1. The grossest kind of slander is that which in the Decalogue is
called, bearing false testimony against our neighbor; that is,
flatly charging him with acts which he never committed, and is
nowise guilty of. As in the case of Naboth, when men were suborned
to say, "Naboth did blaspheme God and the king," and as was David's
case, when he thus complained, "False witnesses did rise up, they
laid to my charge things that I knew not of." This kind in the
highest way (that is, in judicial proceedings) is more rare; and of
all men, they who are detected to practice it are held most vile and
infamous, as being plainly the most pernicious and perilous
instruments of injustice, the most desperate enemies of all men's
right and safety that can be. But also out of the court there are
many knights-errant of the poet, whose business it is to run about
scattering false reports; sometimes loudly proclaiming them in open
companies, sometimes closely whispering them in dark corners; thus
infecting conversation with their poisonous breath: these no less
notoriously are guilty of this kind, as bearing always the same
malice and sometimes breeding as ill effects.
2. Another kind is, affixing scandalous names, injurious epithets,
and odious characters upon persons, which they deserve not. As when
Corah and his accomplices did accuse Moses of being ambitious,
unjust, and tyrannical; when the Pharisees called our Lord an
impostor, a blasphemer, a sorcerer, a glutton and wine-bibber, an
incendiary and perverter of the people, one that spake against
Caesar, and forbade to give tribute; when the Apostles were charged
with being pestilent, turbulent, factious, and seditious fellows.
This sort being very common, and thence in ordinary repute not so
bad, yet in just estimation may be judged even worse than the
former, as doing to our neighbor more heavy and more irreparable
wrong. For it imposeth on him really more blame, and that such
which he can hardly shake off; because the charge signifies habits
of evil, and includeth many acts; then, being general and
indefinite, can scarce be disproved. He, for instance, that calleth
a sober man drunkard doth impute to him many acts of such
intemperance (some really past, others probably future), and no
particular time or place being specified, how can a man clear
himself of that imputation, especially with those who are not
thoroughly acquainted with his conversation? So he that calleth a
man unjust, proud, perverse, hypocritical, doth load him with most
grievous faults, which it is not possible that the most innocent
person should discharge himself from.
3. Like to that kind is this: aspersing a man's actions with harsh
censures and foul terms, importing that they proceed from ill
principles, or tend to bad ends; so as it doth not or cannot
appear. Thus, when we say of him that is generously hospitable,
that he is profuse; of him that is prudently frugal, that he is
niggardly; of him that is cheerful and free in his conversation,
that he is vain or loose; of him that is serious and resolute in
a good way, that he is sullen or morose; of him that is
conspicuous and brisk in virtuous practice, that it is ambition
or ostentation which prompts him; of him that is close and
bashful in the like good way, that it is sneaking stupidity, or
want of spirit; of him that is reserved, that it is craft; of him
that is open, that it is simplicity in him; when we ascribe a
man's liberality and charity to vainglory or popularity; his
strictness of life, and constancy in devotion, to superstition,
or hypocrisy. When, I say, we pass such censures, or impose such
characters on the laudable or innocent practice of our neighbors,
we are indeed slanderers, imitating therein the great calumniator,
who thus did slander even God himself, imputing his prohibition of
the fruit unto envy towards men; "God," said he, "doth know that in
the day ye eat thereof, your eyes shall be opened, and ye shall be
as gods, knowing good and evil;" who thus did ascribe the steady
piety of Job, not to a conscientious love and fear of God, but to
policy and selfish design: "Doth Job fear God for naught?"
Whoever, indeed, pronounceth concerning his neighbor's intentions
otherwise than as they are evidently expressed by words, or
signified by overt actions, is a slanderer; because he pretendeth to
know, and dareth to aver, that which he nowise possibly can tell
whether it be true; because the heart is exempt from all
jurisdiction here, is only subject to the government and trial of
another world; because no man can judge concerning the truth of such
accusations, because no man can exempt or defend himself from them:
so that apparently such practice doth thwart all course of justice
and equity.
4. Another kind is, perverting a man's words or actions
disadvantageously by affected misconstruction. All words are
ambiguous, and capable of different senses, some fair, some more
foul; all actions have two handles, one that candor and charity
will, another that disingenuity and spite may lay hold on; and in
such cases to misapprehend is a calumnious procedure, arguing
malignant disposition and mischievous design. Thus, when two men
did witness that our Lord affirmed, he "could demolish the Temple,
and rear it again in three days"--although he did, indeed, speak
words to that purpose, meaning them in a figurative sense,
discernible enough to those who would candidly have minded his drift
and way of speaking:--yet they who crudely alleged them against
him are called false witnesses. "At last," saith the Gospel, "came
two false witnesses, and said, This fellow said, I am able to
destroy the temple," etc. Thus, also, when some certified of St
Stephen, as having said that "Jesus of Nazareth should destroy that
place, and change the customs that Moses delivered"; although
probably he did speak words near to that purpose, yet are those men
called false witnesses. "And," saith St. Luke, "they set up false
witnesses, which said, This man ceaseth not to speak blasphemous
words," etc. Which instances do plainly show, if we would avoid the
guilt of slander, how careful we should be to interpret fairly and
favorably the words and actions of our neighbor.
