_THE SPREAD OF CORRUPTION_
The sultan’s policy was directed by a narrow fanaticism. It is possible
that he sincerely believed that a cruel despotism was the best rule for
Turkey. He hated the Christians, and it was his ambition to realise the
dream of the Pan-Islamites, to gather together round himself as the
Caliph all the followers of the faith of whatever race, so as to form
a strong political-religious confederation of Moslems that should keep
in check the aggressions of Europe and liberate Mussulman peoples now
subject to the Christians. It was his aim, too, to withdraw all such
rights as his predecessors had granted to the Christian subjects of
Turkey and to revoke the irritating privileges which the Capitulations
had given to foreigners within Turkish territory—not in themselves
ignoble designs, but which were prosecuted by such ignoble methods as
nearly to destroy instead of to strengthen the Moslem supremacy in
Turkey.
It is not necessary here to follow the history of Turkey under the
Hamidian _régime_. How, defeated in war, she was bereft of vast and
rich territories; how the splendid navy, created by Abd-ul-Aziz, was
allowed to fall into decay, so that when Turkey was at war with Greece
in 1897, she found herself with not a single ship that could be made
fit to put to sea; how her fine army was starved and neglected, so
that it became demoralised and helpless to defend her against her
foes; how corruption and the wholesale appropriation of public moneys
by the creatures of the Palace brought her finances into so hopeless
a condition that she was tied hand and foot by her foreign creditors,
and had therefore to submit to the control of several departments of
her internal administration by commissions appointed by the Christian
Powers; how justice was bought and sold, and promotion in all the
services was awarded to the parasite or the highest bidder; how, in
consequence of the massacres of Christians and the impotence of her
Government to maintain order, Turkish patriots were humiliated by
seeing a foreign _gendarmerie_ forced upon her by the Powers; how, in
short, Turkey became so weak and effete that even to her friends her
disintegration appeared to be the inevitable end delayed only by the
jealousy of the rival Powers, who, fearing for what is called “the
balance of power” in Europe, bolstered up the “Sick Man” and professed
a desire to preserve the integrity of the Ottoman Empire. All these
things were regarded with dismay by the Turks, and precipitated the
revolution against the Government responsible for the rapid decay of
the nation; but in this chapter I will confine myself to an account of
the particular forms which the despotic oppression of the Mussulman
Turks assumed, until at last that oppression became so insupportable
as to goad into rebellion not only the upper classes, but even the
ignorant Turkish peasants, who, serving so patiently and bravely in the
army, had hitherto been ever faithful with the faithfulness of a dog to
the Sultan’s person.
The Sultan has proved himself to be in many respects a man of great
strength of character and of exceptional ability; a subtle diplomatist,
he was able to play the European Powers against each other; and he
succeeded in the main object of his life, centralising all authority
in himself at the cost of indefatigable personal labour, and making
himself the supreme master of his country. He might indeed, with his
sagacity, have been an excellent monarch of the despotic Oriental
type, working for the good of his people, had it not been for one
failing which grew into an obsession and brought much woe to Turkey,
and this failing was fear. Abdul Hamid was haunted by a perpetual
fear of assassination; he had no trusted friends, and suspected
all men; and therefore cowardice, as is always the case, called in
cruelty and oppression to protect itself. He subordinated the welfare
of his country to his elaborate schemes for self-preservation. He
deliberately weakened the Ottoman Empire, dividing it against itself,
and demoralised his subjects so that there should be no element in the
State or group of individuals strong enough to attempt his overthrow.
Thus he stirred up strife between the different Christian sects and
inflamed Mussulman fanaticism, so that populations which before his
time had lived side by side in peace, tolerating if not loving each
other, fell upon each other with sword and fire; and when his oppressed
subjects rebelled he quenched their spirit with dreadful massacres.
So, too, was it in his dealings with individuals, in the selection of
his creatures and in his treatment of them. A tyrant who is enslaving
his country naturally looks upon honest patriots with suspicion as
potential rebels. He cannot well employ the services of such men as his
advisers and ministers. He also mistrusts ability, as giving a power
to be dangerous. Thus Turkish gentlemen of the official class, who
possessed distinction, brains, and probity, had very little share in
the administration. The Camarilla of the Sultan was mainly composed of
base and illiterate though cunning people; avaricious and unscrupulous
parasites, of whom the most influential were not Turks, but Syrians,
Arabs, and Circassians; men who, being devoid of true patriotism and
having the attainment of wealth as their one aim, would have no reason
for joining in a conspiracy against the Despotism. But the Sultan
mistrusted even these ready instruments of his will. Having a profound
knowledge of the evil side of human nature, he played off one creature
against the other, made them jealous of each other, paid them to spy
upon each other, prevented any sort of friendship between them, and
governed them by terror. The Camarilla, selling public appointments,
spread the poison of corruption that threatened to demoralise a whole
people. To quote the words of a Young Turk writer: “There was left
in Turkey but one ideal, but one opening for those who aspired, and
that was to amass riches and spend them in gross sensual amusement.
