wholesome recreation, especially to any who love to look in upon the
book of nature, and study the marvelous pages she is ever waiting to
present. To such, the very fascination of their pursuit is of itself
a rich reward for the time and labor expended. I doubt if there is
any other class of manual laborers who engage in their business, and
dwell upon it, with the same fondness as do bee-keepers. Indeed, to
meet a scientific bee-keeper is to meet an enthusiast. A thorough study
of the wonderful economy of the hive must, from its very nature, go
hand-in-hand with delight and admiration. I once asked an extensive
apiarist, who was also a farmer, why he kept bees. The answer was
characteristic: "Even if I could not make a good deal the most money
with my bees, I should still keep them for the real pleasure they
bring me." But yesterday I asked the same question of Prof. Daniels,
President of the Grand Rapids schools, whose official duties are very
severe. Said he: "For the restful pleasure which I receive in their
management." I am very sure, that were there no other inducement
than that of pleasure, I should be slow to part with these models of
industry, whose marvelous instincts and wondrous life-habits are ever
ministering to my delight and astonishment.
A year ago, I received a visit from my old friend and College
classmate, O. Clute, of Keokuk, Iowa. Of course I took him to see our
apiary, and as we looked at the bees and their handiwork, just as the
nectar from golden-rod and asters was flooding the honey-cells; he
became enraptured, took my little "Manual of the Apiary" home with him,
and at once subscribed for the old _American Bee Journal_. He very soon
purchased several colonies of bees, and has found so much of pleasure
and recreation in the duties imposed by his new charge, that he has
written me several times, expressing gratitude that I had led him into
such a work of love and pleasure.
PROFITS.
The profits, too, of apiculture, urge its adoption as a pursuit. When
we consider the comparatively small amount of capital invested, the
relatively small amount of labor and expense attending its operations,
we are surprised at the abundant reward that is sure to wait upon its
intelligent practice. I do not wish to be understood here as claiming
that labor--yes, real hard, back-aching labor--is not required in the
apiary. The specialist, with his hundred or more colonies, will have,
at certain seasons, right hard and vigorous work. Yet this will be
both pleasant and Healthful, and will go hand-in-hand with thought,
so that brain and muscle will work together. Yet this time of hard,
physical labor will only continue for five or six months, and for the
balance of the year the apiarist has or may have comparative leisure.
Nor do I think that all will succeed. The fickle, careless, indolent,
heedless man, will as surely fail in apiculture, as in any other
calling. But I repeat, in the light of many years of experience, where
accurate weight, measure, and counting of change has given no heed to
conjecture, that there is no manual labor pursuit, where the returns
are so large, when compared with the labor and expense.
An intelligent apiarist may invest in bees any spring in Michigan, with
the absolute certainty of more than doubling his investment the first
season; while a net gain of 400 per cent, brings no surprise to the
experienced apiarists of our State. This of course applies only to a
limited number of colonies. Nor is Michigan superior to other States
as a location for the apiarist. During the past season, the poorest I
ever knew, our fifteen colonies of bees in the College apiary, have
netted us over $200. In 1876, each colony gave a net return of $24.04,
while in 1875, our bees gave a profit, above all expense, of over 400
per cent, of their entire value in the spring. Mr. Fisk Bangs, who
graduated at our College one year since, purchased last spring seven
colonies of bees. The proceeds of these seven colonies have more than
paid all expenses, including first cost of bees, in honey sold, while
there are now sixteen colonies, as clear gain, if we do not count
the labor, and we hardly need do so, as it has in no wise interfered
with the regular duties of the owner. Several farmers of our State
who possess good apiaries and good improved farms, have told me that
their apiaries were more profitable than all the remainder of their
farms. Who will doubt the profits of apiculture in the face of friend
Doolittle's experience? He has realized $6,000, in five years, simply
from the honey taken from fifty colonies. This $6,000 is in excess of
all expenses except his own time. Add to this the increase of stocks,
and then remember that one man can easily care for 100 colonies, and
we have a graphic picture of apiarian profits. Bee-keeping made Adam
Grimm a wealthy man. It brought to Capt. Hetherington over $10,000
as the cash receipts of a single year's honey-crop. It enabled Mr.
Harbison, so it is reported, to ship from his own apiary, eleven
car-loads of comb-honey as the product of a single season. What greater
recommendation has any pursuit? Opportunity for money-making, even with
hardships and privations, is attractive and seldom disregarded; such
opportunity with labor that brings, in itself, constant delight, is
surely _worthy_ of attention.
EXCELLENCE AS AN AMATEUR PURSUIT.
Again, there is no business, and I speak from experience, that serves
so well as an avocation. It offers additional funds to the poorly paid,
out-door air to the clerk and office-hand, healthful exercise to the
person of sedentary habits, and superb recreation to the student or
professional man, and especially to him whose life-work is of that
dull, hum-drum, routine order that seems to rob life of all zest. The
labor, too, required in keeping bees, can, with a little thought and
management, be so planned, if but few colonies are kept, as not to
infringe upon the time demanded by the regular occupation. Indeed, I
have never been more heartily thanked, than by such parsons as named
above, and that, too, because I called them to consider--which usually
means to adopt--the pleasing duties of the apiary.
ADAPTATION TO WOMEN.
Apiculture may also bring succor to those whom society has not been
over-ready to favor--our women. Widowed mothers, dependent girls, the
weak and the feeble, all may find a blessing in the easy, pleasant, and
profitable labors of the apiary. Of course, women who lack vigor and
health, can care for but very few colonies, and must have sufficient
strength to bend over and lift the small-sized frames of comb when
loaded with honey, and to carry empty hives. With the proper thought
and management, full colonies need never be lifted, nor work done in
the hot sunshine. Yet right here let me add, and emphasize the truth,
_that only those who will let energetic thought and skillful plan, and
above all promptitude and persistence, make up for physical weakness,
should enlist as apiarists._ Usually a stronger body, and improved
health, the results of pure air, sunshine, and exercise, will make
each successive day's labor more easy, and will permit a corresponding
growth in the size of the apiary for each successive season. One of the
most noted apiarists, not only in America but in the world, sought in
bee-keeping her lost health, and found not only health, but reputation
and influence. Some of the most successful apiarists in our country are
women. Of these, many were led to adopt the pursuit because of waning
health, grasping at this as the last and successful weapon with which
to vanquish the grim monster. Said "Cyula Linswik"--whose excellent and
beautifully written articles have so often charmed the readers of the
bee publications, and who has had five years of successful experience
as an apiarist--in a paper read before our Michigan Convention of
March, 1877: "I would gladly purchase exemption from in-door work,
on washing-day, by two days' labor among the bees, and I find two
hours' labor at the ironing-table more fatiguing than two hours of the
severest toil the apiary can exact. * * * I repeat, that apiculture
offers to many women not only pleasure but profit. * * * Though the
care of a few colonies means only recreation, the woman who experiments
in bee-keeping somewhat extensively, will find that it means, at some
seasons, genuine hard work. * * * There is risk in the business,
I would not have you ignore this fact, but an experience of five
years has led me to believe that the risk is less than is generally
supposed." Mrs. L. B. Baker, of Lansing, Michigan, who has kept bees
very successfully for four years, read an admirable paper before the
same Convention, in which she said: "But I can say, having tried both,"
(keeping boarding-house and apiculture,) "I give bee-keeping the
preference, as more profitable, healthful, independent and enjoyable. *
* * I find the labors of the apiary more endurable than working over a
cook-stove in-doors, and more pleasant and conducive to health. * * * I
believe that many of our delicate and invalid ladies would find renewed
vigor of body and mind in the labors and recreations of the apiary. * *
* By beginning in the early spring, when the weather was cool and the
work light, I became gradually accustomed to out-door labor, and by
mid-summer found myself as well able to endure the heat of the sun as
my husband, who has been accustomed to it all his life. Previously, to
attend an open-air picnic was to return with a head-ache. * * * My own
experience in the apiary has been a source of interest and enjoyment
far exceeding my anticipations." Although Mrs. Baker commenced with but
two colonies of bees, her net profits the first season were over $100;
the second year but a few cents less than $300; and the third year
about $250. "The proof of the pudding is in the eating;" so, too, such
words as given above, show that apiculture offers special inducements
to our sisters to become either amateur or professional apiarists.