5. Another sort of this practice is, partial and lame representation
of men's discourse, or their practice, suppressing some part of the
truth in them, or concealing some circumstances about them which
might serve to explain, to excuse, or to extenuate them. In such a
manner easily, without uttering; any logical untruth, one may yet
grievously calumniate. Thus, suppose a man speaketh a thing upon
supposition, or with exception, or in way of objection, or merely
for disputation's sake, in order to the discussion or clearing of
truth; he that should report him asserting it absolutely,
unlimitedly, positively, and peremptorily, as his own settled
judgment, would notoriously calumniate. If one should be inveigled
by fraud, or driven by violence, or slip by chance into a bad place
or bad company, he that should so represent the gross of that
accident, as to breed an opinion of that person, that out of pure
disposition and design he did put himself there, doth slanderously
abuse that innocent person. The reporter in such cases must not
think to defend himself by pretending that he spake nothing false;
for such propositions, however true in logic, may justly be deemed
lies in morality, being uttered with a malicious and deceitful (that
is, with a calumnious) mind, being apt to impress false conceits and
to produce hurtful effects concerning our neighbor. There are
slanderous truths as well as slanderous falsehoods; when truth is
uttered with a deceitful heart, and to a base end, it becomes a lie.
"He that speaketh truth," saith the wise man, "showeth forth
righteousness, but a false witness deceit." Deceiving is the proper
work of slander; and truth abused to that end putteth on its nature,
and will engage into like guilt.
6, Another kind of calumny is, by instilling sly suggestions, which
although they do not downrightly assert falsehoods, yet they breed
sinister opinions in the hearers, especially in those who, from
weakness or credulity, from jealousy or prejudice, from negligence
or inadvertency, are prone to entertain them. This is done in many
ways: by propounding wily suppositions, shrewd insinuations, crafty
questions, and specious comparisons, intimating a possibility, or
inferring some likelihood of, and thence inducing to believe the
fact. "Doth not," saith this kind of slanderer, "his temper incline
him to do thus? may not his interest have swayed him thereto? had
he not fair opportunity and strong temptation to it? hath he not
acted so in like cases? Judge you, therefore, whether he did it
not." Thus the close slanderer argueth; and a weak or prejudiced
person is thereby so caught, that he presently is ready thence to
conclude the thing done. Again: "He doeth well," saith the
sycophant, "it is true; but why, and to what end? Is it not, as
most men do, out of ill design? may he not dissemble now? may he
not recoil hereafter? have not others made as fair a show? yet we
know what came of it." Thus do calumnious tongues pervert the
judgments of men to think ill of the most innocent, and meanly of
the worthiest actions. Even commendation itself is often used
calumniously, with intent to breed dislike and ill-will towards a
person commended in envious or jealous ears; or so as to give
passage to dispraises, and render the accusations following more
credible. Tis an artifice commonly observed to be much in use
there, where the finest tricks of supplanting are practiced, with
greatest effect; so that _pessimum_ _inimicorum_ _genus_,
_laudantes_; there is no more pestilent enemy than a malevolent
praiser. All these kinds of dealing, as they issue from the
principles of slander, and perform its work, so they deservedly bear
the guilt thereof.
7. A like kind is that of oblique and covert reflections; when a man
doth not directly or expressly charge his neighbor with faults,
but yet so speaketh that he is understood, or reasonably presumed
to do it. This is a very cunning and very mischievous way of
slandering; for therein the skulking calumniator keepeth a
reserve for himself, and cutteth off from the person concerned
the means of defense. If he goeth to clear himself from the
matter of such aspersions: "What need," saith this insidious
speaker, "of that? must I needs mean you? did I name you? why do
you then assume it to yourself? do you not prejudge yourself
guilty? I did not, but your own conscience, it seemeth, doth
accuse you. You are so jealous and suspicious, as persons
overwise or guilty use to be." So meaneth this serpent out of the
hedge securely and unavoidably to bite his neighbor, and is in
that respect more base and more hurtful than the most flat and
positive slanderer.
