THE NEW GERMAN EMPIRE.
(1871--1893.)
The First German Parliament by Direct Vote. --The Political Factions.
--The Ultramontane Party in Opposition to the Government.
--Struggle with the Church of Rome. --"Kulturkampf." --Falk
appointed Minister of Culture. --His first Success. --Animosity of
the Pope. --The Jesuits expelled from Germany. --The May Laws.
--The Roman Catholic Clergy rebel. --Civil Marriage made requisite.
--The "Bundesrath." --Meeting of the Three Emperors. --Armaments.
--Peace secured by Diplomacy. --Financial Questions. --Bismarck
obliged to look to the Ultramontanes for Parliamentary Support. --A
conciliatory Policy towards the Roman Church. --Falk resigns. --The
Social-Democrats, and the Attacks on the Life of William I. --The
Exceptional Law. --Party Dissensions. --A higher Protective Policy
introduced. --New Taxes. --The Opening of Parliament in 1881.
--Scheme of the Government for bettering the Condition of the
Workingmen. --The Colonial Question. --War-Clouds. --France finds a
Sympathizer in Russia. --The Triple Alliance. --The Military
Budget. --The Dissolution of Parliament. --The Government gains a
Victory by new Elections. --Ludwig II. of Bavaria and his tragic
End. --The Death of Emperor William I. --Fatal Disease of the
Crown-Prince. --The Latter as Frederick III. --His Death. --His
Successor, William II. --Resignation of Bismarck. --General Caprivi
made Chancellor. --The German-English Agreement. --The Triple
Alliance renewed. --New commercial Treaties. --Withdrawal of the
School Bill. --A new Army Bill rejected and Parliament dissolved.
--New Elections result in victory for the Government.
[Sidenote: 1871. FIRST SESSION OF PARLIAMENT.]
After many a dark and gloomy century, the dream of a united Germany was
realized. The outer pile stood complete before the awakening nation and
an astonished world; now there remained to be done the patient,
painstaking work of consolidating the federation of States in all
particulars, making the different parts one within as well as without.
On the 21st of March, 1871, the first German Parliament, elected by the
direct vote of the people, met at Berlin, the capital of the federation,
and the political parties took their stand. Bismarck, Prince, Chancellor
of the Empire, acknowledged as the first statesman of Europe, saw the
advantage of a liberal policy, which secured for the Government the
support of the Nationals and the Liberals, and with them a sufficient
majority to carry out its plans. At the same time the Chancellor had to
reckon with an opposition that was threatening to German unity. Chief
among it were the Ultramontanes (or Papal party), so called because they
looked beyond the Alps for their sovereign guide--the Church of Rome.
They formed the Centre party, and around them all the dissatisfied
elements grouped themselves--the Particularists, who still held on to
their petty provincial interests; the Poles from Eastern Prussia; the
Danes from northern Schleswig; the Social-Democrats; and later the
representatives of Alsatia and Lorraine. On the utmost right sat the old
feudal nobility, which was reactionary at the outset. Although diverging
far apart in aims and purposes, these different factions joined hands
against the Federal Government whenever their interests were concerned,
and thus at times constituted a powerful foe.
[Sidenote: 1872.]
It soon became evident that the chief battle to maintain union and
freedom had to be fought with the Ultramontanes, who were inspired by
the counsel of the Vatican and upheld by the authority actually wielded
in Germany by the Roman Catholic Church. The concessions made to it in
Prussia by the romantic spirit of Frederick William IV. had borne their
bitter fruit, and the Protestant kingdom had become even more a foothold
for the Church of Rome than Catholic Bavaria. On the same day on which
France declared war against Germany the Papal power sounded another
war-trumpet by proclaiming the Dogma of Papal Infallibility. Germany had
been the victor in the combat with France; it now had to encounter the
other foe in defence of the best life of the nation--an untrammelled
conscience, free schools, the sway of reason, and the light of science.
The task of fighting a state within the state, which confronted the
Federal Government and the nation at the very outset, was hard and
bitter on both sides. It took place in Parliament as well as in the
Prussian and Bavarian Assemblies, and as a struggle for the preservation
of the blessings of modern civilization it has been designated
"Kulturkampf," a fight for culture.
In the beginning of 1872 the Chancellor knew himself sufficiently
supported by the National-Liberals in Parliament and in the Prussian
Assembly to take up the combat with the Roman Church and its adherents
in both political bodies. He caused the reactionary Minister of
Culture, von Muehler, to resign his office, and invited Adalbert Falk, a
statesman of keen insight and fearless energy, to take his place. Falk
undertook to define the boundaries between the State and the Church by a
series of laws, and his first success was in carrying through the
Prussian Assembly a bill that made the public schools independent of the
Church, and gave their supervision to the State. The Pope's answer to
this measure was his refusal to receive the Emperor's ambassador,
Cardinal Hohenlohe, who had been nominated for diplomatic representation
at the Vatican on account of his conciliatory spirit. At this period
Bismarck made his famous declaration, "To Canossa _we_ do not go!" The
conflict waxed hotter, and from all parts of Germany the enlightened
portions of the people sent petitions to Parliament, asking it to
exclude from the precincts of the Empire the Jesuits, who were known to
be the Pope's advisers, and as such were at the root of the evil. The
demand was granted. A bill to that effect was introduced into
Parliament, and, after much passionate debate, became a law. Before the
close of the year every member of the Society of Jesus had to leave
Germany, and all institutions belonging to that organization were
closed.
[Sidenote: 1873. THE MAY LAWS.]
The year 1873 brought about the important legislation by which the lines
between the competencies of State and Church were conclusively defined.
It was designed primarily to benefit Prussia, but its effect in the end
was of advantage to the whole of Germany. The bills destined to restrict
the undue power of the Roman Catholic Church, in spite of violent
opposition on the part of the Ultramontanes and the reactionary Feudals,
were carried through the Prussian Assembly in the month of May, and
hence are called the "May laws." They were met by open rebellion on the
part of the Prussian episcopacy. The Catholic clergy closed the doors of
their seminaries to the Government supervisors; they published protests
of every form against legislation that had not the sanction of the Papal
See; they omitted to make announcement to the provincial governments of
newly appointed curates or beneficiaries, and demonstrated in every way
their insubordination to the lay authorities. In accordance with the new
laws, these rebellious acts were punished by the withdrawal of dotations
that had been granted by the State to Roman Catholic seminaries or
schools, and the latter in some instances were closed. The curates
appointed without consent of the head authorities were forbidden to
officiate, and their religious functions declared to be null and void.
