CUSTOMS.--_M._ In Moxon’s time it appears the pressmen used what was
then called a _Horse_, only, for the paper when working, which we now
call a _Bank_; we have in addition what is termed a horse, set upon
the bank; this horse is made sloping down to the fore edge, and the
white paper is placed on it; the pressman is thus enabled to draw the
sheets down with the nail of his thumb, or a piece of wood, bone, or
ivory, with more facility than if it were laid horizontal, and it is
more convenient to remove to the tympan, as the horse is raised near
to it, and inclines in the same direction.
HORSE FLESH.
If any journeyman set down in his bill on Saturday night more work
than he has done, that surplusage is called _Horse-flesh_; and he
abates it in his next bill.--_M._ This surplusage of charge, as Moxon
terms it, is now called _Horse_, and it is not always deducted in the
next bill.
HORSE RACES.
By the Act of the 13th of George 2. cap. 19.
s. 2. it is enacted, “That from and after the said twenty-fourth
Day of _June_ one thousand seven hundred and forty, no Plate,
Prize, Sum of Money, or other Thing, shall be run for by any
Horse, Mare or Gelding, or advertised, published or proclaimed
to be run for by any Horse, Mare or Gelding, unless such Plate,
Prize or Sum of Money shall be of the full, real and intrinsick
Value of fifty Pounds, or upwards; and in case any Person or
Persons shall from and after the twenty-fourth Day of _June_ one
thousand seven hundred and forty enter, start or run any Horse,
Mare or Gelding, for any Plate, Prize, Sum of Money, or other
Thing of less Value than fifty Pounds, or shall make, print,
advertise, publish or proclaim any Advertisement or Notice of
any Plate, Prize, Sum of Money, or other Thing of less Value
than fifty Pounds as aforesaid, to be run for by any Horse, Mare
or Gelding; every such Person or Persons so entering, starting
or running such Horse, Mare or Gelding for such Plate, Prize,
Sum of Money, or other Thing of less Value than fifty Pounds as
aforesaid, shall forfeit and lose the Sum of two hundred Pounds,
to be sued for, recovered and disposed of in such Manner as
is herein after prescribed and directed; and every Person or
Persons who shall make, print, publish, advertise or proclaim any
Advertisement or Notice of any Plate, Prize, Sum of Money, or
other Thing of less Value than fifty Pounds aforesaid, to be run
for by any Horse, Mare or Gelding, shall forfeit and lose the Sum
of one hundred Pounds.”
So much of the act of 13 Geo. 2. c. 19. “as relates to the Subject of
Horse Racing,” was repealed by 3 Vict. c. 5. s. 1.
HOSE.
Two upright bars of iron that connected the garter and the hose
hooks, and went through the till. There were screws at each end, by
which they could tighten the platen cords, if they became slack.--_M._
The hose in wooden presses is now quite different: it is a wooden
case for the spindle to work in, made hollow in the inside to fit
it, and to which it is connected by the garter; it is square on the
outside, and passes through an opening in the till, which it should
fit accurately; and is tied to the platen by means of four iron
hooks, one at each bottom corner. Its uses are, to guide the platen
down to the form in a horizontal position, by its passing through the
till; and also to lift the platen from off the form, which it does
by the return of the press bar, and its connexion with the spindle by
means of the garter.
HOSE HOOKS.
Four iron hooks at the bottom corners of the hose, to which the
platen is tied. They are projections from an iron belt that embraces
the bottom of the hose, and stand facing the platen hooks.
HOURS.
Pressmen reckon their works by hours, accounting every token to an
hours work: and though it be the same effectually with tokens, yet
they make their prices of different work by the hour; and it passes
current for a token. If two men work at the press, ten quires is an
hour; if one man, five quires is an hour.--_M._ The quires of paper
at this time always contain twenty-four sheets, at least the inside
quires do, which alone are used for bookwork; and a token is ten
quires eighteen sheets, which is still called an Hour, whatever the
price may be: thus, if two men at a press print twelve tokens of
paper in a day, they say, they have done twelve hours; and if it be
fine work, at which, through the care bestowed on it, they can only
print three tokens, or four tokens, they say, they do three hours, or
four hours, in a day; although it takes the same time in performing
that the twelve tokens did.
HYDRAULIC PRESS.
This press was invented and introduced to the public by Mr. Joseph
Bramah, of Piccadilly, Engineer. Mr. W. Nicholson, in his Journal of
Natural Philosophy, Chemistry, and the Arts, vol. 1. April, 1797,
gave an account of it, with engravings, from which the following
observations are extracted, which will give a brief description of
this powerful machine, that is superseding the common book press with
a screw in all extensive establishments.