8. Another kind is that of magnifying and aggravating the faults of
others; raising any small miscarriage into a heinous crime, any
slender defect into an odious vice, and any common infirmity into
a strange enormity; turning a small "mote in the eye" of our
neighbor into a huge "beam," a little dimple in his face into a
monstrous wen. This is plainly slander, at least in degree, and
according to the surplusage whereby the censure doth exceed the
fault. As he that, upon the score of a small debt, doth extort a
great sum, is no less a thief, in regard to what amounts beyond
his due, than if without any pretense he had violently or
fraudulently seized on it, so he is a slanderer that, by
heightening faults or imperfections, doth charge his neighbor
with greater blame, or load him with more disgrace than he
deserves. 'Tis not only slander to pick a hole where there is
none, but to make that wider which is, so that it appeareth more
ugly, and cannot so easily be mended. For charity is wont to
extenuate faults, justice doth never exaggerate them. As no man
is exempt from some defects, or can live free from some
misdemeanors, so by this practice every man may be rendered very
odious and infamous.
9. Another kind of slander is, imputing to our neighbor's practice,
judgment, or profession, evil consequences (apt to render him
odious, or despicable) which have no dependence on them, or
connection with them. There do in every age occur disorders and
mishaps, springing from various complications of causes, working
some of them in a more open and discernible, others in a more secret
and subtle way (especially from Divine judgment and providence
checking or chastising sin); from such occurrences it is common to
snatch occasion and matter of calumny. Those who are disposed this
way are ready peremptorily to charge them upon whomsoever they
dislike or dissent from, although without any apparent cause, or
upon most frivolous and senseless pretenses; yea, often when reason
showeth quite the contrary, and they who are so charged are in just
esteem of all men the least obnoxious to such accusations. So,
usually, the best friends of mankind, those who most heartily wish
the peace and prosperity of the world and most earnestly to their
power strive to promote them, have all the disturbances and
disasters happening charged on them by those fiery vixens, who (in
pursuance of their base designs, or gratification of their wild
passions) really do themselves embroil things, and raise miserable
combustions in the world. So it is that they who have the
conscience to do mischief will have the confidence also to disavow
the blame and the iniquity, to lay the burden of it on those who are
most innocent. Thus, whereas nothing more disposeth men to live
orderly and peaceably, nothing more conduceth to the settlement and
safety of the public, nothing so much draweth blessings down from
heaven upon the commonwealth, as true religion, yet nothing hath
been more ordinary than to attribute all the miscarriages and
mischiefs that happened unto it; even those are laid at his door,
which plainly do arise from the contempt or neglect of it, being the
natural fruits or the just punishments of irreligion. King Ahab, by
forsaking God's commandments and following wicked superstitions, had
troubled Israel, drawing sore judgments and calamities thereon; yet
had he the heart and the face to charge those events on the great
assertor of piety, Elias: "Art thou he that troubleth Israel?" The
Jews by provocation of Divine justice had set themselves in a fair
way towards desolation and ruin; this event to come they had the
presumption to lay upon the faith of our Lord's doctrine. "If,"
said they, "we let him alone, all men will believe on him, and the
Romans shall come, and take away our place and nation," whereas, in
truth, a compliance with his directions and admonitions had been the
only means to prevent those presaged mischiefs. And, _si_ _Tibris_
_ascenderit_ _in_ _mania_, if any public calamity did appear, then
_Christianos_ _ad_ _leones_, Christians must be charged and
persecuted as the causes thereof. To them it was that Julian and
other pagans did impute all the discussions, confusions, and
devastations falling upon the Roman Empire. The sacking of Rome by
the Goths they cast upon Christianity; for the vindication of it
from which reproach St. Augustine did write those renowned books 'De
Civitate Dei.' So liable are the best and most innocent sort of men
to be calumniously accused in this manner.
Another practice (worthily bearing the guilt of slander) is, aiding
and being accessory thereto, by anywise furthering, cherishing,
abetting it. He that by crafty significations of ill-will doth
prompt the slanderer to vent his poison; he that by a willing
audience and attention doth readily suck it up, or who greedily
swalloweth it down by credulous approbation and assent; he that
pleasingly relisheth and smacketh at it, or expresseth a delightful
complacence therein; as he is a partner in the fact, so he is a
sharer in the guilt. There are not only slanderous throats, but
slanderous ears also; not only wicked inventions, which engender and
brood lies, but wicked assents, which hatch and foster them. Not
only the spiteful mother that conceiveth such spurious brats, but
the midwife that helpeth to bring them forth, the nurse that feedeth
them, the guardian that traineth them up to maturity, and setteth
them forth to live in the world; as they do really contribute to
their subsistence, so deservedly they partake in the blame due to
them, and must be responsible for the mischief they do.