But, for the attainment of this, one had to declare oneself the spy
of the Palace, and to give proofs of one’s servility by sacrificing
father, mother, brother, friends, principles, conscience, all patriotic
sentiments, and all humanity.”
It is wonderful that there were any honest men holding high positions
during this period, but such there undoubtedly were, though these were
for the most part narrow-minded fanatics who favoured Abdul Hamid’s
Pan-Islamic schemes, and were pleased to co-operate with him in
depriving the Christians of what liberties they possessed, and seizing
pretexts to massacre them. But to the highest offices of the State,
such as the Grand Vizierate, the Sultan found himself compelled at
times, in self-defence, to appoint men of capacity and high character;
especially so when, after happenings more iniquitous than usual, the
relations between Turkey and the European Powers became dangerously
strained. Thus Kiamil Pasha, concerning whose good work for his country
I shall have to speak later, was several times Grand Vizier, to be
deposed as soon as he could be dispensed with; for he was not the man
to be obsequious to the despot, and he was not afraid of uttering
disagreeable truths. On the whole, however, conspicuous ability became
a disqualification for office in Turkey; and for a public man to be
popular was a crime.
In order to insure their blind obedience to him as the Padisha, it
was Abdul Hamid’s aim to keep his Mussulman subjects in a state of
ignorance. He knew that the liberal ideas of modern Europe had been
planted in Turkey, and he determined to uproot them, or at any rate
prevent their spread. He endeavoured, not without some success, to
cut Turkey off from the influence of Western progress. His subjects,
with certain exceptions, were not permitted to travel in foreign
countries, and even their goings to and fro within the Empire were
regarded with suspicion. It has been suggested that he allowed his
navy to rot because he feared lest his sailors should be inoculated
with ideas about liberty while visiting Western ports; at any rate, he
appears to have connived at the embezzlement by his Minister of Marine
of ten millions sterling, which were to have been devoted to naval
expenditure. Realising, however, that the preservation of the Empire
depended upon the reorganisation of his army, the Sultan was compelled
to provide for the education of his officers, some of whom were sent
to Germany and other foreign countries, while thousands were passed
through the Turkish military schools in Turkey itself, where they were
instructed by European teachers. Officers thus trained, however, were
looked upon as somewhat dangerous, and were attached to the Army Corps
in various parts of the Empire, but not to that portion of the Turkish
army which guards Constantinople, the centre of the Despotism, and the
Sultan’s person; for there the pampered fanatical troops, faithful to
their master, were officered by men who had risen from the ranks, some
of whom could not even read, but who could be relied upon to carry out
the orders given to them by the Palace.
All progress was paralysed by the fear that ruled at the Palace. The
introduction of typewriters and telephones as being of possible use to
conspirators was prohibited. The Press had no liberty; the strictest
censorship was exercised over all printed matter that came into Turkey.
To be found in possession of a work of Herbert Spencer’s, for example,
would mean imprisonment. The censor would not consent to the production
of “Hamlet” in the theatre, because in that play the killing of a
monarch is represented on the stage.
Under the Hamidian _régime_ there was of course no recognition of
the inviolability of the domicile. The houses of educated Turks were
frequently broken into by the police in search of forbidden literature.
To such an extent was the right of public meeting denied, that it
was not safe for three or four friends to sit and chat together in a
_café_. A Turk could not give a dinner-party in his own house without
the permission of the authorities, and even if he obtained that
permission, some police agent would likely as not be sent to sit at his
table, as an uninvited and most unwelcome guest, taking mental notes of
the conversation and smelling out conspiracies.
It was altogether a hideous system that naturally bred all manner of
tyrants, great and petty, who being the creatures of the Palace were
enabled to oppress the people with impunity. There was, for example,
the infamous Fehim Pasha, chief of the secret police, who abused his
official authority to gratify his every whim and passion, plundering
and blackmailing those whose possessions aroused his avarice, killing
those who stood in his way, and, whenever his fancy was attracted,
forcibly carrying off to his harem the wives and daughters of peaceable
citizens—a wretch so hated that so soon as the Constitution was
announced, the mob at Broussa, fearing him no longer, fell upon him and
tore him to pieces.