“Its action is as follows: when the lever or pump handle is raised,
it brings up the piston, which would leave a vacuum beneath if the
pressure of the atmosphere did not force the water in through a
side valve. The lever is then to be pressed down, which causes the
side valve to shut, and forces the water through a valve at the
bottom, whence it passes through a pipe into the cavity of the great
cylinder, and raises the piston or pressing rammer. A repetition of
the same process forces more water in, and the pressure may in this
manner be carried to a great extent.
“There is no difficulty in computing the force of this instrument.
If the diameter of the pump barrel be one quarter of an inch, and
that of the cylinder one inch, that is to say, four quarters of an
inch; one pound lodged upon the piston rod of the pump will be in
equilibrio with sixteen pounds lodged upon the table of the press;
the weights of the parts of the engine attached to, and moving with
each piston, being respectively included. And if the length of the
pump lever be fifteen inches, and the distance between the centres
of motion and of action be two inches, one pound at the end of the
lever will gain an advantage of 7½ times when compared with that at
the piston rod. Instead, therefore, of sixteen pounds upon the table
being equal in effect to counterpoise this last action, there will be
required upwards of 120 pounds. But a man in this action of pumping
by a downward pressure, can without difficulty apply his whole
weight, and with great ease one third or one fourth of his weight,
suppose 50 pounds. In this case the pressure will be equivalent to
fifty times 120 pounds, or 6000 pounds, that is to say, nearly three
tons.
“To compare this engine with a screw, in theory, we must enquire what
fineness of thread and length of lever would afford a purchase of
120 to one. Let us suppose the thread of a screw, substituted in the
place of the cylinder, to be one tenth of an inch thick; the distance
from the top of one thread to the top of the next will in this case
be one fifth of an inch. This is the space through which the weight
must rise in one revolution. The power must therefore move through
120 times that space, namely twenty-five inches; but a lever or
radius four inches long will describe a circle somewhat larger than
this, and consequently such an engine would in theory be equal in
power to the hydraulic engine we have been contemplating.
“But when the subject is viewed practically, the difference between
the two engines appears to be very remarkable. All practical men
know how very large a part of the force operating by means of
engines is employed in overcoming frictions. Every one is aware of
the extreme friction between solids, and the very slight friction
which takes place between the parts of fluids. This is seen in the
common expedient of oiling the pivots of wheels, and in the very
gradual decay of motion in fluid bodies; while solids moving on each
other stop at once, as soon as the force is diminished to a certain
degree. The screw is an organ peculiarly liable to friction, and this
friction is always much greater than the whole of the reacting force;
for there are few instances where a screw will return from extreme
pressure, when the agency upon the lever is withdrawn. It is also to
be considered, that the whole force of the weight or resistance acts
directly upon the face of the screw, at which the motion is required
to take place. It has not been appreciated in what degree this
resistance or friction increases with the weight. In lighter actions
the simple ratio has been inferred; but under more severe pressures
the two metallic faces extrude the greater part of the half-fluid
matter between them, and appear, by the magnitude of their
resistance, to be attached to each other by a process of the nature
of cohesive attraction. For these and other reasons, it appears
nearly impracticable to form any comparison between two engines so
different in principle, but such as shall be deduced from immediate
experiment of their effects. I am not in possession of numerical data
to indicate the actual power of screw-engines or presses; which are
perhaps the less necessary, because those who are the most interested
in the success of an improvement like the present, are for the most
part able to come at these without difficulty.
“In an engine of this kind, the diameter of the great piston was
four inches, and of the smaller three-eighths of an inch; and the
advantage given by the lever or handle was twelve to one. Above the
piston of the great cylinder was applied a long lever, at one end
of which was an axis, and at the other end a large scale to hold
weights; it contained twenty hundred weight. The distance between
the axis of motion of this lever and the part where it acted on the
piston was six inches; and the distance from the same axis to the
extremity where the scale was hung was 126 inches. Every hundred
weight in the scale consequently pressed upon the piston with a
force equal to twenty-one hundred weight; whence the whole pressure
was twenty-one tons. It was easy to work the lever briskly with one
hand, and each stroke raised the scale near one-third of an inch.
Forty-seven pounds hung at the end of the lever, carried it down with
a moderate swiftness of working; but a weight of only forty-three
pounds remained in equilibrio, and did not descend. Now, as the true
weight in theory was thirty-two pounds, it follows that less than
one-third of the actual power was employed to give velocity and
overcome all friction.
“It may be remarked, that the principal frictions in these machines
must be at the circumference of the pistons, and that these do not
increase in the simple, but in less than the subduplicate, ratio of
the power. For if the diameter of the great cylinder were double,
every thing else remaining unchanged, the surface of its piston, and
consequently the power, would be quadrupled. But the friction would
be only doubled, and that merely at the leathering of the greater
piston.