IMPROVES THE MIND AND THE OBSERVATION.
Successful apiculture demands close and accurate observation, and hard,
continuous thought and study, and this, too, in the wondrous realm of
nature. In all this, the apiarist receives manifold and substantial
advantages. In the cultivation of the habit of observation, a person
becomes constantly more able, useful and susceptible to pleasure,
results which also follow as surely on the habit of thought and
study. It is hardly conceivable that the wide-awake apiarist, who is
so frequently busy with his wonder-working comrades of the hive, can
ever be lonely, or feel time hanging heavily on his hands. The mind
is occupied, and there is no chance for _ennui_. The whole tendency,
too, of such thought and study, where nature is the subject, is to
refine the taste, elevate the desires, and ennoble manhood. Once get
our youth, with their susceptible natures, engaged in such wholesome
study, and we shall have less reason to fear the vicious tendencies
of the street, or the luring vices and damning influences of the
saloon. Thus apiculture spreads an intellectual feast, that even the
old philosophers would have coveted; furnishes the rarest food for the
observing faculties, and, best of all, by keeping its votaries face
to face with the matchless creations of the _All Father_, must draw
them toward Him "who went about doing good," and in "whom there was no
guile."
YIELDS DELICIOUS FOOD.
A last inducement to apiculture, certainly not unworthy of mention, is
the offerings it brings to our tables. Health, yea, our very lives,
demand that we should eat sweets. It is a truth that our sugars, and
especially our commercial syrups, are so adulterated as to be often
poisonous. The apiary, in lieu of these, gives us one of the most
delicious and wholesome of sweets, which has received merited praise,
as food fit for the gods, from the most ancient time till the present
day. To ever have within reach the beautiful, immaculate comb, or the
equally grateful nectar, right from the extractor, is certainly a
blessing of no mean order. We may thus supply our families and friends
with a most necessary and desirable food element, and this with no
cloud of fear from vile, poisonous adulterations.
WHAT SUCCESSFUL BEE-KEEPING REQUIRES.
MENTAL EFFORT.
No one should commence this business who is not willing to read, think
and study. To be sure, the ignorant and unthinking may stumble on
success for a time, but sooner or later, failure will set her seal upon
their efforts. Those of our apiarists who have studied the hardest,
observed the closest, and thought the deepest, have even passed the
late terrible winters with but slight loss.
Of course the novice will ask. How and what shall I study?
EXPERIENCE NECESSARY.
Nothing will take the place of real experience. Commence with a few
colonies, even one or two is best, and make the bees your companions
at every possible opportunity. Note every change, whether of the bees,
their development, or work, and then by earnest thought strive to
divine the cause.
LEARN FROM OTHERS.
Great good will also come from visiting other apiarists. Note their
methods and apiarian apparatus. Strive by conversation to gain new and
valuable ideas, and gratefully adopt whatever is found, by comparison,
to be an improvement upon your own past system and practice.
AID FROM CONVENTIONS.
Attend conventions whenever distance and means render this possible.
Here you will not only be made better by social intercourse with those
whose occupation and study make them sympathetic and congenial, but you
will find a real conservatory of scientific truths, valuable hints,
and improved instruments and methods. And the apt attention--rendered
possible by your own experience--which you will give to essays,
discussions and private conversations, will so enrich your mind, that
you will return to your home encouraged, and able to do better work,
and to achieve higher success. I have attended nearly all the meetings
of the Michigan Convention, and never yet when I was not well paid for
all trouble and expense by the many, often very valuable, suggestions
which I received. These I would carry home, and test as commanded by
the Apostle: "Prove all things and hold fast that which is good."
AID FROM BEE PUBLICATIONS.
Every apiarist, too, should take and read at least one of the three
excellent bee publications that are issued in our country. It has
been suggested that Francis Huber's blindness was an advantage to
him, as he thus had the assistance of two pairs of eyes, his wife's
and servant's, instead of one. So, too, of the apiarist who reads the
bee publications. He has the aid of the eyes, and the brains, too,
of hundreds of intelligent and observing bee-keepers. Who is it that
squanders his money on worse than useless patents and fixtures? He who
"_cannot afford_" to take a bee-journal.
It would be invidious and uncalled for to recommend any one of these
valuable papers to the exclusion of the others. Each has its peculiar
excellences, and all who can, may well secure all of them to aid and
direct their ways.
AMERICAN BEE JOURNAL.
This, the oldest bee publication, is not only peculiar for its age,
but for the ability with which it has been managed, with scarce any
exception, even from its first appearance. Samuel Wagner, its founder
and long its editor, had few superiors in breadth of culture, strength
of judgment, and practical and historic knowledge of apiculture.
With what pleasure we remember the elegant, really classic, diction
of the editorials, the dignified bearing, and freedom from asperities
which marked the old American Bee Journal as it made its monthly
visits fresh from the editorial supervision of Mr. Samuel Wagner.
Some one has said that there is something in the very atmosphere of
a scholarly gentleman, that impresses all who approach him. I have
often thought, as memory reverted to the old American Bee Journal, or
as I have re-read the numbers which bear the impress of Mr. Wagner's
superior learning, that, though the man is gone, the stamp of his
noble character and classical culture is still on these pages, aiding,
instructing, elevating, all who are so fortunate as to possess the
early volumes of this periodical. I am also happy to state that the
American Bee Journal is again in good hands, and that its old prestige
is fully restored. Mr. Newman is an experienced editor, a man of
excellent judgment and admirable balance, a man who demonstrates his
dislike of criminations and recriminations by avoiding them; who has
no special inventions or pet theories to push, and is thus almost sure
to be disinterested and unbiased in the advice he offers who lends his
aid and favor to our Conventions, which do so much to spread apiarian
knowledge. And when I add, that he brings to his editorial aid the
most able, experienced and educated apiarists of the world, I surely
have spoken high but _just_ praise, of the American Bee Journal, whose
enviable reputation extends even to distant lands. It is edited by
Thomas G. Newman, at Chicago. Price, $2.00 a year.
GLEANINGS IN BEE CULTURE.
This periodical makes up for its brief history of only five years,
by the vigor and energy which has characterized it from the first.