Then there was the great army of paid informers who preyed upon the
people. The system of _espionage_, which Abdul Hamid in his fear
devised to protect himself against conspiracy and assassination, was so
oppressive and cruel in its working as to render almost insupportable
the lives of such of his subjects as were regarded as suspects on
account of their good birth, enlightenment, patriotism, or honourable
character. The expenditure on this _espionage_ sometimes amounted to
as much as $10,000,000 a year. The spies were everywhere, and were of
every rank and condition. Ministers were paid to spy on each other.
A man’s house-servants, the Greek hotel-waiter who brought him his
cup of coffee, the Armenian dragoman who guided the simple foreign
tourist, were paid to watch and listen and send their reports to the
Palace. Spies would gain a man’s friendship, worm themselves into his
confidence, and then denounce him. People were sometimes betrayed by
their own relations. All the social relationships of the family, the
military college, the regiment, and the navy were undermined; for
if the Palace suspected a man it would spare no effort to buy the
treason of those nearest to him. There was an atmosphere of terror and
universal distrust. When the spy system was introduced into the army it
destroyed all _esprit de corps_. It became known that there were spies
among the officers of every unit, whose business it was to watch their
brother officers; with the result that there was no comradeship even
among officers of the same regiment, each suspecting the other of being
the secret agent of the Palace; they never messed together, and in many
cases had never spoken to each other.
And even the spies themselves had other spies set to spy upon them by
the all-suspicious ruler. The Sultan’s spies were in every foreign
capital—sometimes working with its secret police—to keep an eye upon
the exiles and seek evidence to entrap friends of theirs in Turkey who
might be in communication with them. And from this great army of spies
a flood of denunciations poured into the Palace. The denunciations were
well paid for, so the supply never failed, even when the terrorised
people avoided any conduct that could be construed into a political
offence. _Agents provocateurs_ incited men to acts that would afford
ground for accusation. The spies did not hesitate to bear false
testimony against the innocent, and, as in the case of Midhat Pasha,
the creatures of the Palace, when desirous of ruining some individual,
employed wretches to trump up the tale that would condemn him. A friend
of mine suffered long imprisonment because the secret police searched
his house and there pretended to find compromising papers which they
themselves had forged. It is scarcely necessary to add that vile people
availed themselves of the system to levy blackmail by threatening
denunciation.
The denounced were often condemned without any pretence of a legal
trial. Many of the best men in the country disappeared from their
families never to return, their fate the _oubliette_, or death by
the cord, or the traditional dropping into the Bosphorus of a sack
containing the victim. Exile or imprisonment for a term of years were
the punishments awarded for minor indiscretions—chance words expressing
disapproval of the methods of the Palace, or the possession of a
foreign paper of liberal views. People were tortured in the Palace to
betray their friends and relations. Thousands of families in Turkey
have had to mourn members torn away after denunciations by the spies.
After the proclamation of the Constitution about seventy thousand
exiles returned to Turkey from remote parts of the Empire (the Siberias
of Turkey) and from foreign countries, and how many thousands have been
put to death or have died in captivity no man can tell.
I may mention here that during the latter years of the Hamidian
_régime_ many Turks were denounced and suffered because they
manifested friendship for the English. The Turks are not a fickle
people, and despite the thirty years’ aloofness of the English through
misconceptions regarding the Turkish people, the Turks themselves
have ever remained faithful to their old friends, and the present
enthusiasm for England is no passing wave. But the Palace hated the
British Government which had attempted to force reforms upon Turkey,
and it suspected all Englishmen of sharing the views of the Balkan
Committee. On the other hand, German influence became ascendant at the
Palace about twelve years ago, and remained so until the overthrow of
the Despotism; for German diplomacy is not sentimental; it did not
worry the Palace with humanitarian pressure for the sake of securing
the better government of the unfortunate subjects of the Sultan; and
it even assisted the Porte to thwart the efforts of the other Powers.
Its main object was to further German commercial interests. The German
Embassy in Constantinople squeezed concessions out of the Turkish
Government by curious methods, and knew well how to make use of Palace
intrigues and corrupt officialism. Helped by their Government, German
syndicates, with cynical disregard of the fact that they were hurrying
the country to its ruin, worked in league with those in the Palace,
who were ready to betray their fatherland for a bribe, and secured the
Baghdad railway concession with its iniquitous kilometric guarantee,
and other privileges, on terms far more onerous for Turkey than could
have been obtained from other quarters, thus burdening the country
with unfair obligations, which now cripple her efforts for reform and
reorganisation.