Then the rebellious prelates were fined or imprisoned, and, as a last
resort, declared to be out of office, while the endowments of their
dioceses were administered by lay officials.
[Sidenote: 1874.]
In 1874 civil marriage was made obligatory by law, first in Prussia, and
then, after receiving also the sanction of Parliament, throughout the
Empire. With this measure a powerful weapon was wrenched from the hands
of the clergy, and another blow was dealt. Other measures followed,
under protests from Pope and clergy, and hot debating was continued in
the legislative bodies, until, in 1876, matters of another nature and
more momentous importance forced themselves to the front.
The work for organization and reform, up to this time, had progressed in
various directions, and the proposed measures for cementing German unity
had received more or less ready support in Parliament and the Assemblies
of the different States. The latter had their representatives at Berlin,
who were nominated by their respective sovereigns. They met in a body
called the Bundesrath--the Counsel of the Federation. Any step taken by
the Federal Government towards legislation affecting the whole of the
Empire had to be laid before and agreed to by the Bundesrath before it
could be introduced into Parliament. Thus the rights of the States were
preserved, and the reigning Princes were made still to feel their
importance, which tended to create harmony between them and the Empire.
While the interior growth of the latter was of a healthy and steady
nature, the genius of the great statesman, Prince Bismarck, was busy
likewise in allaying the fears and, in a measure, mollifying the envy
and jealousies of neighboring powers. In September, 1872, the Emperors
of Germany, Austria, and Russia met at Berlin, to renew assurances of
friendship and thus convince the world of their peaceable intentions.
The cordial relations between the reigning families of Germany and Italy
were strengthened by visits from court to court, and even Denmark was
somewhat pacified in regard to its loss of Schleswig-Holstein. But
France still frowned at a distance, and was preparing for revenge. The
meeting of the three Emperors gave her additional offence, and she
strove to reorganize and enlarge her army. This called forth
counter-movements in Germany, where the reorganization of the army--even
before the late wars a pet project of William I.--had been agreed to by
Parliament. A prudent diplomacy, and the friendly demonstrations of
Alexander II. to the German Emperor and his Chancellor, dispelled for a
time the rising war-clouds, and the peaceful work of interior
organization was continued.
[Sidenote: 1882. REVISION OF THE MAY LAWS.]
After the Roman Church had been restricted to its lawful boundaries, the
most important questions looming up were those in reference to financial
matters. The income of the Empire proved insufficient to cover the
enormous outlay for necessary changes and reforms to be perfected, while
at the same time influences were brought about to forward a higher
protective policy than had been adhered to hitherto. In order to bring
about an increased tariff, and such taxation as the financial situation
required, the Chancellor had to look for the support of other parties
than the Nationals and the Liberal-Conservatives. He took it where it
was offered, and here the Ultramontanes or Centre party saw their
opportunity. The consequence was a tacit compromise with the latter. The
contest with the Vatican faltered; a conciliatory policy was adopted in
matters concerning the Catholic Church, and Falk, seeing his work
crippled, resigned his office, in 1879, to make room for a reactionary
Minister of Culture. In 1882 a revision of the May laws took place; the
refractory bishops were allowed to return, the ecclesiastical
institutions were reopened, salaries were paid once more to the clergy
by the State, and other restitutions were made, for all of which the
Pope only acceded to the demand that new appointments of ecclesiastics
should be announced in due form to the German Government.
At this period the political situation was aggravated by the agitation
of the Social-Democrats, and by what seemed to be its direct outgrowth,
the repeated murderous attempts on the life of the Emperor William I. in
May and June, 1878. These startling events opened the eyes of the people
to a danger in their very midst--a danger threatening society and all
its most sacred institutions. To avert it, the Chancellor at once caused
a bill to be drawn up for an exceptional law, meant to suppress all
aggressive movements of the Social-Democrats and reduce them to silence.
When it was laid before Parliament, it found no favor with the
majority, and was rejected; whereupon the Chancellor, in the name of the
Emperor, declared Parliament to be dissolved. The new elections did not
bring about any considerable change; but a majority was obtained, and
the exceptional law was established for two years and a half, which
period afterwards was prolonged several times.
[Sidenote: 1881.]
The steady inner growth of the first eight or nine years had now been
checked by party dissension and political discord, brought on chiefly by
the financial difficulties, in which the new Empire found itself
involved, and the steady demand from centres of industry and agriculture
for higher protective measures. These demands, being favored by the
Chancellor, were gaining the upper hand: customs were increased, a new
duty was raised on cereals, and a considerable tax was put upon spirits.
All this made it easy for the Radicals to agitate and alarm the masses
of the people, and in consequence the parliamentary elections of 1881
gave a majority to the extreme Liberals in opposition to the Government.
When the new Parliament convened, the venerable Emperor, William I.,
opened it in person, and read a message the tenor of which was more than
usually solemn, pointing with great emphasis to the social evils of the
time, and the best remedies for healing them. The sequel of this message
was a project of great magnitude, which the Federal Government
introduced into Parliament for the purpose of bettering the conditions
of the laboring classes. To carry it out required successive bills and
years of indefatigable work, incessant debating, and many a hard
struggle with opposition, until at present the whole system is in
working order. It comprises a series of insurances for laborers, to
secure them from losses by sickness, accidents, invalidity, and age.
These insurances are obligatory, and the cost of them is borne jointly
by the Government, the employers, and the laborers themselves.
About this time the colonial question also caused a clashing of parties.
To open new channels of commerce and enterprise, certain mercantile
houses had acquired large tracts of land on foreign continents, and now
asked the protection of the Empire for their efforts. Germany, now a
first-class power and in possession of a growing navy, needed
coaling-stations in foreign waters, new lines of steamers to connect
directly with Africa and eastern Asia, and an outlet for her rapidly
multiplying population, which she would rather colonize under her own
flag than lose by emigration to other countries. The Federal Government
therefore took up this matter in its own interest, and asked Parliament
for appropriations and subsidies to carry out those enlarged plans. The
demand was received on the part of the Liberals and Radicals with
violent opposition; but, in the end, the decision, with the assistance
of the Centre party, was in favor of the Government.
[Sidenote: 1882. THE TRIPLE ALLIANCE.]
