little improvement. It produces excellent work, and its movements
are attended with certainty and despatch--the double, or
perfecting, machine throwing off 800 to 1000 sheets, printed _on
both sides_, within the hour,--and the single machine delivering
1500 or 1600 done _on one side_: which, in cases where one
form of the types (as in newspapers) is ready to be worked off
while the last side is preparing, is attended with the greatest
advantage, since the rate of delivery thereby becomes doubled.
The first is that by which our Gazette is printed, and the last
described is that with which Mr. B. Bensley is now (and has
for a considerable time been) printing the _Morning Chronicle_
newspaper.
“Other leading daily newspapers are also wrought off by steam;
as well as several publications of extensive circulation.
Like almost every ingenious invention, this has had no small
portion of prejudice to encounter, and perhaps has been longer
in forcing its way than many other schemes of real utility. The
various advantages, however, which it holds forth have attracted
the attention of several proprietors of the more extensive
printing concerns, who have introduced it with benefit to the
public--to whom, by means of this great reduction of labour, the
productions of the press may be furnished at a reduced rate of
charge.”--_Literary Gazette, October 26, 1822._
It may, perhaps, be allowable to make a few observations on this
statement, more particularly as Mr. Nicholson is seldom spoken of
in connexion with printing machines, and when he is, it is in such
a manner as to convey the impression that he was a visionary man,
who had some imaginary scheme in his head which he was incompetent
to carry into effect. To rebut this opinion I have given the
specification of his patent, with his own observations on his
invention, which certainly do not discover any symptoms of a weak or
a speculative man. I knew Mr. Nicholson personally, and I have no
doubt that, had he lived, he would have carried his invention into
effect; but he had a number of other pursuits which occupied his
time. He published a work on navigation, which I have seen quoted
as authority for its opinions; he was the author of a Dictionary of
Chemistry, in two quarto volumes; he edited and published monthly
Nicholson’s Journal of Science, &c. which was in high repute; he
wrote the Prospectus for the Royal Institution, on its establishment
in 1799; and he likewise kept a large school in Soho Square, the
leading feature of which was, a scientific education. I was, for
ten years, in the habit of hearing in an undisguised manner the
opinions of the most eminent scientific men in England,--as I held
the office of Assistant Secretary to the Board of Managers of the
Royal Institution, (the Secretary being an honorary officer,) also
that of Secretary to the Patrons of the Library, and Secretary to the
Committee of Chemistry, as well as Superintendant of their Printing
Office,--and in all that time I never heard his name mentioned but
with respect among these gentlemen, nor did I once hear him spoken
of as a visionary who would project schemes that he was unable to
execute. In addition to his multifarious pursuits, he was agent
to the late Lord Camelford, whose sudden death left Mr. Nicholson
involved in difficulties, from which he could never extricate himself.
Could this man, then, who planned the printing machine, and the
manner of printing calico, &c. in an improved and expeditious manner,
who moreover published the details of his process, with drawings of
the requisite machines, be deemed, with justice, nothing more than
“one of whom we can only say that he was simply the first to suggest
ideas,” this being all the merit that is allowed him by the Literary
Gazette? Now it appears to me that the term “suggesting ideas” refers
with rather more truth to Mr. König, who, coming to England with the
idea of applying steam as the moving power to presses, and being
supported by English capital, spent some years in unavailing efforts
to reduce his ideas to practice, and when he could not succeed, gave
up the attempt as one completely foiled, and turning round upon Mr.
Nicholson’s plan, produced a cylindrical printing machine.
Dr. Olinthus Gregory, in a lecture delivered by him before the
Mechanics Institution at Deptford, in 1826, among other topics
illustrative of the patronage afforded to the arts and sciences
by the intelligence and enterprise of this country, directed the
attention of his audience to “the case of Mr. König, a truly
ingenious foreigner, and his invention of an improved printing press,
in which, by duly blending the alternating and rotatory principles
of motion, the apparatus is capable of working off 1100 sheets an
hour, with the superintendance of two boys. Tracing the history of
his invention, of his difficulties, and of his want of encouragement,
through the greater part of the continent of Europe, Mr. König says,
‘I need hardly add, that scarcely ever was an invention brought to
maturity under such circumstances. The well known fact, that almost
every invention seeks, as it were, refuge in England, and is there
brought to perfection, seems to indicate that the Continent has yet
to learn from her the best manner of encouraging the mechanical arts.