But I must not digress into the tortuous ways of Turkish finance,
which is outside the scope of this book. Suffice it to say that German
influence at the Palace undoubtedly intensified the Sultan’s hatred of
England, and the obsequious spies received their cue. The English in
Turkey were in no wise molested, but they were declared taboo by the
authorities. For a Turk even to be seen talking to an Englishman was
dangerous. Turks feared to look towards the English Embassy as they
passed it. They were forbidden to visit certain English establishments,
such as the English book-shop in Pera, and the quaint old inn in
Galata, built long ago by the Genoese, where, with a retired British
sea-captain as host, naval officers, British and Turkish, had been
wont to foregather in good fellowship. The spies were busily employed
in denouncing such Turks as were supposed to be Anglophil. A friend
of mine, who at that time held a good appointment and enjoyed a large
income, was reported by the spies as having intrigued to bring the
British fleet to Constantinople. He was imprisoned for five years. He
was released with all other political prisoners after the successful
revolution, and came back to the world to find himself penniless; to
learn that his wife, having first become blind from unceasing weeping,
had died practically in a starving condition, and that his children
were living on charity.
It ought not to be forgotten by Englishmen that when they were engaged
in their last war with the Boers, and all Europe was reviling them,
the Turks alone—and notably those of the educated classes who now rule
the country as the Young Turk party—were in sympathy with them, and
some of them suffered in consequence. A number of young officers of the
army and navy, and others, put their names to a document in which they
expressed their hope that the British arms would prove successful in
South Africa, and this they carried to the British Embassy to present
to the English Ambassador. The Palace heard of this; the spies were
set to work to ascertain what names appeared upon the incriminating
document, and one by one every one of these men disappeared, being
snatched up to be put into prison, or to be sent into exile. One of
these young officers, Sirret Bey, escaped from those who arrested
him, hid himself for some time in the guise of a cook in the British
Consulate, and is now one of the leading members of the Committee of
Union and Progress in Salonika.
This dreadful system of _espionage_ and the suppression of all
intellectual liberty fell harder on the educated Mussulmans than on
the Christian subjects of the Sultan, for despotism had no such fear
of the Greek or Armenian as it had of the patriotic Turk, and the
Christians therefore were not so closely watched and had more chance of
public appointment. The Christians also had one important advantage
over the Mussulman Turks in so much as their privileges allowed them
to establish schools uncontrolled by the State, which provided a more
liberal education than was possible in the Moslem schools. It can be
readily understood, therefore, how patriotic Turks of the upper and
middle classes, ground down under this tyranny that gave them no voice
in the administration and placed over them mean men who were hurrying
the country to its destruction, were prepared to join in any movement
that promised a fair chance of overthrowing the Hamidian _régime_.
It is also easy to understand that the Christians, who during this
reign were deprived of some of their ancient rights, who were
treated with a more galling contumely than ever before, as a subject
and despised people, and lived in perpetual dread of massacre and
outrage, welcomed the revolution that placed them on an equality with
the Mussulmans; but how it came to pass that the Despotism became
so intolerable to the masses of the Turkish people as to excite to
rebellion even the patient, religious Moslem peasants, who had hitherto
revered the Sultan as their spiritual ruler as well as their monarch,
and had been blindly and fanatically obedient to his will, requires
some explanation. The thrifty, hard-working Turkish peasants suffered
as much as the Christians from the evils of the administration; they
paid the same heavy taxes, and, like their Christian neighbours, they
were cheated by the tax-collectors, being often illegally mulcted and
most harshly treated by petty tyrants. The provincial officials did
not receive their pay regularly, and so recouped themselves by corrupt
practices. Thus the rich, by paying bribes, succeeded in many cases in
avoiding taxation altogether, and many unfair exemptions were allowed;
with the result that in some places nearly all the burden of taxation
fell upon the poor. The peasants were shrewd enough to perceive that
the money thus wrung from them did not produce any good for themselves
or their country, but went to enrich the ruling clique, and that
Constantinople swallowed up the huge sums that were collected in every
part of the Empire. They knew that there were Ministries established in
costly palaces and maintaining a large number of well-paid officials,
while the result of this extravagant expenditure was not anywhere to
be seen. Thus there was a Ministry of Public Works, but there were no
roads or irrigation works; a Ministry of Police, but no protection of
life and property; a Ministry of Justice, and no justice; a Ministry of
War, and a starved army.