In the meantime fresh war-clouds were gathering on the political
horizon, on account of the accumulation of Russian troops on the
frontiers of Germany and Austria. The violent death of Alexander II. of
Russia had deprived Germany of a friend whom his successor, Alexander
III., did not mean to replace. His sympathies were with the growing
Pan-slavistic party, which through its press was exciting hatred against
all that was German. Thus France felt herself drawn towards Russia, and
both the Republic and the semi-barbarian Empire stood ready at any
moment to make common cause for the ruin of Germany. This constant
menace and its attendant rivalry in armament could not but be a
misfortune, not merely for Germany but for all the powers concerned. To
avert the danger of war as long as possible, the deep insight of the
great man at the helm of the Federal Government of Germany had led him
to take an important step in good time. As early as 1879 he had created
a counterpoise to the threatening attitude of France and Russia by
concluding an alliance for defensive purposes between Germany and
Austria, which a few years later was joined by Italy, and, as the
"Triple Alliance," has been the wedge to keep apart the hostile powers
in the East and the West, securing peace thereby.
In 1886 the time approached for a new military budget. The armaments of
both Russia and France had reached such enormous dimensions that the
German Government could not but know the military forces of the Empire
to be no longer on an equal footing with the hostile powers.
Consequently, it now asked Parliament not only for a new septennial
budget for military purposes, as twice before since 1874, but also for
appropriations to raise a larger contingent of soldiers (one per cent.
of the whole population, which, according to the last census, made
41,000 men more than at that time), and additional sums for
fortifications, barracks, arms, etc. Thereupon ensued another
parliamentary contest. The opposition proved themselves not sufficiently
patriotic to take a large view, and, in concert with the Centre, the
Liberals demanded that the contingent of soldiers should be diminished
and the budget granted for three years only. After much passionate
debate, and in spite of Bismarck's weighty eloquence, the motion of the
Government was carried in a crippled condition and by only a small
majority. Then Parliament was once more dissolved, and new elections
took place about a month afterwards (21st of February, 1887), which made
evident the temper of the people, since the Liberals and
Social-Democrats were heavy losers. Only half of their former number was
returned to Parliament. The military bill was now carried by a large
majority of Conservatives and Nationals, and financial as well as other
matters of importance were brought to a quick issue.
[Sidenote: 1887.]
The almost miraculous rise of a united Germany, and its wonderful inner
growth, had its reverses in the tragical events that took place in the
royal houses of Bavaria and Prussia, during 1886 and 1888. King Ludwig
II. of Bavaria, a man of superior intellectual qualities and gifted with
great charms, had been a victim of late years to mental hallucinations,
which at last began to endanger the finances and constitutional rights
of the country. It became necessary to declare him insane and to
establish a regency in his name. This and his confinement to his lonely
castle of Berg led the king to drown himself in the lake bordering the
grounds. His corpse and that of his attendant physician were found where
the gravel bottom of the shallow water gave evidence of a struggle
having taken place. Since the successor of Ludwig II., his younger
brother, Otto, was a confirmed maniac, the regency still remained with
Prince Luitpold, the uncle of both these unfortunate kings. He was
imbued with the national idea of German unity, and continued the same
wise and liberal policy that governed the actions of Ludwig II. in his
best days--a policy which earned for him the fame of being called one of
the founders of a united German Empire.
Early in 1888 the Emperor, nearly ninety-one years old, showed signs of
declining vitality, and in March the end was at hand. It was peaceful,
though clouded by a great sorrow which filled the last months of his
life. There was a vacant place among the members of his family who
surrounded his death-bed. His son, the Crown-Prince, now fifty-six years
of age, was detained by a fatal disease at San Remo, in Italy. William
I., beloved by the German people as no sovereign before him had been,
died on the 9th of March, and his son and heir, Frederick III., began
his reign of ninety-nine days. Sick as he was, and deprived of speech in
consequence of his cruel disease, his inborn sense of duty caused him to
set out for Berlin as soon as the news of the old Emperor's death
reached him. His proclamation to the people and his rescript to Prince
Bismarck are evidences of the noble and patriotic spirit that animated
him; but he was too ill, and his reign was too short, to determine what
he would have been to Germany had he lived. He died on the 15th of June,
1888, and almost his last words to his son and successor were: "Learn to
suffer without complaint."
[Sidenote: 1888. WILLIAM II.]
William II., born on the 27th of January, 1859, now became Emperor of
Germany. Many were the doubts with which he was seen to succeed to the
throne. He was young in years, in view of the heavy responsibilities
awaiting him; impulsive, where a steady head was required; and a soldier
with all his heart. Nevertheless, there was nothing to indicate during
the first years of his reign that the "old course" had been abandoned.
The first important event took place in March, 1890, when the startling
news was heard that Prince Bismarck had sent his resignation to the
Emperor, and that it had been accepted. For a moment the fate of Germany
seemed to hang in suspense; but the public mind soon recovered from the
shock it had received, and the most thoughtful of people realized that a
young ruler, imbued with modern ideas, and with an individuality all his
own, could not be expected to remain in harmony with or to be guided by
a statesman who, however great and wise, was growing old and in a
measure incapable of seeing a new light in affairs of internal policy.
On March 29th the ex-Chancellor left Berlin to retire to his estates.
Along his drive to the railway station he received the spontaneous
ovations of an immense concourse of people, who by their enthusiastic
cheers showed their appreciation for the creator of the new Germany.
[Sidenote: 1890.]
The Emperor nominated General Caprivi Chancellor of the Empire in place
of Bismarck. It was a good choice, since William II. evidently meant in
future to be his own chancellor. He was of too vivacious a nature to
accept a policy of State and Empire made ready to his hands. He had
knowledge, and ideas of his own which he expected to carry out. The
first serious dissension between the Emperor and Bismarck seems to have
turned upon the question of Socialism. Bismarck was in favor of
combating it with the utmost vigor, in order to avert the dangers
threatening to State and society; the Emperor, on the contrary, was for
conciliatory measures; for listening to the demands of the laboring
classes, and remedying by arbitration and further legislation the evils
of which they complained. The repressive measures hitherto resorted to,
and the new ones proposed, were abandoned, and thus far there is no
cause to condemn this "new course." Although the dangers from Socialism
have not grown less, it is no longer necessary for the enemy of social
order and justice to hide his face, and by that much it is easier to
fight him and to strike at the right spot.
Another event of note which took place in the same year, is the
German-English agreement of July 1st, by which the respective limits of
colonial possessions in Africa were regulated, and Germany became the
possessor of the island of Helgoland as a compensation for the lion's
share secured in Africa by England. The only value Germany derives from
this acquisition will show itself in a future war, when the fortified
island-rock may serve as an outpost, disputing the advance of hostile
war ships toward the northern coast of Germany.