I had my full share in the ordinary disappointments of continental
projectors; and, after having spent in Germany and Russia upwards of
two years in fruitless applications, I proceeded to England.’
“What could not be accomplished by the encouragement of princes on
the Continent,” proceeds Dr. Gregory, “was effected by the aid of
private individuals in London. A few enterprising printers,--and
their names cannot be mentioned but with honour on such an
occasion; Mr. Thomas Bensley, Mr. George Woodfall, and Mr. Richard
Taylor,--liberally assisted this ingenious foreigner in bringing his
invention to maturity. The machine was set to work in April 1811,
and 3000 copies of sheet H of the “New Annual Register for 1810,”
was printed by means of it. This was, doubtless, the first part of
a book ever printed solely by a machine. Messrs. Bacon and Donkin
were, it is true, simultaneously at work upon analogous contrivances,
and, since then, other ingenious artists, especially Applegath and
Cowper, have contributed greatly to the simplification of this class
of machinery.”
In 1818, Messrs. Donkin and Bacon obtained a patent for a most
ingenious but complex machine, which claims the merit of having been
the first to print with a circular movement of the types. It is said
that the invention of this machine was simultaneous with that of
König. A great point was gained in it, for the composition inking
rollers were first introduced in this machine, Mr. König’s having
rollers covered with leather, which were not found to answer the
purpose so well.
In this machine the patent specified the fastening of the pages of
type to the surface of a prismatic cylinder having any number of
planes from four to eight; to these types the ink was immediately
supplied by a large elastic roller placed over the type cylinder,
and made to rise and fall in accordance with the irregular motion of
the surfaces of the latter; two other and smaller rollers conveying
the ink from a receptacle to the larger roller. The sheet of paper
to be printed was applied to another revolving prism, composed of
segments of cylinders exactly adapted to meet the irregularities of
the type roller. To insure the niceties and regularities of motion
and of contact required in printing, toothed wheels, corresponding in
shape to the prisms, were placed upon the axis; and however strange,
at first sight, may appear to non-mechanical persons the working
together of metal wheels of such angular shapes, yet by providing for
a free vertical motion of the gudgeons of each roller, the operation
of the whole machine was steady and uniform. The annexed diagram,
representing a section of the principal parts, will enable the reader
to form a more correct idea of this curious machine.
[Illustration: Cross-section of the Bacon machine]
A, the quadrangular prismatic roller, with its surfaces of stereotype
plates.
B, the roller for distributing the ink, which it receives from the
two smaller rollers _a_ _e_, in contact with the box _i_.
C, the pressing cylinder, covered with cloth or felt.
D E, the track of the paper in the direction of the arrows.
The Norwich Mercury, a paper published by Mr. Bacon, contains a
prospectus of his newly invented machine, to which is added a notice
respecting its merit as compared with that of Mr. König, erected at
the Times printing office, from which statement the following is an
extract:--
“In Messrs. Bacon and Donkin’s machine, there is no reciprocating
motion. The types are placed on a prism of as many sides as the
nature of the form requires. This prism occupies the centre of an
upright frame, like the roller in a copperplate press; below this is
a kind of compound-faced roller, suited to the form of the prism;
through between these the sheets to be printed (attached to the face
of a piece of cloth) are passed in succession, and in the meantime
the revolution in the type prism brings its different portions in
succession under a system of inking rollers placed over it, by which
it receives successive charges of ink, to be delivered to the sheets
as they pass in succession between the lower rollers.”
Mr. Hansard, in his “Typographia,” says, that “one machine would not
answer for all kinds of work.” And “the only one of these machines
that was, I believe, ever made, rests in peace as not being found
useful.”
On the erection of the machines for printing the Times newspaper, Mr.