But the stoical Mussulman peasants, whose faithfulness is as that of
a dog, were loth to think ill of their Sultan, and they put the blame
upon his Ministers as doing wrong without his knowledge. Oppression
and unjust taxation by themselves would not have driven these people
into revolt, and the Young Turk movement would have had small chance of
success, had not Abdul Hamid neglected to secure—what would have been
so easy to secure—the continued fidelity and affection of his army, of
which the splendid peasantry of the country form the backbone. I have
explained that the Sultan was careful to pamper the Albanian and other
regiments that were stationed in Constantinople to protect his person,
overawe the city, and preserve the Despotism; and he saw to it that
these men duly received their pay, were well fed and properly clothed.
But with this exception the military administration of the Empire was
left wholly in the hands of the Palace favourites, who, with their
characteristic greed and total lack of patriotic sentiment, enriched
themselves at the expense of the national defence and, with a callous
indifference to the sufferings of the men, practically starved the army.
In Turkey, the burden of obligatory service is placed exclusively
on the Mussulman population, the Christians up till now having
enjoyed complete exemption, in return for which they have paid a
small poll-tax. The Turkish soldier is among the toughest as well
as the bravest in the world, and he will undergo great hardships
uncomplainingly; but there are limits even to his endurance. It would
be difficult to exaggerate the pitiable condition of these fine troops,
as I have often seen them in provincial garrisons and posts in the days
of the old _régime_. They never received their full rations; sometimes
they were in a starving condition; they were ill-clothed even when
guarding the frontier through the hard Balkan winters; often in rags
and tatters, with what remained of their uniforms supplemented with
such native garments as they could pick up; their small pay was always
in arrears; they were untrained and undisciplined—a pitiful waste of
the finest military material in Europe; and the officers themselves
irregularly paid, slovenly, because they had no means to procure the
decencies of life, and estranged one from the other by the hateful spy
system, were in no condition to inspire their men with the high spirit
and _esprit de corps_ that used to distinguish the Turkish army. But
despite all this, when fighting had to be done these men remembered
that they were Turkish soldiers, and fought well.
The Turkish soldier might even have put up with all this during his
four years of service with the colours, for it takes much to rouse him
to mutiny; but his oppression took one form that was intolerable to
him and to his family; the iniquitous custom grew up of keeping him
with the army for several years after his term of service had legally
expired; and the reservists also, when called out for their periodical
training, were not infrequently carried off to remote parts of the
Empire and compelled to resume their military service for an indefinite
time. The worst lot of all was that of regiments ordered to the Hedjaz
or the Yemen. In those wild regions the wretched troops, ill-equipped,
with wholly inadequate transport, and therefore always short of food,
and generally provided with insufficient ammunition, had to carry
on long campaigns against the rebel Arabs. They thus suffered great
privations, and were not seldom defeated and massacred in consequence
of the criminal negligence of Turkey’s rulers. Educated surgeons were
rarely attached to these expeditions, and I have been assured by old
soldiers, who had served in Arabia, that if a man was sick or wounded,
so that he was unable to march, there was little chance for him, as
there were no means for carrying him; and that in these circumstances
the ignorant and ill-paid men who played the part of army doctors,
after pretending to examine a man, would declare that he was in a
dying condition, and had him buried in the sand while yet alive. It
often happened, too, that soldiers in Arabia, when they did get their
discharge—probably because they were unfit for further service—were
refused transport back to Turkey on the Government ships, and, being
penniless, had to remain in that alien land until charitable people, of
whom there are happily plenty among the Turks, came to their rescue.
A friend of mine, who was recently British consul in a Turkish port,
after careful investigation in his particular district, found that
not more than twenty per cent. of the soldiers who were sent to the
Yemen returned to their homes. Whenever conscripts were carried away
for service in that dreaded land there were piteous scenes, and crowds
of wailing women would come to the ship’s side to bid a last farewell
to the relatives whom they never expected to see again, and already
mourned as dead.
Under this shocking system of military maladministration there was
a great waste of Turkey’s young manhood. The rate of mortality in
the army was excessive, and this was one of the principal causes
of the standstill in the numbers of this, the finest peasantry in
Europe, as compared with the rapid increase of the exempted Christian
population. These conscripts, when they were torn from their homes,
often left behind them wives and families dependent on them, so the
whole Mussulman people suffered greatly through the vile treatment of
the army, that was the best part of itself and in which every one had
relatives; and at last it came about that even the faithful peasantry
lost its loyalty, and, like the Moslems of the higher classes, was
ready to rise and sweep away the intolerable Despotism.