In the following year the Triple Alliance was renewed, and had the
wholesome effect of stopping various rumors of war. Besides, Russia, who
had exchanged uncommon civilities with France, was in no condition to go
to war, crippled as she was by the dreadful suffering of her people
through famine consequent upon the failure of crops. Still another
incentive was furnished for France and Russia to remain at peace by an
understanding between England and Italy to keep intact the _status quo_
in the Mediterranean. Although not a treaty in the literal sense of the
word, it was sufficient to raise the prestige of the Triple Alliance,
and thus to strengthen its pacific tendencies.
[Sidenote: 1892. THE ARMY BILL.]
But the most important feature of internal policy is to be found in the
new commercial treaties which Germany contracted, first with the two
other powers of the Triple Alliance--Austria-Hungary and Italy--and
then with Belgium and Switzerland, as the most favored nations. The
treaties were planned and carefully drafted to bring relief to the
industrial classes by opening fresh channels for the exports of the
country; but inasmuch as the tariff was lowered by them on the
necessities of life, they also favored the rest of the population and
especially the laboring classes. These treaties were ratified in
Parliament by a large majority.
In the spring of the year (April 24th) Germany lost one of her greatest
men, the Field-Marshal Count Moltke, who had lived more than ninety
years in the full enjoyment of his powers. Another man, who also had
been prominent in his way, Windthorst, had died just one month before
Moltke, but he was missed only by the Roman Catholic Centre party, who
lost in him their ablest leader.
The following year a bill was laid before the Prussian Assembly
purporting to reform the public schools, but introducing at the same
time such clauses as would render both public and private schools
confessional. The bill was no sooner made public than it became evident
that only the ultra Conservatives and the Centre or Ultramontane party
were in favor of it, while the other parties, and behind them their
constituents, declared themselves extremely opposed to it. In
consequence of this bill the whole of Germany became greatly agitated;
numerous protests were sent to the Assembly and the Minister of Culture,
and men of note and intellect put in print their ominous warnings. All
this resulted in the withdrawal of the bill and the resignation of the
Minister of Culture, Count Zedlitz. But before the end of the year a new
army measure began to stir afresh the minds of politicians and people.
In his speech delivered before Parliament on November 23d, Caprivi
explained that new sacrifices in money and taxation were necessary, in
order to make the German army efficient to fight enemies "on two
fronts." He went on to demonstrate that, although no war was in sight,
France had surpassed Germany in her military organization and numbers,
while Russia was continually perfecting her strategical railway system,
and locating her best troops on her western frontier. To keep up an
equal footing with her neighbors, it was necessary for Germany to add
83,894 men to the present number of soldiers. In order to do this the
existing obligation to serve in the army would have to be extended to
every one capable of carrying arms. The cost was estimated at
$16,700,000 for the first year, and $16,000,000 for every year
succeeding. As a compensation for the heavy burdens to be imposed, the
Government offered to reduce the time for active service from three to
two years.
[Sidenote: 1893.]
There was from the first a widespread doubt among the people of the
necessity for such heavy sacrifices as were entailed by this bill, and
the possibility of carrying it successfully through Parliament. The body
deferred dealing with it until the following year, when the fate of the
bill was adversely decided on the 6th of May by a majority of
forty-eight out of three hundred and seventy-two votes. Parliament was
at once dissolved, and new elections were ordered to take place on the
15th of June. In the interval some unexpected splits favoring the
Government's cause occurred in the Centre party and among the Liberals,
or Radicals--a name now more befitting. As the election proceeded, it
became more and more evident that the opposition was losing and the
Government gaining ground.
[Sidenote: 1893. THE ARMY BILL.]
The newly elected Parliament was opened on July 4th, and the Army bill,
in a slightly modified form, was passed without delay after the third
reading by a majority of sixteen out of three hundred and eighty-six
votes. Small as this majority seems, it was a decided victory for the
Government, since the latter had abstained throughout the elections from
influencing them in any way. The ultimate passage of the bill, however,
leaves the implied financial problem still unsolved. The outlook is not
cheerful. Although an objective view of recent events is out of the
question, there is room for doubting that the future of Germany will be
tranquil. Owing to the general depression in industrial and agricultural
fields, the financial question is sure to engender bitterness and
strife. Nor is there any encouragement to be gained when we consider the
numerous factions into which the parliamentary representation of the
Empire is divided at the present time. What with the proportionately
large gain of the Social-Democrats during the late elections, the
numerically powerful Centrists acting in the interest of Roman
Catholicism, the Particularists asserting themselves again, and the
Anti-Semites with their socialistic affinities, it would seem inevitable
that great struggles are yet to come. But we might hopefully say that
Germany, in the evolution of her national growth, is just now passing
through a trying period of change, the mists of which will be swept away
in time, when by a clearer apprehension of parliamentary life and
practice, and the exercise of a more concentrated patriotism, she will
be strong, indeed, in freedom and in Unity.
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE
=OF GERMAN HISTORY.=
The history of Germany is generally divided into Five Periods, as
follows:
I.--From the earliest accounts to the empire of Charlemagne.
II.--From Charlemagne to the downfall of the Hohenstaufens.
III.--From the Interregnum to the Reformation.
IV.--From the Reformation to the Peace of Westphalia.
V.--From the Peace of Westphalia to the present time.
Some historians subdivide these periods, or change their limits; but
there seems to be no other form of division so simple, natural, and
easily borne in the memory. While retaining it, however, in the
chronological table which follows, we shall separate the different
dynasties which governed the German Empire, up to the time of the
Interregnum, which is removed, by an irregular succession during two
centuries, from the permanent rule of the Hapsburg family.
FIRST PERIOD. (B. C. 103--A. D. 768.)
=Primitive History.=
B. C.
113. The Cimbrians and Teutons invade Italy.
102. Marius defeats the Teutons.
101. Marius defeats the Cimbrians.
58. Julius Caesar defeats Ariovistus.
55--53. Caesar twice crosses the Rhine.
12--9. Campaigns of Drusus in Northern Germany.
A. D.
9. Defeat of Varus by Hermann.
14--16. Campaigns of Germanicus.
21. Death of Hermann.
69. Revolt of Claudius Civilis.
98. Tacitus writes his "Germania."
166--181. War of the Marcomanni against Marcus Aurelius.