Bensley being apprehensive that there would be impediments thrown in
the way of their general introduction by the workmen, who had already
shown symptoms of opposition, was desirous that I should see them at
work, that he might have my opinion on the subject. I accordingly
went with Mr. Joseph Bensley, his eldest son, to look at them, and
view their manner of working, and on my return, Mr. Bensley was
anxious to see me, that he might have my report. I told him that
truly they surpassed any thing I had imagined, and did the work so
well, and so expeditiously, that I did not believe any opposition on
the part of the workmen could prevent their coming into use. This
opinion was gratifying to him: but I also told him that I foresaw
another thing that might probably take place, which would have an
equally injurious effect with respect to him. With considerable
anxiety he asked to what I alluded; I told him that I thought some
man of abilities would step in and simplify them, for they appeared
to me complex in their construction. He treated this suggestion with
indifference, as a thing that could never happen, and expressed
himself perfectly satisfied that no person would ever make the
attempt. My prognostication, however, was fulfilled; for immediately
after, Mr. Edward Cowper, of the firm of Applegath and Cowper,
printers, proved not only its possibility, but its practicability, by
sweeping away at once wheels, &c. which had cost, as I was credibly
informed at the time, at least 1500_l._ in the course of their
experiments; and thus made the machine more simple, and less liable
to be out of order, while he at the same time improved it greatly in
its facility of working, and in the quality of the work it produced.
Mr. Cowper took out a patent for his improvement; and, as I was
told, in consideration of the expense that Mr. Bensley had been at
in the pursuit, which amounted to at least 16,000_l._, offered him,
as an act of justice, a share of the patent, which was accepted. The
machine erected for “The Times” cost the proprietor of that newspaper
3,000_l._
Messrs. Applegath and Cowper then commenced manufacturing these
machines, which met with general approval; they also much improved
the inking apparatus. After the dissolution of their partnership,
Mr. Cowper established a manufactory for them at Manchester, in
conjunction with his brother, he himself continuing to reside in
London.
[Illustration: COWPER’S MACHINE FOR PRINTING BOOKS.]
In the year 1824 a new mode of machine printing was introduced, that
of printing with two colours simultaneously in the same impression.
This arose out of the Commission appointed by Government to inquire
into the best means of preventing the Forgery of Bank Notes. A
pamphlet was published by Sir William Congreve, describing the
process as inimitable, except by their machine, for which they had
a patent, so that no one else could possibly produce a facsimile. A
design was made, generally composed of a great number of lines in a
flourishing style, and, when engraved on two pieces of metal, these
lines were printed with two colours, one part sinking below the other
after each impression, and, there being two sets of inking rollers,
each part was inked at the same time, when the lower part rose again
to a level with the other, so that one part of these complicated
lines should be black, and the continuation of them should be blue or
red, or any other colour that might be thought proper, and any device
that might be included in the design should also be in two colours,
such, for instance, as the King’s arms, and the register should be
exact, so that each line should uniformly be perfectly continuous,
notwithstanding the change of colour. Government adopted the plan for
printing a new stamp on the backs of country bank notes, and also for
the Excise Stamps for paper. So far, however, from being inimitable,
I have no hesitation in saying, that there never was a plan suggested
that was more easy of imitation, even with the common press, and by
the customary workmen. The machines were made by Messrs. Donkin and
Co.
A single machine, that is, a machine which prints one side of the
paper only, may be estimated to produce upon the average one thousand
impressions in an hour; and were I to attempt to describe the one
by which the Times newspaper is now printed, I should state that
it is the mechanism of four single machines combined in one frame,
all being worked simultaneously by steam as the motive power: thus
there are four places at which to feed it with paper, four printing
cylinders, and four places at which the sheets are delivered when
printed, so that the actual speed of each part of the machine is
rather more than one thousand an hour. This ingenious and skilful
combination is the production of Mr. Augustus Applegath.