“As the pressure in the experiment last mentioned amounted to 47·040
pounds upon the great piston of four inches in diameter, or sixteen
circular inches surface, it amounted to 2940 pounds upon each
round inch. But the medium pressure of the atmosphere on a round
inch is near twelve pounds, consequently the action was equal to
245 atmospheres: and as each of these corresponds with a column of
34 feet of fresh water at a medium, the water in the cylinder was
pressed in the same manner as if the whole column had been 8330 feet,
or 1⅔ mile, long.
“Large presses of this construction are made with two pumps of 1¼
inch bore, and a cylinder of seven inches. These have been used in
pressing hay and cotton for package; and, as I am informed, are
effective in producing a greater condensation on the material with a
much less application of moving power and consumption of time.”
The following description and figures are taken from Dr. Ure’s
Dictionary of Arts, Manufactures and Mines, 8vo. 1839.
[Illustration: _Fig._ 1. _Fig._ 2.]
“The framing consists of two stout cast-iron plates _a_, _b_, which
are strengthened by projecting ribs, not seen in the section, _fig._
1. The top or crown plate _b_, and the base plate _a_, are bound most
firmly together by four cylinders of the best wrought iron, _c_,
_c_, which pass up through holes near the ends of the said plates,
and are fast wedged in them. The flat pieces _e_, _e_, are screwed
to the ends of the crown and base plates, so as to bind the columns
laterally. _f_ is the hollow cylinder of the press, which, as well as
the ram _g_, is made of cast iron. The upper part of the cavity of
the cylinder is cast narrow, but is truly and smoothly rounded at the
boring-mill, so as to fit pretty closely round a well-turned ram or
piston; the under part of it is left somewhat wider in the casting. A
stout cup of leather, perforated in the middle, is put upon the ram,
and serves as a valve to render the neck of the cylinder perfectly
water-tight, by filling up the space between it and the ram; and
since the mouth of the cup is turned downwards, the greater the
pressure of water upwards, the more forcibly are the edges of the
leather valve pressed against the inside of the cylinder, and the
tighter does the joint become. This was Bramah’s beautiful invention.
“Upon the top of the ram, the press-plate or table _h_, strengthened
with projecting ridges, rests, which is commonly called the follower,
because it follows the ram closely in its descent. This plate has
a half-round hole at each of its four corners, corresponding to
the shape of the four iron columns along which it glides in its
up-and-down motions of compression and relaxation.
[Illustration: _Fig._ 3. _Fig._ 4.]
“_k_, _k_, _figs._ 1. and 2., is the framing of a force pump with
a narrow barrel; _i_ is the well for containing water to supply
the pump. To spare room in the engraving, the pump is set close
to the press, but it may be removed to any convenient distance by
lengthening the water-pipe _u_, which connects the discharge of the
force pump with the inside of the cylinder of the press. _Fig._ 3.
is a section of the pump and its valves. The pump _m_, is of bronze;
the suction-pipe _n_, has a conical valve with a long tail; the
solid piston or plunger _p_, is smaller than the barrel in which it
plays, and passes at its top through a stuffing-box _q_; _r_ is the
pressure-valve, _s_ is the safety-valve, which, in _fig._ 2., is
seen to be loaded with a weighted lever; _t_ is the discharge-valve,
for letting the water escape, from the cylinder beneath the ram,
back into the well. See the winding passages in _fig._ 4. _u_ is the
tube which conveys the water from the pump into the press-cylinder.
In _fig._ 2. two centres of motion for the pump-lever are shown.
By shifting the bolt into the centre nearest the pump-rod, the
mechanical advantage of the workman may be doubled. Two pumps are
generally mounted in one frame for one hydraulic press; the larger to
give a rapid motion to the ram at the beginning, when the resistance
is small; the smaller to give a slower but more powerful impulsion,
when the resistance is much increased. A pressure of 500 tons may be
obtained from a well-made hydraulic press with a ten-inch ram, and a
two and a one inch set of pumps.”
In a Report addressed to the Commissioners of Her Majesty’s Woods,
Forests, &c., in July 1839, as the result of an inquiry with
reference to the selection of stone for building the new Houses of
Parliament, it is stated the experiments relating to the cohesive
strength of the stones, or their resistance to pressure, were made
at the manufactory of Messrs. Bramah and Robinson, with a six-inch
hydraulic press, the pump of which was one inch in diameter.