Its editor is an active apiarist, who is constantly experimenting; a
terse, able writer, and brimming-full of good nature and enthusiasm.
I am free to say, that in practical apiculture I am more indebted to
Mr. Root than to any other one person, except Rev. L. L. Langstroth. I
also think that, with few exceptions, he has done more for the recent
advancement of practical apiculture than any other person in our
country. Yet I have often regretted that Mr. Root is so inimical to
conventions, and that he often so stoutly praises that with which he
has had so brief an experience, and must consequently know so little.
This trait makes it imperative that the apiarist read discriminately,
and then decide for himself. In case of an innovation, wait for
Mr. Root's continued approval, else prove its value before general
adoption. This sprightly little journal is edited by A. I. Root,
Medina, Ohio. Price, $1.00 a year.
BEE-KEEPER'S MAGAZINE.
I have read this periodical less, and, of course know less of it than
of the others. It is well edited, and certainly has many very able
contributors. Both Mr. King and Mr. Root deal largely in their own
wares, and, of course, give space to their advertisement, yet, in all
my dealings with them, and I have dealt largely with Mr. Root, I have
ever found them prompt and reliable. The Magazine is edited by A. J.
King, New York. Price, $1.50 a year.
BOOKS FOR THE APIARIST.
Having read very many of the books treating of apiculture, both
American and foreign, I can freely recommend such a course to others.
Each book has peculiar excellences, and each one may be read with
interest and profit.
LANGSTROTH ON THE HONEY BEE.
Of course, this treatise will ever remain a classic in bee-literature.
I cannot over-estimate the benefits which I have received from the
study of its pages. It was a high, but deserved encomium, which J.
Hunter, of England, in his "Manual of Bee-Keeping," paid to this work:
"It is unquestionably the best bee-book in the English language."
The style of this work is so admirable, the subject matter so replete
with interest, and the entire book so entertaining, that it is a
desirable addition to any library, and no thoughtful, studious apiarist
can well be without it. It is especially happy in detailing the methods
of experimentation, and in showing with what caution the true scientist
establishes principles or deduces conclusions. The work is wonderfully
free from errors, and had the science and practice of apiculture
remained stationary, there would have been little need of another
work; but as some of the most important improvements in apiculture are
not mentioned, the book alone would be a very unsatisfactory guide to
the apiarist of to-day. Price, $2.00.
QUINBY'S MYSTERIES OF BEE-KEEPING.
This is a plain, sensible treatise, written by one of America's most
successful bee-keepers. It proceeds, I think, on a wrong basis in
supposing that those who read bee-books will use the old box-hives,
especially as the author is constantly inferring that other hives are
better. It contains many valuable truths, and when first written was a
valuable auxiliary to the bee-keeper. I understand that the work has
been revised by Mr. L. C. Root. Price, $1.50.
KING'S TEXT-BOOK.
This is a compilation of the above works, and has recently been
revised, so that it is abreast of the times. It is to be regretted that
the publisher did not take more pains with his work, as the typography
is very poor. The price is $1.00.
A B C OF BEE-CULTURE.
This work was issued in numbers, but is now complete. It is arranged
in the convenient form of our cyclopædias, is printed in fine style,
on beautiful paper, and is to be well illustrated. I need hardly say
that the style is pleasing and vigorous. The subject matter will, of
course, be fresh, embodying the most recent discoveries and inventions
pertaining to bee-keeping. That it may be kept abreast of apiarian
progress, the type is to be kept in position, so that each new
discovery may be added as soon as made. The price is $1.00.
FOREIGN WORKS.
Bevan, revised by Munn, is exceedingly interesting, and shows by its
able historical chapters, admirable scientific disquisitions, and
frequent quotations and references to practical and scientific writers
on bees and bee-keeping, both ancient and modern, that the writers were
men of extensive reading and great scientific ability. The book is of
no practical value to us, but to the student it will be read with great
interest. Next to Langstroth, I value this work most highly of any in
my library that treat of bees and bee-keeping, if I may except back
volumes of the bee-publications.
"The Apiary, or Bees, Bee-Hives and Bee Culture," by Alfred Neighbour,
London, is a fresh, sprightly little work, and as the third edition has
just appeared, is, of course, up with the times. The book is in nice
dress, concise, and very readable, and I am glad to commend it.
A less interesting work, though by no means without merit, is the
"Manual of Bee-Keeping," by John Hunter, London. This is also recent.
I think these works would be received with little favor among American
apiarists. They are exponents of English apiculture, which in method
would seem clumsy to Americans. In fact, I think I may say that in
implements and perhaps I may add methods, the English, French, Germans
and Italians, are behind our American apiarists, and hence their
text-books and journals compare illy with ours. I believe the many
intelligent foreign apiarists who have come to this country and are
now honored members of our own fraternity, will sustain this position.
_Foreign scientists_ are ahead of American, but we glean and utilize
their facts and discoveries as soon as made known. Salicylic acid is
discovered by a German to be a remedy for foul brood, yet ten times as
many American as foreign apiarists know of this and practice by the
knowledge. In practical fields, on the other hand, as also in skill and
delicacy of invention, we are, I think, in advance. So our apiarists
have little need to go abroad for either books or papers.
PROMPTITUDE.
Another absolute requirement of successful bee-keeping, is prompt
attention to all its varied duties. Neglect is the rock on which many
bee-keepers, especially farmers, find too often that they have wrecked
their success. I have no doubt that more colonies die from starvation,
than from all the bee maladies known to the bee-keeper. And why is
this? Neglect is the apicide. I feel sure that the loss each season by
absconding colonies is almost incalculable, and whom must we blame?
Neglect. The loss every summer by enforced idleness of queen and
workers, just because room is denied them, is very great. Who is the
guilty party? Plainly, neglect. In these and in a hundred other ways,
indifference to the needs of the bees, which require but a few moments,
greatly lessen the profits of apiculture. If we would be successful,
promptitude must be our motto. Each colony of bees requires but very
little care and attention. Our every interest demands that this be not
denied, nor even granted grudgingly. The very fact that this attention
is slight, renders it more liable to be neglected; but this neglect
always involves loss--often disaster.
ENTHUSIASM.
Enthusiasm, or an ardent love of its duties is very desirable, if not
an absolute requisite, to successful apiculture. To be sure, this is
a quality whose growth, with even slight opportunity, is almost sure.
It only demands perseverance. The beginner, without either experience
or knowledge, may meet with discouragements--unquestionably will.
Swarms will be lost, colonies will fail to winter, the young apiarist
will become nervous, which fact will be noted by the bees with great
disfavor, and if opportunity permits, will meet reproof more sharp
than pleasant. Yet, with PERSISTENCE, all these difficulties quickly
vanish. Every contingency will be foreseen and provided against, and
the myriad of little workers will become as manageable and may be
fondled as safely as a pet dog or cat, and the apiarist will minister
to their needs with the same fearlessness and self-possession that he
does to his gentlest cow or favorite horse. _Persistence in the face of
all those discouragements which are so sure to confront inexperience,
will surely triumph._ In-sooth, he who appreciates the beautiful and
marvelous, will soon grow to love his companions of the hive, and the
labor attendant upon their care and management. Nor will this love
abate till it has kindled into enthusiasm.