200--250. Union of the German tribes under new names.
276. Probus invades Germany.
358. Julian defeats the Alemanni.
358--378. Bishop Ulfila converts the Goths to Christianity.
=The Migrations of the Races.=
375. The coming of the Huns.
378. The Emperor Valens defeated by the Visigoths.
395. Theodosius divides the Roman Empire.
396. Alaric's invasion of Greece.
403. Alaric meets Stilicho in Italy.
406. Stilicho defeats the German hordes at Fiesole.
410. Alaric takes Rome.
411. Alaric dies in Southern Italy.
412. Ataulf leads the Visigoths to Gaul.
429. The Vandals, under Geiserich, invade Africa.
449. The Saxons and Angles settle in England.
450. March of Attila to Gaul; battle of Chalons.
452. Attila in Italy.
455. Rome devastated by Geiserich and the Vandals.
476. The Roman Empire overthrown by Odoaker.
481--511. Chlodwig, King of the Franks.
486. End of the Roman rule in Gaul.
493. Theodoric and his Ostrogoths conquer Italy.
500. Chlodwig defeats the Burgundians.
526. Death of Theodoric the Great.
527--565. Reign of Justinian.
527. The Franks conquer Thuringia.
532. The Franks conquer Burgundy.
534. Belisarius overthrows the Vandal power in Africa.
552. Extermination of the Ostrogoths by Narses.
=Kingdom of the Franks.=
558--561. Reign of Clotar, King of the Franks.
568. Alboin leads the Longobards to Italy.
590--604. Spread of Christianity under Pope Gregory the Great.
590--597. Wars of Fredegunde and Brunhilde.
613. Murder of Brunhilde.
613--622. Clotar II., King of the Franks.
650. Pippin of Landen, steward to the royal household.
687. Pippin of Heristall.
711. The Saracens conquer Spain from the Visigoths.
732. Karl Martel defeats the Saracens at Tours.
741. Death of Karl Martel; Pippin the Short.
745. Winfried (Bonifacius), Archbishop of Mayence.
752. Pippin the Short becomes King of the Franks.
754. Pippin founds the temporal power of the Popes.
755. Bonifacius slain in Friesland.
768. Death of Pippin; his sons, Karl and Karloman.
SECOND PERIOD. (768--1254.)
=The Carolingian Dynasty.=
771. Karl (Charlemagne) sole ruler.
772--803. His wars with the Saxons.
774--775. March to Italy; overthrow of the Lombard kingdom.
777--778. Charlemagne's invasion of Spain.
788. Tassilo, Duke of Bavaria, deposed.
789. War with the Wends, east of the Elbe.
791. War with the Avars, in Hungary.
800. Charlemagne crowned Emperor in Rome.
814. Death of Charlemagne.
814--840. Ludwig the Pious.
843. Partition of Verdun.
843--876. Ludwig the German.
879. The kingdom of Arelat (Lower Burgundy) founded.
884--887. Karl the Fat unites France and Germany.
887--899. Arnulf of Carinthia.
891. Arnulf defeats the Norsemen in Belgium.
900--911. Ludwig the Child.
911--918. Konrad I., the Frank, King of Germany.
911--918. Wars with the Hungarians.
=The Saxon Emperors.=
919--936. King Henry I., of Saxony (the Fowler).
928. Victory over the Wends.
933. Great victory over the Hungarians, near Merseburg.
933. Upper and Lower Burgundy united as one kingdom.
936--973. Otto I., the Great.
939. Otto subjects the German Dukes.
952. Rebellion against his rule.
955. The Hungarians defeated on the Lech.
962. Otto renews the empire of Charlemagne.
973--983. Otto II.
982. His defeat by the Saracens.
983--1002. Otto III.; decline of the imperial power.
1002--1024. Henry II.; increasing power of the bishops.
1016. The Normans settle in Southern Italy.
=The Frank Emperors.=
1024--1039. Konrad II., Emperor.
1026. His visit to Rome; friendship with Canute the Great.
1033. Burgundy attached to the German Empire.
1039--1056. Henry III.; Poland, Bohemia, and Hungary, subject to the
empire.
1046. Synod of Sutri; Henry III. removes three Popes.
1046. The "Congregation of Cluny;" the "Peace of God."
1054. Pope Leo IX. captured by the Normans.
1056--1106. Henry IV.
1062. Henry IV.'s abduction by Bishop Hanno.
1073. Revolt of the Saxons.
1073. Hildebrand becomes Pope as Gregory VII.
1076. Henry IV. deposes the Pope, and is excommunicated.
1077. Henry IV.'s humiliation at Canossa.
1081. Death of the Anti-King, Rudolf of Suabia.
1084. Henry IV. in Rome; ravages of the Normans.
1085. Death of Pope Gregory VII.
1092. Revolt of Konrad, son of Henry IV.
1095. The first Crusade.
1099. Jerusalem taken by Godfrey of Bouillon.
1105. Rebellion of Henry, son of Henry IV.
1106--1125. Henry V.
1111. He imprisons Pope Paschalis II.
1113. Defeat of the Saxons.
1115. He is defeated by the Saxons.
1118. Orders of knighthood founded.
1122. The Concordat of Worms.
1125. Rise of the Hohenstaufens.
1125--1137. Lothar of Saxony, Emperor.
1134. The North-mark given to Albert the Bear.
1138. Henry the Proud, Duke of Bavaria and Saxony.
=The Hohenstaufen Emperors.=
1138--1152. King Konrad III.; Guelphs and Ghibellines.
1142. Henry the Lion, Duke of Saxony.
1142. Albert the Bear, Margrave of Brandenburg.
1147. The second Crusade.
1152--1190. Frederick I., Barbarossa.
1163. Union of the Lombard cities.
1176. Barbarossa's defeat at Legnano.
1177. Reconciliation with the Pope at Venice.
1179. Otto of Wittelsbach, Duke of Bavaria.
1181. Henry the Lion banished.
1183. The Peace of Constance.
1190. The third Crusade; death of Barbarossa; foundation of the
German Order.
1190--1197. Henry VI. (receives also Naples and Sicily).
1192. Richard of the Lion-Heart imprisoned.
1195. Death of Henry the Lion.
1197--1208. Philip of Suabia; Otto IV. of Brunswick rival Emperor;
civil wars.
1208. Murder of Philip of Suabia.
1212. Frederick II., Hohenstaufen, comes to Germany.
1215--1250. Frederick II.'s reign.