I have seen it stated by the proprietor of a machine, that it would
print at the rate of two thousand impressions in an hour: I have
known another assert that his perfecting machine would print one
thousand five hundred in the same time. This is a fallacy, which
produces disappointment and dissatisfaction. I have had occasion in
the course of business to satisfy myself as to their real capability,
by attending and carefully observing them at work, and have thus
ascertained that a single machine cannot be depended on for more than
one thousand in the hour, nor a perfecting machine for more than
seven hundred and fifty. I am well aware that both may be driven
with greater speed for a short time, but in the case of newspapers
and periodical publications, where punctuality is indispensably
requisite, I would never calculate upon greater expedition.
With respect to the comparative merits of the cylindrical method of
printing and those of the press, the manufacturers of machines as
well as most master printers, not content with the real superiority
of properties which the machine does certainly possess, attribute to
it properties which it does not possess, and which are incompatible
with it, namely, those of producing the finest work, and printing
the finest impressions from highly finished engravings on wood at
the rate of eight hundred or one thousand per hour; even an engraver
on wood has fallen into this error, and has produced a work with
numerous beautiful illustrations, in which the writer of the book has
boldly defended this erroneous opinion, but the engraver himself has
cautiously avoided the risk of, and shrunk from, the comparison,
and has had the book printed at the press. The Penny Magazine has
trumpeted the same fallacy; and yet the spirited Publisher has all
his splendid works, with their beautiful illustrations, printed also
at the press: thus tacitly acknowledging its superiority, and denying
the opinions which he is the means of publishing to the world.
In producing the finest workmanship in printing, it is essentially
requisite to use the best ink: this is ink made with strong varnish,
which binds the colouring matter, and, when dry, prevents its
smearing on being handled or setting-off in the process of binding;
the colouring matters are selected with care from among those of
the best quality; the whole is ground to a state of impalpability;
the strength of the varnish causes the ink to require a great deal
of distributing on the balls, which I prefer to rollers for the
best work,--_See_ BALLS,--in order to diffuse it equally on their
surface; the form should be well and carefully beat, so as to coat
the face of the types, &c. completely and uniformly with ink, without
any superfluity; the pressure should be slow and gradual, what is
termed a soaking pull, not quick and abrupt, and when the bar of the
press is brought home, the workman should rest there a short time,
in order to transfer the ink completely from the types, &c. to the
paper, and fix it firmly on its surface. These precautions and care
are necessary to produce the finest work in printing; and in every
instance, in whatever art or manufacture the article may be, good
workmanship and high finish will be found to require more time for
their production than in an inferior article.
From the rapidity with which impressions are produced by the
cylindrical method of printing, it must be apparent that it is not
capable of executing work of a superior kind, as the ink must be
weak to enable the light rollers to distribute it as expeditiously
as it is required; the ink too must be prepared with a soft varnish
to enable it to do so, which deprives it of the valuable property
of drying, as well as of binding the colouring matter so as not to
smear; this weak ink also incurs the risk of allowing the oil in the
varnish to separate from the colouring matter, and thus spread in the
paper and discolour it. Another imperfection is, that there is not
time to ink the face of the type, &c. properly, which is thus obliged
to be done in an imperfect manner with an inferior ink; and in
taking the impression, again for lack of time, there is not pressure
sufficient to fix the ink firmly to the paper.
As overlays cannot be used in cylindrical printing, the engravers on
wood, when producing a subject which is to be printed at a machine,
hollow out on the surface of the block the parts that are to appear
light, as well as round off the edges that are to be printed lightly,
and engrave on those lowered parts, so that the surface is not a
perfect plane; and this is to answer the purpose of overlays, thus
in practice allowing that of which they deny the necessity and which
they ridicule in theory--unequal pressure to produce the desired
effect; but the object is not gained by this method, for, to obtain
an impression from those lowered parts, thick woollen cloth, called
a blanket, is used, which, owing to its elasticity, is pressed into
the hollows as well as between the lines of the depths; so that an
impression is produced, in which the lights are composed of crude
lines, and the depths are muddy, and which show more than the
engraved line, and thus the wood-cut does not possess that delicacy
in the light parts, nor that firmness in the dark, which are produced
by good workmen at the press, and which give to the whole a brilliant
effect.