True, there may be successful apiarists who are impelled by no warmth
of feeling, whose superior intelligence, system and promptitude, stand
in lieu of and make amends for absence of enthusiasm. Yet I believe
such are rare, and certainly they work at great disadvantage.
PART FIRST.
NATURAL HISTORY
OF
THE HONEY BEE.
NATURAL HISTORY OF THE HONEY-BEE.
CHAPTER I.
THE BEE'S PLACE IN THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.
It is estimated by Heer and other eminent naturalists, that there
are more than 250,000 species of living animals. It will be both
interesting and profitable to look in upon this vast host, that we
may know the position and relationship of the bee to all this mighty
concourse of life.
BRANCH OF THE HONEY-BEE.
The great French naturalist, Cuvier, a friend of Napoleon I.,
grouped all animals which exhibit a ring structure into one branch,
appropriately named Articulates, as this term indicates the jointed
or articulated structure which so obviously characterizes most of the
members of this group.
The terms joint and articulation, as used here, have a technical
meaning. They refer not only to the hinge or place of union of two
parts, but also to the parts themselves. Thus, the parts of an
insect's legs, as well as the surfaces of union, are styled joints or
articulations. All apiarists who have examined carefully the structure
of a bee, will at once pronounce it an Articulate. Not only is its
body, even from head to sting, composed of joints, but by close
inspection we find the legs, the antennæ, and even the mouth-parts,
likewise, jointed.
In this branch, too, we place the Crustacea--which includes the
rollicking cray-fish or lobster, so indifferent as to whether he moves
forward, backward or sidewise, the shorter crab, the sow-bug, lively
and plump, even in its dark, damp home under old boards, etc., and the
barnacles, which fasten to the bottom of ships, so that vessels are
often freighted with life within and without.
The worms, too, are Articulates, though in some of these, as the leech,
the joints are very obscure. The bee, then, which gives us food, is
related to the dreaded tape-worm with its hundred of joints, which,
mayhaps, robs us of the same food after we have eaten it, and the
terrible pork-worm or trichina, which may consume the very muscles we
have developed in caring for our pets of the apiary.
The body-rings of Articulates form a skeleton, firm as in the bee and
lobster, or more or less soft as in the worms. This skeleton, unlike
that of Vertebrates or back-bone animals, to which we belong, is
outside, and thus serves to protect the inner, softer parts, as well
as to give them attachment, and to give strength and solidity to the
animal.
This ring-structure, so beautifully marked in our golden-banded
Italians, usually makes it easy to separate, at sight, animals of this
branch from the Vertebrates, with their usually bony skeleton; from
the less active Molluscan branch, with their soft, sack-like bodies,
familiar to us in the snail, the clam, the oyster, and the wonderful
cuttle-fish--the devil-fish of Victor Hugo--with its long, clammy arms,
strange ink-bag and often prodigious size; from the Radiate branch,
with its elegant star-fish, delicate but gaudy jelly fish, and coral
animals, the tiny architects of islands and even continents and from
the lowest, simplest. Protozoan branch, which includes animals so
minute that we owe our very knowledge of them to the microscope, so
simple that they have been regarded as the apron-strings which tie
plants to animals.
[Illustration: Fig. 1.
_A Trachea magnified._]
THE CLASS OF THE HONEY-BEE.
Our subject belongs to the class Insecta, which is mainly characterized
by breathing air usually through a very complicated system of
air-tubes. These tubes (Fig. 1), which are constantly branching, and
almost infinite in number, are very peculiar in their structure. They
are formed of a spiral thread, and thus resemble a hollow cylinder
formed by closely winding a fine wire spirally about a pipe-stem,
so as to cover it, and then withdrawing the latter, leaving the
wire unmoved. Nothing is more surprising and interesting, than this
labyrinth of beautiful tubes, as seen in dissecting a bee under the
microscope. I have frequently detected myself taking long pauses, in
making dissections of the honey-bee, as my attention would be fixed
in admiration of this beautiful breathing apparatus. In the bee these
tubes expand into large lung-like sacks (Fig. 2, _f_), one each side of
the body.
[Illustration: Fig. 2.
_Respiratory Apparatus of Bee, magnified.--After Duncan._]
Doubtless some of my readers have associated the quick movements
and surprising activity of birds and most mammals with their
well-developed lungs, so, too, in such animals as the bees, we see the
relation between this intricate system of air-tubes--their lungs--and
the quick, busy life which has been proverbial of them since the
earliest time. The class Insecta also includes the spiders, scorpions,
with their caudal sting so venomous, and mites, which have in lieu
of the tubes, lung-like sacks, and the myriapods, or thousand-legged
worms--those dreadful creatures, whose bite, in case of the tropical
centipedes or flat species, have a well-earned reputation of being
poisonous and deadly.
The class Insecta does not include the water-breathing Crustacea, with
their branchiæ or gills, nor the worms, which have 110 lungs or gills
but their skin, if we except some marine forms, which have simple
dermal appendages, which, answer to branchiæ.
ORDER OF THE HONEY-BEE.
The honey-bee belongs to the order Hexapods, or true Insects. The first
term is appropriate, as all have in the imago or last stage, six legs.
Nor is the second term less applicable, as the word insect comes from
the Latin and means to cut in, and in no other articulates does the
ring structure appear 80 marked upon merely a superficial examination.
More than this, the true insects when fully developed have, unlike
all other articulates, three well-marked divisions of the body (Fig.
2), namely: the head (Fig. 2, _a_), which contains the antennæ (Fig.
2, _d_), the horn-like appendages common to all insects; eyes (Fig.
2, _e_) and mouth organs; the thorax (Fig. 2, _b_), which bears the
legs (Fig. 2, _g_), and wings, when they are present; and lastly, the
abdomen (Fig. 2, _c_), which, though usually memberless, contains
the ovipositor, and when present, the sting. Insects, too, undergo a
more striking metamorphosis than do most animals. When first hatched
they are worm-like and called larvæ (Fig. 12), which means masked;
afterward they are frequently quiescent, and would hardly be supposed
to be animals at all. They are then known as pupæ, or as in case of
bees as nymphs (Fig. 13). At last there comes forth the imago with
compound eyes, antennæ and wings. In some insects the transformations
are said to be incomplete, that is the larva, pupa and imago differ
little except in size, and that the latter possesses wings. We see in
our bugs, lice, locusts and grasshoppers, illustrations of insects with
incomplete transformations. In such cases there is a marked resemblance
from the egg to the adult.
As will be seen by the above description the spiders, which have only
two divisions to their bodies, only simple eyes, no antennæ, eight
legs, and no transformations (if we except the partial transformations
of the mites), as also the myriapods, which have no marked divisions of
the body, and no compound eyes--which are always present in the mature
insect--many legs and no transformations, do not belong to the order
Insects.
SUB-ORDER OF THE HONEY BEE.
The honey bee belongs to the sub-order Hymenoptera (from two Greek
words meaning membrane and wings), which also includes the wasps,
ants, ichneumon-flies and saw-flies. This group contains insects which
possess a tongue by which they may suck (Fig. 20, _a_), and strong
jaws (Fig. 21) for biting. Thus the bees can sip the honeyed sweets of
flowers, and also gnaw away mutilated comb. They have, besides, four
wings, and undergo complete transformations.