1226. The German Order occupies Prussia.
1227. Frederick II. excommunicated by Pope Gregory IX.
1228. The fifth Crusade, led by Frederick II.
1235. Rebellion of Frederick's son, Henry.
1237. Frederick II.'s victory at Cortenuovo.
1245. Pope Innocent IV. excommunicates the Emperor.
1247. Death of Henry Raspe, Anti-Emperor.
1250. Foundation of the Hanseatic League.
1250--1254. Konrad IV.
1254. Union of cities of the Rhine.
1256. Death of William of Holland, Anti-Emperor.
1266. Battle of Benevento; death of King Manfred.
1268. Konradin's march to Italy, defeat, and execution.
THIRD PERIOD. (1254--1517.)
=Emperors of Various Houses.=
1256. Richard of Cornwall and Alfonso of Castile elected.
1273--1291. Rudolf of Hapsburg, Emperor.
1278. Defeat of King Ottokar of Bohemia.
1291--1298. Adolf of Nassau.
1291. Union of three Swiss Cantons.
1298. Albert of Austria defeats and slays Adolf of Nassau.
1298--1308. Albert I. of Austria.
1308. He is murdered by John Parricida.
1308--1313. Henry VII. of Luxemburg.
1308. The Papacy removed from Rome to Avignon.
1310. Henry VII.'s son, John, King of Bohemia.
1313. Henry VII. poisoned in Italy.
1314--1347. Ludwig the Bavarian.
1314--1330. Frederick of Austria, Anti-Emperor.
1315. Battle of Morgarten.
1322. Ludwig's victory at Muehldorf.
1324. He gets possession of Brandenburg.
1327. His journey to Rome; Pope John XXII. deposed.
1338. Convention of German princes at Rense.
1344. Invention of gunpowder.
1346. The Pope declares Ludwig deposed, and appoints Karl IV. of
Bohemia.
1347. Death of Ludwig the Bavarian.
1347--1378. Karl IV. (Luxemburg).
1348. Guenther of Schwarzburg, Anti-Emperor.
1356. Proclamation of "The Golden Bull."
1363. Tyrol annexed to Austria.
1368. The Hanseatic League defeats Waldemar III. of Denmark.
1373. Karl IV. acquires Brandenburg.
1377. War of Suabian cities with Count Eberhard.
1378--1418. Schism in the Catholic Church.
1378--1400. Wenzel of Bohemia (Luxemburg).
1386. Battle of Sempach.
1388. War of the Suabian cities.
1400. Wenzel deposed.
1400--1410. Rupert of the Palatinate.
1409. The Council of Pisa.
1410. The German Order defeated by the Poles.
1411. Three Emperors and three Popes at the same time.
1411. Frederick of Hohenzollern receives Brandenburg.
1411--1437. Sigismund of Bohemia.
1414--1418. The council at Constance.
1415. Martyrdom of Huss.
1418. End of the schism; Martin V., Pope.
1419--1436. The Hussite wars; Ziska; Procopius.
1431--1449. Council of Basel.
1437. Death of Sigismund.
=The Hapsburg Emperors.=
1438--1439. Albert II. of Austria; beginning of the uninterrupted
succession of the Hapsburgs.
1440--1493. Frederick III.
1444. Battle of St. James.
1450. Invention of printing.
1453. Constantinople taken by the Turks.
1466. Treaty of Thorn; Prussia tributary to Poland.
1474. War with Charles the Bold of Burgundy.
1476. Battles of Grandson and Morat.
1477. Death of Charles the Bold; marriage of Maximilian of
Austria and Mary of Burgundy.
1486--1525. Frederick the Wise, Elector of Saxony.
1493--1516. Maximilian I.
1495. Perpetual peace declared; the imperial court.
1512. Division of Germany into districts.
FOURTH PERIOD. (1517--1648.)
=The Reformation.=
1483. Martin Luther born.
1502. He enters the University of Erfurt.
1508. Is appointed professor at Wittenberg.
1510. Luther's journey to Rome.
1517. Luther nails his ninety-five theses, against the sale of
indulgences, to the church-door in Wittenberg.
1518. Interview with Cajetanus in Augsburg.
1519. Interview with Miltitz in Altenburg.
1520. Luther burns the Pope's Bull.
1520--1556. Charles V., Emperor.
1521. Luther at the Diet of Worms; his concealment.
1522. His return to Wittenberg.
1524. Ferdinand of Austria and the Bavarian dukes unite against
the Reformation.
1525. The Peasants' War.
1525--1532. John the Steadfast, Elector of Saxony.
1525. Albert of Brandenburg joins the Reformers; end of the
German Order; battle of Pavia.
1526. Ferdinand of Austria inherits Hungary and Bohemia.
1526. The League of Torgau.
1527. War of Charles V. against Francis I. and the Pope; Rome
taken by the Constable de Bourbon.
1529. Peace of Cambray; Diet of Speyer; the name of
"Protestants;" Luther meets Zwingli; Vienna besieged by
the Turks; Charles V. crowned at Bologna.
1530. Diet of Augsburg; the "Augsburg Confession."
1531. League of Schmalkalden.
1532. Religious Peace of Nuremberg.
1532--1554. John Frederick, Elector of Saxony.
1534. Duke Ulric of Wuertemberg joins the Protestants.
1536--1538. Charles V.'s third war with Francis I.
1540. Ignatius Loyola founds the Order of Jesuits.
1542--1544. Charles V.'s fourth war with Francis I.
1545--1563. The Council of Trent.
1546. Death of Luther; the Schmalkalden War; treachery of
Maurice of Saxony.
1547. Battle of Muehlberg; capture of John Frederick of Saxony;
Philip of Hesse imprisoned.
1548. The Augsburg "Interim."
1552. Maurice of Saxony marches against Charles V.; Henry II. of
France takes Toul, Metz, and Verdun.
1553. Death of Maurice of Saxony.
1555. The religious Peace of Augsburg.
1556. Abdication of Charles V.
1556--1564. Ferdinand I.
1558. Death of Charles V.
1560. Death of Melanchthon.
1564--1579. Maximilian II.
1567. Grumbach's rebellion.
1576--1612. Rudolf II.
1581. Rise of the Netherlands against Spain.
1606. Rudolf II.'s brother, Matthias, rules in Austria.
1608. The "Protestant Union" founded.
1609. The "Catholic League" founded; "War of the Succession of
Cleves."
1612--1619. Matthias, Emperor.