The hollowing of the block on its surface requires great care and
judgment, not only in ascertaining the precise situation and bounds,
but also the precise depth to which it ought to be lowered; for if a
thick blanket be used, the light parts will be produced stronger and
heavier than is required, and if a thin one be used, they will either
not appear, or, if they do, will be rotten, or else chalky; and
some small parts in the depths will always require to be of a full
firm colour, which a thick blanket and weak inferior ink will never
produce. _See_ ENGRAVINGS ON WOOD. FINE PRESSWORK.
The advantages that cylindrical printing possesses are of great
importance in the art, and not less so with respect to the public.
Its power of printing larger sheets of paper than was ever before
contemplated, has enabled the proprietors of newspapers to enlarge
them to a previously unparalleled extent. The rapidity with which
impressions are multiplied is also an advantage of great consequence,
as in the case of morning newspapers, instead of going to press on
the evening preceding the publication, they can now wait until five
o’clock in the morning, and even later, when if a despatch or an
express arrives with any important news, it is in the hands of the
public at the usual hour of publication; neither is this rapidity of
less advantage to periodical publications, more particularly to those
of which a large number is printed, for example, the Evangelical
Magazine, and the Methodists Magazine, of each of which there were
printed about 24,000 copies. When these were done at press, it
was necessary to put the last sheets to press ten days before the
publication, whereas now they can delay them till the third day, and
yet be punctual in publishing at the regular time. They thus avail
themselves of any later intelligence that may arrive, and give it
publicity a month earlier than before the invention of cylindrical
printing.
Another advantage in machine printing is, the regularity and
uniformity of colour through any number of impressions, as it can be
regulated with the greatest nicety to any shade; in this instance it
is superior to the press for the production of common work, in the
uniformity of colour, but only superior to common work in its rivalry
with the press.
MACULE.
If the joints of the tympan, or the head, or the nut of the spindle,
be loose, or any accident happen in pulling, so that the impression
be somewhat doubled, and not clear, it is said to be maculed. Cards
under the winter, to produce a spring, have often been the cause of
maculing: the sides of the tympan or the ear of the frisket touching
the cheeks will also produce the same effect. _See_ DOUBLE. SLURRING.
MAGAZINES. _See_ NEWSPAPER POSTAGE.
MAKE.
In casting off copy, they say it will _make_ so much; as, it will
make a sheet, two sheets, &c.
MAKE A MEASURE. _See_ JUSTIFY A STICK.
MAKING READY.
This term implies the process of laying the form on the press--fixing
it in its place--placing the tympan sheet on the tympan--placing
the points to make register, when both sides of the paper are to be
printed--making register--preparing the frisket--and producing an
equal impression from all the pages, and from every part of each page.
When an engraving on wood is printed, it also denotes the overlaying
it, so as to produce an impression, which shall possess all the
effect that the subject may require.
In common work, where despatch is required, thick blankets are used
in the tympans; and when the types are much worn they are also
necessary, to bring up the rounded face of the letter. It is too
common in good work to put an excess of blanket into the tympans,
to lessen the pull for the purpose of easing the pressmen’s arms,
and to enable them to be more expeditious: the consequence is, that
the impression will show more than the surface of the types or
engraving; and thus what is gained in ease and expedition, is more
than counterbalanced by the imperfect and rough impression that is
produced. _See_ FINE PRESSWORK, and ENGRAVINGS ON WOOD.
An old pressman, who was a good workman, gave me the following
directions for making ready a form:--
“In making ready, I will only speak of a form of fine work; if a
pressman can do that, he surely can make common work ready.
“Lay the form on the stone, centrically under the platen; quoin it
all round; fold the tympan sheet according to the form laid on the
press; lay it even on the form, and stretch it as much as it will
bear; pull it, for the purpose of attaching it to the tympan; paste
it all round to the tympan, at the same time keep stretching it;
screw on the points; make them fall in the channel of the short
cross; make good register with white paper, whether the form be whole
or half sheet work.