There are among insects strange resemblances. Insects of one sub-order
will show a marked likeness to those of another. This is known as
mimicry, and sometimes is wonderfully striking between very distant
groups. Darwin and Wallace suppose it is a developed peculiarity,
not always possessed by the species, and comes through the laws of
variation, and natural selection to serve the purpose of protection.
Now, right here we have a fine illustration of this mimicry. Just the
other day I received through Mr. A. I. Root, an insect which he and
the person sending it to him supposed to be a bee, and desired to know
whether it was a mal-formed honey-bee or some other species. Now, this
insect, though looking in a general way much like a bee, had only two
wings, had no jaws, while its antennæ were closer together in front
and mere stubs. In fact, it was no bee at all, but belonged to the
sub-order Diptera, or two-wing flies. I have received several similar
insects, with like inquiries. Among Diptera there are several families,
as the Œstridæ or bot-flies, the Syrphidæ--a very useful family, as
the larvæ or maggots live on plant-lice--whose members are often seen
sipping sweets from flowers, or trying to rob honey and other bees--the
one referred to above belonged to this family--and the Bombyliidæ,
which in color, form and hairy covering are strikingly like wild and
domesticated bees. The maggots of these feed on the larvæ of various of
our wild bees, and of course the mother fly must steal into the nests
of the latter to lay her eggs. So in these cases, there is seeming
evidence that the mimicry may serve to protect these fly-tramps, as
they steal in to pilfer the coveted sweets or lay the fatal eggs.
Possibly, too, they may have a protective scent, as I have seen them
enter a hive in safety, though a bumble-bee essaying to do the same,
found the way barricaded with myriad cimeters each with a poisoned tip.
Some authors have placed Coleoptera or beetles as the highest of
insects, others claim for Lepidoptera or butterflies and moths a
first place, while others, and with the best of reasons, claim for
Hymenoptera the highest position. The moth is admired for the glory
of its coloring and elegance of its form, the beetle for the luster
and brilliancy of its elytra or wing-covers; but these insects only
revel in nature's wealth, and live and die without labor or purpose.
Hymenoptera usually less gaudy, generally quite plain and unattractive
in color, are yet the most highly endowed among insects. They live with
a purpose in view, and are the best models of industry to be found
among animals. Our bees practice a division of labor the ants are still
better political economists, as they have a specially endowed class
in the community who are the soldiers, and thus are the defenders of
each ant-kingdom. Ants also conquer other communities, take their
inhabitants captive and reduce them to abject slavery--requiring them
to perform a large portion, and sometimes the whole labor of the
community. Ants tunnel streams, and in the tropics some leaf-eating
species have been observed to show no mean order of intelligence, as
some ascend trees to cut off the leafy twigs, while others remain
below, and carry these branches through their tunnels to their
under-ground homes.
The parasitic Hymenoptera, are so called because they lay their eggs in
other insects, that their offspring may have fresh meat not only at
birth, but so long as they need food, as the insect fed upon generally
lives till the young parasite, which is working to disembowel it,
is full-grown. Thus this steak is ever fresh as life itself. These
parasitic insects show wondrous intelligence, or sense development, in
discovering this prey. I have caught ichneumon-flies--a family of these
parasites--boring through an eighth or quarter-inch of solid beech
or maple wood, and upon examination I found the prospective victim
further on in direct line with the insect auger, which was to intrude
the fatal egg. I have also watched ichneumon-flies depositing eggs in
leaf-rolling caterpillars, so surrounded with tough hickory leaves
that the fly had to pierce several thicknesses to place the egg in its
snugly-ensconced victim. Upon putting these leaf-rolling caterpillars
in a box, I reared, of course, the ichneumon-fly and not the moth. And
is it instinct or reason that enables these flies to gauge the number
of their eggs to the size of the larva which is to receive them, so
that there may be no danger of famine and starvation, for true it is
that while small caterpillars will receive but one egg, large ones may
receive several. How strange, too, the habits of the saw-fly, with its
wondrous instruments more perfect than any saws of human workmanship,
and the gall-flies, whose poisonous sting as they fasten their eggs to
the oak, willow or other leaves, causes the abnormal growth of food for
the still unhatched young. The providing and caring for their young,
which are at first helpless, is peculiar among insects, with slight
exception, to the Hymenoptera, and among all animals is considered
a mark of high rank. Such marvels of instinct, if we may not call
it intelligence, such acumen of sense perception, such habits--that
_must_ go hand-in-hand with the most harmonious of communities known
among animals, of whatever branch--all these, no less than the compact
structure, small size and specialized organs of nicest finish, more
than warrant that grand trio of American naturalists, Agassiz, Dana and
Packard, in placing Hymenoptera as first in rank among insects. As we
shall detail the structure and habits of the highest of the high--the
bees--in the following pages, I am sure no one will think to degrade
the rank of these wonders of the animal kingdom.
FAMILY OF THE HONEY-BEE.
The honey-bee belongs to the family Apidæ, of Leach, which includes not
only the hive bee, but all insects which feed their helpless young, or
larvæ, entirely on pollen, or honey and pollen.
The insects of this family have broad heads, elbowed antennæ (Fig.
2, _d_) which are usually thirteen-jointed in the males, and only
twelve-jointed in the females. The jaws or mandibles (Fig. 21) are
very strong, and often toothed; the tongue or ligula (Fig. 20, _a_),
as also the second jaws or maxillæ (Fig. 20, _c_), one each side the
tongue, are long, though in some cases much shorter than in others,
and frequently the tongue when not in use is folded back, once or
more, under the head. All the insects of this family have a stiff
spine on all four of the anterior legs, at the end of the tibia, or
the third joint from the body, called the tibial spur, and all, except
the genus Apis, which includes the honey-bee, in which the posterior
legs have no tibial spurs, have two tibial spurs on the posterior
legs. All of this family except one parasitic genus, have the first
joint or tarsus of the posterior foot, much widened, and this together
with the broad tibia (Fig. 2, _h_) is hollowed out (Fig. 22, _p_),
forming quite a basin or basket on the outer side, in nearly all the
species; and generally, this basket is made deeper by a rim of stiff
hairs. These receptacles or pollen baskets are only found of course
on such individuals of each community as gather pollen. A few of the
Apidæ--thieves by nature--cuckoo-like, steal unbidden into the nests of
others, usually bumble-bees, and here lay their eggs. As their young
are fed and fostered by another, they gather no pollen, and hence like
drone bees need not, and have not pollen baskets. The young of these
lazy tramps, starve out the real insect babies of these homes, by
eating their food, and in some cases, it is said, being unable like
the young cuckoos to hurl these rightful children from the nest, they
show an equal if not greater depravity by eating them, not waiting
for starvation to get them out of the way. These parasites illustrate
mimicry, already described, as they look so like the foster mothers of
their own young, that unscientific eyes would often fail to distinguish
them. Probably the bumble-bees are no sharper, or they would refuse
ingress to these merciless vagrants.