1614. End of the "War of the Succession of Cleves."
=The Thirty Years' War.=
1618. Outbreak in Prague.
1619--1637. Ferdinand II.; Frederick V. of the Palatinate chosen King
of Bohemia.
1620. Battle near Prague; flight of Frederick V.
1622. Victories of Tilly in Baden.
1623. Tilly defeats Prince Christian of Brunswick.
1624. Union of the northern states.
1625. Christian IV. of Denmark appointed commander; Wallenstein
enters the field.
1626. Defeat of Mansfeld by Wallenstein: defeat of Christian IV.
by Tilly.
1628. Wallenstein's siege of Stralsund.
1629. The "Edict of Restitution."
1630. Diet in Ratisbon; Wallenstein removed: Richelieu helps the
Protestants; Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden lands in Germany.
1631. Tilly destroys Magdeburg; Gustavus Adolphus defeats Tilly
and marches to Frankfort.
1632. Death of Tilly; Gustavus Adolphus in Munich; his attack on
Wallenstein's camp; battle of Luetzen, and death.
1633. Union of Protestants under Oxenstierna.
1634. Murder of Wallenstein; defeat of the Protestants at
Noerdlingen.
1635. Saxony concludes a "separate peace."
1636. Victories of Baner.
1637--1657. Ferdinand III.
1638. Duke Bernard of Weimar victorious in Alsatia.
1639. Death of Duke Bernard.
1640. Diet at Ratisbon.
1642. Victories of the Swedish general, Torstenson.
1643. Torstenson's campaign in Denmark.
1645. Torstenson's victories in Bohemia; his march to Vienna;
the French generals, Turenne and Conde, in Germany.
1648. Protestant victories; Koenigsmark takes Prague.
1648. The Peace of Westphalia.
FIFTH PERIOD. (1648--1892.)
1640--1688. Frederick William of Brandenburg, the "Great Elector."
1643--1715. Louis XIV., King of France.
1655--1660. War of Sweden and Poland.
1656. Battle of Warsaw.
1657--1705. Leopold I.
1660. The Duchy of Prussia independent of Poland.
1667--1668. Louis XIV.'s invasion of the Spanish Netherlands; the
Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle.
1672--1678. Louis XIV.'s war against Holland.
1673. The "Great Elector" assists Holland.
1675. The battle of Fehrbellin.
1676. The Elector conquers Pomerania.
1678. The Peace of Nymwegen.
1681. Strasburg taken by Louis XIV.
1683. Siege of Vienna by the Turks; John Sobieski.
1687. The shambles of Eperies.
1688--1713. Frederick, Elector of Brandenburg.
1689--1697. Attempts of Louis XIV. to obtain the Palatinate.
1697. Peace of Ryswick; Prince Eugene of Savoy defeats the Turks
at Zenta; Augustus the Strong of Saxony becomes King of
Poland.
1699. Peace of Carlowitz.
1701. Prussia is made a kingdom.
1701--1714. War of the Spanish Succession.
1704. Battle of Blenheim.
1705--1711. Joseph I.
1706. Victories of Marlborough at Ramillies and Prince Eugene at
Turin.
1706. Charles XII. of Sweden in Saxony.
1708. Battle of Oudenarde.
1709. Battle of Malplaquet.
1711--1740. Karl VI.
1713--1740. Frederick William I., King of Prussia.
1713. The Peace of Utrecht.
1714. The Peace of Rastatt; the Elector George of Hannover
becomes King George I. of England.
1717. Taking of Belgrade by Prince Eugene.
1718. Treaty of Passarowitz.
1720. Treaty of Stockholm; Prussia acquires Pomerania.
1733--1735. War of the Polish Succession.
1740. Death of Karl VI.
=The Age of Frederick the Great.=
1712. Frederick born, in Berlin.
1730. His attempted flight; execution of Katte.
1740. Succeeds to the throne as Frederick II. of Prussia.
1740--1742. First Silesian War.
1741--1748. War of the Austrian Succession.
1742--1745. Karl VII. (of Bavaria), Emperor.
1742. Peace of Breslau; Prussia gains Silesia.
1743. Battle of Dettingen.
1744. East Friesland annexed to Prussia.
1744--1745. Second Silesian War.
1745. Battles of Hohenfriedberg, Sorr, and Kesselsdorf; Peace of
Dresden; death of Karl VII.
1745--1765. Francis I. of Lorraine.
1748. Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle.
1750. Voltaire comes to Berlin.
1756--1763. The Seven Years' War.
1756. Frederick's successes in Saxony and Bohemia.
1757. Frederick's victory at Prague; defeat at Kollin; victories
at Rossbach and Leuthen.
1758. Ferdinand of Brunswick defeats the French; siege of
Olmuetz; victory of Zorndorf; surprise of Hochkirch.
1759. Battles of Minden and Kunnersdorf; misfortunes of Prussia.
1760. Battle of Liegnitz; taking of Berlin; victory of Torgau.
1761. Frederick hard pressed; losses of Prussia.
1762. Death of Elizabeth of Russia; alliance with Czar Peter
III.; Catharine II.; Prussian successes.
1763. The Peace of Hubertsburg.
1765--1790. Joseph II.
1769. Interview of Frederick the Great and Joseph II.
1772. First partition of Poland.
1774--1782. American War of Independence.
1778. Troubles with the Bavarian succession.
1780. Death of Maria Theresa.
1786. Death of Frederick the Great.
1786--1797. Frederick William II., King of Prussia.
1787. Prussia interferes in Holland.
1788--1791. Austria joins Russia against Turkey.
1790. Death of Joseph II.
=Wars with the French Republic and Napoleon.=
1789. Beginning of the French Revolution.
1790--1792. Leopold II.
1792. France declares war against Austria and Prussia.
1792. Campaign in France; battles of Valmy and Jemappes.
1792--1835. Francis II.
1793. Second partition of Poland; the first Coalition; successes
of the Allies.
1794. France victorious in Belgium; Prussia victorious on the
Upper Rhine.
1795. Third and last partition of Poland; Prussia makes peace
with France.
1796. Bonaparte in Italy; Jourdan defeated in Germany; Moreau's
retreat.
1797. Peace of Campo Formio.
1797--1840. Frederick William III., King of Prussia.
1798. Congress of Rastatt; Bonaparte in Egypt.
1799. The second Coalition; Suwarrow in Italy; Bonaparte First
Consul.