The larvæ (Fig. 12) of all insects of this family are
maggot-like--wrinkled, footless, tapering at both ends, and, as before
stated, feed upon pollen and honey. They are helpless, and thus, all
during their babyhood--the larvæ state--the time when all insects are
most ravenous, and the only time when many insects take food, the
time when all growth in size, except such enlargement as is required
by egg-development, occurs, these infant bees have to be fed by their
mothers or elder sisters. They have a mouth with soft lips, and weak
jaws, yet it is doubtful if all or much of their food is taken in at
this opening. There is some reason to believe that they, like many
maggots--such as the Hessian-fly larvæ--absorb much of their food
through the body walls. From the mouth leads the intestine, which has
no anal opening. So there are no excreta other than gas and vapor. What
commendation for their food, _all_ capable of nourishment, and thus all
assimilated.
To this family belongs the genus of stingless bees, Melipona, of
Mexico and South America, which store honey not only in the hexagonal
brood-cells, but in great wax reservoirs. They, like the unkept
hive-bee, build in hollow logs. They are exceedingly numerous in
each colony, and it has thus been thought that there were more than
one queen. They are also very prodigal of wax, and thus may possess
a prospective commercial importance in these days of artificial
comb-foundation. In this genus the basal joint of the tarsus is
triangular, and they have two submarginal cells, not three, to the
front wings. They are also smaller than our common bees, and have wings
that do not reach to the tip of their abdomens.
Another genus of stingless bees, the genus Trigona, have the wings
longer than the abdomens, and their jaws toothed. These, unlike the
Melipona, are not confined to the New World, but are met in Africa,
India and Australasia. These build their combs in tall trees, fastening
them to the branches much as does the Apis dorsata, soon to be
mentioned.
Of course insects of the genus Bombus--our common bumble-bees--belong
to this family. Here the tongue is very long, the bee large, the
sting curved, with the barbs very short and few. Only the queen
survives the winter. In spring she forms her nest under some sod or
board, hollowing out a basin in the earth, and after storing a mass
of bee-bread--probably a mixture of honey and pollen--she deposits
several eggs in the mass. The larvæ so soon as hatched out, eat out
thimble-shaped spaces, which in time become even larger, and not
unlike in form the queen-cells of our hive-bees. When the bees issue
from these cells the same are strengthened by wax. Later in the season
these coarse wax cells become very numerous. Some may be made as cells
and not termed as above. The wax is dark, and doubtless contains much
pollen, as do the cappings and queen-cells of the honey-bees. At
first the bees are all workers, later queens appear, and still later
males. All, or nearly all, entomologists speak of two sizes of queen
bumble-bees, the large and the small. The small appear early in the
season, and the large late. A student of our College, Mr. N. P. Graham,
who last year had a colony of bumble-bees in his room the whole season,
thinks this an error. He believes that the individuals of the Bombus
nest exactly correspond with those of the Apis. The queens, like those
of bees, are smaller before mating and active laying. May not this be
another case like that of the two kinds of worker-bees which deceived
even Huber, an error consequent upon lack of careful and prolonged
observation?
In Xylocopa or the carpenter-bees, which much resemble the bumble-bees,
we have a fine example of a boring insect. With its strong mandibles or
jaws it cuts long tunnels, often one or two feet long in the hardest
wood. These burrows are divided by chip partitions into cells, and in
each cell is left the bee-bread and an egg.
The mason-bee--well named--constructs cells of earth and gravel, which
by aid of its spittle it has power to cement, so that they are harder
than brick.
The tailor or leaf-cutting bees, of the genus Megachile, make wonderful
cells from variously shaped pieces of leaves. These are always
mathematical in form, usually circular and oblong, and are cut--by the
insect's making scissors of its jaws--from various leaves, the rose
being a favorite. I have found these cells made almost wholly of the
petals or flower leaves of the rose. The cells are made by gluing
these leaf-sections in concentric layers, letting them over-lap. The
oblong sections form the walls of the cylinder, while the circular
pieces are crowded as we press circular wads into our shot-guns, and
are used at the ends or for partitions where several cells are placed
together. When complete, the single cells are in form and size much
like a revolver cartridge. When several are placed together, which is
usually the case, they are arranged end to end, and in size and form
are quite like a small stick of candy, though not more than one-third
as long. These cells I have found in the grass, partially buried in the
earth, in crevices, and in one case knew of their being built in the
folds of a partially-knit sock, which a good house-wife had chanced to
leave stationary for some days. These leaf-cutters have rows of hairs
underneath, with which they carry pollen. I have noticed them each
summer for some years swarming on the Virginia creeper, often called
woodbine, while in blossom, in quest of pollen, though I never saw a
single hive-bee on these vines. The tailor-bees often cut the foliage
of the same vines quite badly.
I have often reared beautiful bees of the genus Osmia, which are also
called mason-bees. Their glistening colors of blue and green possess a
luster and reflection unsurpassed even by the metals themselves. These
rear their young in cells of mud, in mud-cells lining hollow weeds
and shrubs, and in burrows which they dig in the hard earth. In early
summer, during warm days, these glistening gems of life are frequently
seen in walks and drives intent on gathering earth for mortar, or
digging holes, and will hardly escape identification by the observing
apiarist, as their form is so much like that of our honey-bees. They
are smaller; yet their broad head, prominent eyes, and general form,
are very like those of the equally quick and active, yet more soberly
attired, workers of the apiary.
Other bees--the numerous species of the genus Nomada, and of Apathus,
are the black sheep in the family Apidæ. These tramps, already referred
to, like the English cuckoo and our American cow-blackbird, steal in
upon the unwary, and, though all unbidden, lay their eggs; in this way
appropriating food and lodgings for their own yet unborn. Thus these
insect vagabonds impose upon the unsuspecting foster-mothers in these
violated homes. And these same foster-mothers show by their tender
care of these merciless intruders, that they are miserably fooled, for
they carefully guard and feed infant bees, which with age will in turn
practice this same nefarious trickery.
I reluctantly withhold further particulars of this wonderful bee
family. When first I visited Messrs. Townley and Davis, of this State,
I was struck with the fine collection of wild bees which each had made.
Yet, unknowingly, they had incorporated many that were not bees. Of
course, many apiarists will wish to make such collections and also to
study our wild bees. I hope the above will prove efficient aid. I hope,
too, that it will stimulate others, especially youth, to the valuable
and intensely interesting study of these wonders of nature. I am glad,
too, to open to the reader a page from the book of nature so replete
with attractions as is the above. Nor do I think I have taken too much
space in revealing the strange and marvelous instincts, and wonderfully
varied habits, of this highest of insect families, at the head of
which. Stand our own fellow-laborers and companions of the apiary.
[Illustration: Fig. 3.
A.--_Anterior Wing of a Bee._ 1, 2, 3.--_Sub-costal or Cubital Cells._
B.--_Secondary or Posterior Wing, a hooks to attach to Primary Wing._
]
THE GENUS OF THE HONEY-BEE.
The genus Apis includes all bees that have no tibial spurs on the
posterior legs. They have three cubital or sub-costal cells (1, 2, 3,
Fig. 3)--the second row from the costal or anterior edge--on the front
or primary wings. On the inner side of the posterior basal tarsus,
opposite the pollen baskets, in the neuters or workers, are rows of
hairs (Fig. 23) which are probably used in collecting pollen. In the
males, which do no work except to fertilize the queens, the large
compound eyes meet above, crowding the three simple eyes below (Fig.
4), while in the workers (Fig. 5) and queens these simple eyes, called
ocelli (Fig. 5), are above, and the compound eyes (Fig. 5) wide apart.