1800. Battles of Marengo and Hohenlinden.
1801. Peace of Luneville; France extends to the Rhine.
1803. Reconstruction of Germany; French invasion of Hannover.
1804. Duke d'Enghien shot; Napoleon, Emperor.
1805. The third Coalition; battle of Austerlitz; defeat of
Austria and Russia; Peace of Presburg.
1806. The "Rhine-Bund" established; Francis II. gives up the
imperial crown: battle of Jena; all Prussia in the hands
of Napoleon.
1807. Battles of Eylau and Friedland; Peace of Tilsit; Jerome
Bonaparte made King of Westphalia.
1808. Napoleon and Alexander I. in Erfurt; Joseph Bonaparte,
King of Spain.
1809. Austria begins war with France; revolts of Hofer and
Schill; Napoleon marches to Vienna; battles of Aspern and
Wagram; Peace of Schoenbrunn.
1810. Marriage of Napoleon and Maria Louisa; annexation of
Holland and Northern Germany to France.
1812. Germany compelled to unite with Napoleon against Russia;
battle of Borodino; burning of Moscow; the retreat;
General York's alliance with Russia.
1813. The War of Liberation; Frederick William III. yields to
the pressure; the army of volunteers; battles of Luetzen
and Bautzen; armistice; the fifth Coalition; Austria joins
the Allies; victories of the Katzbach, Kulm, and
Dennewitz; great battle of Leipzig; Napoleon's retreat;
battle of Hanan; Germany liberated.
1814. The campaign in France; the Allies enter Paris; Napoleon's
abdication; the Congress of Vienna.
1815. Napoleon's return from Elba; the new German Confederation;
battles of Ligny and Waterloo; end of Napoleon's rule;
second Peace of Paris; the "Holy Alliance."
=Germany in the Nineteenth Century.=
1817. The Students' Convention at the Wartburg.
1819. The conference at Carlsbad.
1823. A "provincial" representation in Prussia.
1830. The July Revolution in France; outbreaks in Germany.
1834. The Zollverein established.
1835--1848. Ferdinand I., Emperor of Austria.
1840--1861. Frederick William IV., King of Prussia.
1848. Revolution in Germany; conflicts in Austria, Prussia, and
Baden; war in Schleswig-Holstein; the National Parliament
at Frankfort; insurrection in Hungary and Italy;
bombardment of Vienna; Francis Joseph, Emperor.
1849. Frederick William IV. rejects the imperial crown; civil
war in Baden; Austria calls upon Russia for help;
surrender of Goergey; subjection of Italy.
1850. Troubles in Hesse and Holstein; end of the National
Parliament in Germany.
1851. Restoration of the Diet; Louis Napoleon, Emperor.
1852. Conference at London concerning Schleswig-Holstein.
1853--1856. War of England and France against Russia.
1858. William, Prince of Prussia, regent.
1859. War of France and Sardinia against Austria; battles of
Magenta and Solferino.
1861. William I., King of Prussia.
1862. Bismarck, Prime-Minister; political troubles in Prussia;
congress of princes at Frankfort.
1863. Continued rivalry of Austria and Prussia.
1864. War in Schleswig-Holstein; Denmark gives up the duchies;
the Prince of Augustenburg in Holstein.
1865. Agreement of Gastein; Schleswig and Holstein divided
between Austria and Prussia.
1866. Austria prepares for war; the German Diet dissolved.
1866. Battle of Langensalza; invasion of Saxony and Bohemia;
battle of Koeniggraetz; the war on the Main; truce of
Nikolsburg; annexation of Hannover, Hesse-Cassel, Nassau,
and Frankfort to Prussia; the Peace of Prague.
1867. Establishment of the North-German Union; the question of
Luxemburg; hostility of France.
1869. OEcumenical Council in Rome.
1870. France declares war against Prussia; all the German
states, except Austria, unite; battles of Weissenburg
and Woerth; the German armies move on Metz; battles of
Courcelles, Mars-la-Tour, and Gravelotte; the battle of
Sedan, and surrender of Napoleon III.; the Republic
declared in Paris; capitulation of Strasburg and Metz;
siege of Paris; the war on the Loire and in the northern
provinces.
1871. Victories of Prince Frederick Karl at Le Mans; Bourbaki's
repulse by Werder; surrender of Paris; Bourbaki's retreat
into Switzerland; William I. of Prussia proclaimed Emperor
of Germany; the Peace of Frankfort; foundation of the new
German Empire.
1872. Beginning of conflict between the German Government and
the Roman Church; Falk made Minister of Culture; the
Jesuits banished from Germany.
1873. The boundaries defined between State and Church; the May
laws.
1874. Civil marriage made obligatory.
1876. The _Kulturkampf_ beginning to lag.
1878. Two murderous attempts on the life of Emperor William I.;
the exceptional law against the Social-Democrats put in
force.
1879. Falk resigns; appointment of reactionary Minister of
Culture; Alliance with Austria.
1881. Emperor William I. opens Parliament; legislation for
bettering the condition of the working classes.
1882. Revision of the May laws; Triple Alliance.
1886. Warlike attitude of Russia and France; death of Ludwig II.
of Bavaria.
1887. Parliamentary conflict in regard to the military budget;
dissolution of Parliament; new elections result in favor
of the Government.
1888. Death of Emperor William I.; Frederick III., Emperor; his
reign of ninety-nine days; his death; succession of
William II.
1890. Bismarck resigns the Chancellorship; General Caprivi
succeeds him; German-English agreement.
1891. Renewal of Triple Alliance; new commercial treaties.
1892. Introduction of a new military bill.
1893. Defeat of army bill; dissolution of Parliament; the bill
carried as a result of new elections.
THE END.
Transcriber's Notes
Italic phrases are enclosed with underlines [_] in the text version and
bold phrases are enclosed by equal signs [=].
Sidenotes replace page headings from the original. They are moved to the
nearest following paragragh break.
Images are moved to the nearest paragraph break to make the text more
readable.
The following are used interchangeably:
grand-sons grandsons
Eugenie Eugenie
Gunther Guenther
Luneville Luneville
Cooperation Cooperation
Page xxx
(text to be searched). Action taken.
Page 113
(the name is written). Changed from 'writen' to 'written'.
Page 165
(he met Pope Adrian IV.,). Changed 'Adrain' to 'Adrian'.
Page 246
(--Change in Military Service.). Changed 'Servive' to 'Service'.
Page 344
(1734, King Stanislas). Changed 'king' to King'.
Page 356
(at the different courts,). Was 'differents courts' in original.
Page 379
(Longwy). As in original.