The queens and drones have weak jaws, with a rudimentary tooth (Fig.
21, _b_), short tongues, and no pollen baskets, though they have the
broad tibia and wide basal tarsus (Fig. 16, _p_).
[Illustration: Fig. 4.
_Head of Drone, magnified._
_Antennæ. Compound Eyes. Simple Eyes._]
[Illustration: Fig. 5.
_Head of Worker, magnified._
_Antennæ. Compound Eyes. Simple Eyes._]
There is some doubt as to the number of species of this genus, it is
certain that the Apis Ligustica of Spinola, or Italian bee, the Apis
fascial a of Latreille, or Egyptian bee, are only varieties of the Apis
mellifica, which also includes the German or black bee.
Mr. F. Smith, an able entomologist, considers Apis dorsata of India
and the East Indies, Apis zonata of the same islands, Apis Indica of
India and China, and Apis florea of India, Ceylon, China and Borneo,
as distinct species. He thinks, also, that Apis Adansoni and Apis
nigrocincta are distinct, but thinks they may be varieties of Apis
Indica. Some regard Apis unicolor as a distinct species, but it is
probably a variety of Apis dorsata. As Apis mellifica has not been
found in India, and is a native of Europe, Western Asia and Africa,
it seems quite probable that several of the above may turn out to be
only varieties of Apis mellifica. If there are only color and size to
distinguish them, and, indeed, one may add habits, then we may suspect,
with good reason, the validity of the above arrangement. If there
is structural difference, as Mr. Wallace says there is, in the male
dorsata, then we may call them different species. The Italian certainly
has a longer tongue than the German, yet that is not sufficient to
separate them as species. Apis zonata and Apis unicolor, both of the
East Indies are said to be very black. Apis dorsata is large, suspends
its combs to the branches of trees--in rare cases our own bees have
been known to do the same--is said to be cross, to have a very long
tongue, to be larger than our common bee, and to make larger cells.
Apis florea is small, only half as large as Apis mellifica, of
different form, while the posterior tarsus of the male is lobed.
It would be very interesting, and perhaps profitable, to import these
various species, and see how marked is the difference between them
and ours. Such work can be best accomplished through our National
Association. Very likely, as we come to know these far-off bees as we
know the German and Italian, we shall find that their amiability, size,
habits of comb-building, and lengthened organs, are only peculiarities
developed by climate and surrounding conditions, and shall sweep them
all into the one species. Apis mellifica, to be regarded as we now
regard the Italian and Egyptian, as only varieties.
It seems strange that the genus Apis should not have been native to
the American continent. Without doubt there were no bees of this genus
here till introduced by the Caucasian race. It seems more strange, as
we find that all the continents and islands of the Eastern hemisphere
abound with representatives. It is one more illustration of the
strange, inextricable puzzles connected with geographical distribution
of animals.
SPECIES OF OUR HONEY-BEES.
The bees at present domesticated unquestionably belong to the Apis
mellifica. The character of this species will appear in the next
chapter, as we proceed with their anatomy and physiology. As before
stated, this species is native exclusively to the Eastern hemisphere,
though it has been introduced wherever civilized man has taken up his
abode.
VARIETIES or THE HONEY-BEE.
GERMAN OR BLACK BEE.
The German or black bee is the variety best known, as through all
the ages it has been most widely distributed. The name German refers
to locality, while the name black is a misnomer, as the bee is a
gray-black. The queen, and in a less degree the drones, are darker,
while the legs and under surface of the former are brown, or copper
color, and of the latter light-gray. The tongue of the black worker
I have found, by repeated dissections and comparisons made both by
myself and by my pupils, is shorter than that of the Italian worker,
and generally less hairy. The black bees have been known no longer than
the Italians, as we find the latter were known both to Aristotle, the
fourth century B. C, and to Virgil, the great Roman poet, who sung of
the variegated golden bee, the first century B. C.; and we can only
account for the wider distribution of the German bee by considering
the more vigorous pushing habits of the Germanic races, who not only
over-ran and infused life into Southern Europe, but have vitalized all
Christendom.
LIGURIAN OR ITALIAN BEE.
The Italian bee (see frontis-plate) is characterized as a variety,
not only by difference of color, habits, and activity, but also by
possessing a little longer tongue. These bees were first described as
distinct from the German race by Spinola, in 1805, who gave the name
Ligurian bee, which name prevails; in Europe. The name comes from a
province of Northern Italy, north of the Ligurian Gulf, or Gulf of
Genoa. This region is shut off from Northern Europe by the Alps, and
thus these bees were kept apart from the German bees, and in warmer,
more genial Italy, was developed a distinct race, our beautiful
Italians.
In 1843, Von Baldenstein procured a colony of these bees, which he
had previously observed as peculiar, while stationed as a military
captain in Italy. He published his experience in 1848, which was read
by Dzierzon, who became interested, and through him the Italian became
generally introduced into Germany. In 1859, six years after Dzierzon's
first importation, the Italian variety was introduced into England by
Neighbour, the author of the valuable treatise already referred to.
The same year, Messrs Wagner and Colvin imported the Italians from
Dzierzon's apiary into America; and in 1860, Mr. S. P. Parsons brought
the first colonies that were imported direct from Italy.
The Italian worker (see frontis-plate) is quickly distinguished by
the bright-yellow rings at the base of the abdomen. If the colony is
pure, every bee will show three of these golden girdles. The two first
segments or rings of the abdomen, except at their posterior border,
and also the base or anterior border of the third, will be of this
orange-yellow hue. The rest of the back or dorsal surface will be much
as in the German race. Underneath, the abdomen, except for a greater
or less distance at the tip, will also be yellow, while the same
color appears more or less strongly marked on the legs. The workers,
too, have longer ligulæ or tongues (Fig. 20) than do the German race,
and their tongues are also a little more hairy. They are also more
active, and less inclined to sting. The queen has the entire base of
her abdomen, and sometimes nearly the whole of it, orange yellow. The
variation as to amount of color in the queens, is quite striking.
Sometimes very dark queens are imported right from the Ligurian hills,
yet all the workers will wear the badge of purity--the three golden
bands.
The drones, too, are quite variable. Sometimes the rings and patches
of yellow will be very prominent, then, again, quite indistinct. But
the underside of the body is always, so far as I have observed, mainly
yellow.
THE FASCIATA OR EGYPTIAN RACE.
The word fasciata means banded, as the Egyptian bee is very broadly
banded with yellow. I have never seen these bees, but from descriptions
by Latreille, Kirby, and Bevan, I understand that all the bees are
rather smaller, more slim, and much more yellow than the Italians.
Herr Vogel states that they gather no propolis, but that each colony
contains a number of small drone-laying queens. These bees were
probably the ones which, with the kine of the ancient goodly land of
promise, gave the rich pabulum, that gave the reputation: "flowing with
milk and honey." They are thus the oldest of domesticated bees. These,
too, are said to have been moved in rude boats or rafts up and down
the Nile, as the flower pasturage seemed to require. The bees are said
to be very active, to be proof against the cold, and have also been
reputed very cross.
OTHER VARIETIES.
There are several other doubtful varieties which are receiving some
attention from the German apiarists, and are honored with attention
at the great meetings of Austria and Germany, as we learn from the
bee-publications of those countries. The Cyprian bee, from the Isle of
Cyprus, as its name indicates, is yellow, and probably an offspring
from the Italian or Egyptian. So far as we can learn, it has no merits
which will make it preferred to the Italian. Some say it is more
beautiful, others that it is less amiable. Other varieties, which are
not probably distinct races, or at least may not be, are the Heath, the
Carniolan or Krainer and the Herzegovinian. They are not considered
superior to the German and Italian.
A variety of our Italian which has rows of white hairs unusually
distinct, is being sold in the United States under the name of Albinos.
That they are a distinct race is not at all likely. In fact, I have
noticed among our Italian stocks every year, the so-called Albinos.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
It would be a pleasing duty, and not an unprofitable one, to give in
this connection a complete history of entomology so far as it relates
to Apis mellifica. Yet, this would take much space, and as there is
quite a full history in books that I shall recommend to those who are
eager to know more of this interesting department of natural history, I
will not go into details.
Aristotle wrote of bees more than three hundred years B. C. About
three hundred years later, Virgil, in his fourth Georgic, gave to the
world the views then extant on this subject, gathered largely from
the writings of Aristotle. The poetry will ever be remarkable for its
beauty and elegance--would that as much could be said for the subject
matter, which, though full of interest, is also full of errors. A
little later Columella, though usually careful and accurate in his
observations, still gave voice to the prevailing errors, though much
that he wrote was valuable, and more was curious. Pliny, the Elder,
who wrote in the first century A. D., helped to continue the erroneous
opinions which previous authors had given, and not content with this,
he added opinions of his own, which were not only without foundation,
but were often the perfection of absurdity.
After this, nearly two thousand years passed with no progress in
natural history; even for two centuries after the revival of learning,
we find nothing worthy of note. Swammerdam, a Dutch entomologist, in
the middle of the 17th century, wrote a general history of insects,
also, "The Natural History of Bees." He and his English cotemporary,
Ray, showed their ability as naturalists by founding their systems
on the insect transformations. They also revived the study and
practice of anatomy, which had slept since its first introduction by
Aristotle, as the great stepping-stone in zoological progress. Ray
also gave special attention to Hymenoptera, and was much aided by
Willoughby and Lister. At this time Harvey, so justly noted for his
discovery of the circulation of the blood, announced his celebrated
dictum, "Omnia ex ovo,"--all life from eggs--which was completely
established by the noted Italians, Redi and Malpighi. Toward the
middle of the 18th century, the great Linnæus--"the brilliant Star
of the North"--published his "System Naturæ," and threw a flood of
light on the whole subject of natural history. His division of insects
was founded upon presence, or absence, and characteristics, of wings.
This, like Swammerdam's basis, was too narrow, yet his conclusions were
remarkably correct. Linnæus is noted for his accurate descriptions, and
especially for his gift of the binomial method of naming plants and
animals, giving in the name the genus and species, as, Apis mellifica.
He was also the first to introduce classes and orders, as we now
understand them. When we consider the amount and character of the work
of the great Swede we can but place him among the first, if not as the
first, of naturalists. Cotemporary with Linnæus (also written Linné)
was Geoffroy, who did valuable work in defining new genera. In the last
half of the century appeared the great work of a master in entomology,
DeGeer, who based his arrangement of insects on the character of wings
and jaws, and thus discovered another of nature's keys to aid him
in unlocking her mysteries. Kirby well says: "He united in himself
the highest merit of almost every department of entomology." As a
scientist, an anatomist, a physiologist, and as the observant historian
of the habits and economy of insects, he is above all praise. What a
spring of self-improvement, enjoyment and of public usefulness, is such
an ability to observe, as was possessed by the great DeGeer.
Contemporary with Linnæus and DeGeer was Réaumur, of France, whose
experiments and researches are of special interest to apiarists.
Perhaps no entomologist has done more to reveal the natural history
of bees. Especially to be commended are his method of experimenting,
his patience in investigation, the elegance and felicity of his word
pictures, and, above all, _his devotion to truth_. We shall have
occasion to speak of this conscientious and indefatigable worker in the
great shop of insect-life frequently in the following pages. Bonnet,
of Geneva, the able correspondent of Réaumur, also did valuable work,
in which the lover of bees has a special interest. Bonnet is specially
noted for his discovery and elucidation of parthenogenesis--that
anomalous mode of reproduction--as it occurs among the Aphides
or plant-lice, though he did not discover that our bees, in the
production of drones, illustrate the same doctrine. Though the author
of no system, he gave much aid to Réaumur in his systematic labors.
At this same period systematic entomology received great aid from
Lyonnet's valuable work. This author dissected and explained the
development of a caterpillar. His descriptions and illustrations are
wonderful, and will proclaim his ability as long as entomology is
studied, and they, to quote Bonnet, "demonstrate the existence of God."
We have next to speak of the great Dane, Fabricius--a student of
Linnæus--who published his works from 1775 to 1798, and thus was
revolutionizing systematic entomology at the same time that we of
America were revolutionizing government. He made the mouth organs
the basis of his classification, and thus followed in the path which
DeGeer had marked out, though it was scarcely beaten by the latter
while Fabricius left it wide and deep. His classes and orders are no
improvement on, in fact, are not nearly as correct, as were his old
master's. In his description of genera--where he pretended to follow
nature--he has rendered valuable service In leading scientists to study
parts, before little regarded, and thus to better establish affinities,
he did a most valuable work. His work is a standard, and should be
thoroughly studied by all entomologists.
Just at the close of the last century, appeared the greatest "Roman
of them all," the great Latreille, of France, whose name we have so
frequently used in the classification of the honey-bee. His is called
the Elective System, as he used wings, mouth-parts, transformations,
in fact, all the organs--the entire structure. He gave us our Family
Apidæ, our genus Apis, and, as will be remembered, he described several
of the species of this genus. In our study of this great man's work, we
constantly marvel at his extensive researches and remarkable talents.
Lamark, of this time, except that he could see no God in nature, did
very admirable work. So, too, did Cuvier, of Napoleon's time, and the
learned Dr. Leach, of England. Since then we have had hosts of workers
in this field, and many worthy of not only mention but praise; yet
the work has been to rub up and garnish, rather than to create. So I
will close this brief history with a notice of authors who are very
serviceable to such as may desire to glean farther of the treasures
of systematic entomology; only remarking that at the end of the next
chapter I shall refer to those who have been particularly serviceable
in developing the anatomy and physiology of insects, especially of bees.
VALUABLE BOOKS FOR THE STUDENT OF ENTOMOLOGY.
For mere classification, no work is equal to Westwood on Insects--two
volumes. In this the descriptions and illustrations are very full and
perfect, making it easy to study the families, and even genera, of all
the sub-orders. This work and the following are out of print, but can
be got with little trouble at second-hand book-stores.
Kirby and Spence--Introduction to Entomology--is a very complete work.
It treats of the classification, structure, habits, general economy of
insects, and gives a history of the subject. It is an invaluable work,
and a great acquisition to any library.
Dr. Packard's Guide to the Study of insects is a valuable work, and
being American, is specially to be recommended.
The Reports of Dr. T. Harris, Dr. A. Fitch, and of Prof. C. V. Riley,
will also be found of great value and interest.