According to trials previously made by Messrs. Bramah and Robinson,
one pound weight at the end of the pump lever produced a pressure on
the face of the cube [two inches square] equal to 2·53 cwt., or to
71·06 lbs. on the square inch; from this datum it may be estimated
how immense the pressure is that can be obtained by this press, when
the strength of a man is exerted at the pump. I have used the common
book press with an iron screw to press printed paper, and I have also
used a Hydraulic press of an estimated power of eighty tons: besides
the greater expedition in pumping this press up than screwing the
other down, I can state from my own observation, that the hydraulic
press produced as great an effect upon the paper in three hours as
the screw press did in a night, or at least fourteen hours. This may
show the great superiority of this press over that which has been
in general use in printing offices. The hydraulic press has fully
accomplished in practice all that was expected from it, and has
established for itself a high character, which it richly deserves.
HYPHEN.
A hyphen, marked thus (-), is employed in connecting compounded
words; as, “Lap-dog, tea-pot, pre-existence, self-love, to-morrow,
mother-in-law.”
It is also used when a word is divided, and the former part is
written or printed at the end of one line, and the latter part at the
beginning of another. In this case, it is placed at the end of the
first line, not at the beginning of the second.--_Murray._
I.
IDENTIGRAPHY.
The Dutch papers in 1825 mentioned a new discovery in printing, to
which the inventor gave the name of Identigraphy. It consists in a
new application of the art of lithography, by which a reprint of
common letterpress is obtained in a very short time; the inventor
undertaking to reprint the foreign journals within two hours after
their arrival by the mail.
ILLUMINATOR. _See_ FAC.
IMPERFECTIONS.
_Books._--In gathering books, when one sheet is off, the surplus of
the other sheets is called Imperfections.--_M._
We now call this surplus the _Waste_: and after the work is
delivered, or is in a state of delivery, and the bookbinder, or any
person in whose possession the book may be, discovers that a sheet,
or part of a sheet, or a plate, or any part whatever, is wanting,
to make the book complete, he applies for them; or he may apply to
change a sheet that is either dirty or torn. These deficiencies, or
defects, are now termed Imperfections. _See_ WASTE.
_Letters._--When the founder has not cast a proportionable number of
each sort of letter, the wanting letters are called _Imperfections_,
as making the rest of the fount imperfect. _See_ SORTS.--_M._
IMPERFECT PAPER.
Paper sent into a printing office to print upon, without the extra
quantity which partly constitutes perfect paper; thus a ream of
imperfect paper consists of twenty quires of twenty-four sheets each,
which makes a ream containing 480 sheets; in this state it is termed
inside quires: sometimes, but rarely, it is sent in with the outside
quires, in which case there are not so many sheets in a ream. _See_
PAPER; also PERFECT PAPER.
IMPERIAL PRESS. _See_ SHERWIN AND COPE’S PRESS.
IMPOSING,
is the arrangement of the pages of a sheet, or of a form, in their
proper order on the stone, and the wedging of them up in a chase,
with a view to their being printed.
The knowledge of thus laying down pages, so that the sheets may
fold correctly when printed, is of essential consequence to every
compositor engaged on book work.
A workman would be held inexcusable who did not know how to lay
down with accuracy all the common sizes; viz. quartos, octavos,
and duodecimos: but even with this knowledge he is frequently at a
loss when at work upon sizes that do not frequently occur; and more
particularly so at the close of a volume where there are fragments,
which are required to be imposed together, for the purpose of saving
presswork and warehouse work.
A youth, who has just gone to the business, feels a natural pride in
showing that he is making progress; and he wishes to improve himself
without having continually to appeal to his instructor; but he does
not possess the means.
The young man from the country, who has been educated in a house
where there has not been much book work done, which is generally
the case, and who, of course, is not very expert at his profession,
when he comes to work in an extensive book house in town, feels his
deficiency, and more particularly if he has to lay down his pages in
a large companionship; he does not like to acknowledge his ignorance,
nor to ask for information: he has consequently to work his way at a
great disadvantage.
Under these circumstances it frequently happens that the pages are
laid down wrong, which causes a great deal of trouble and loss
of time in their rectification; and this trouble is considerably
increased if the work be on a small type and solid. In this case,
if the cords have been taken off, it is not advisable to transpose
the pages without wetting them, for fear of breaking the matter, or
at least squabbling it; the form has then to be dried, before the
pressman can pull another proof.
All the works on Printing hitherto published, are deficient in
giving a sufficient variety of tables for imposing, as a reference
for the workman, as well as for the reader and the master printer.
This deficiency of reference occasionally causes the compositor
to re-impose his forms, as I just now observed, and also in many
instances to cut up new furniture.
To remedy this inconvenience I have considerably exceeded the number
of what has been given in any other work, by adding such tables as
are likely to occur in practice, and to which there has hitherto been
no reference.
I have given all the Tables of Imposition that are in Luckombe and in
Stower, except a half-sheet of sixty-fours, although I disapprove of
the arrangement of the pages in many of them, from their not cutting
up or folding in the most convenient manner; yet, as they have been
acted on in a great number of instances, I would not reject them,
it being advisable in reprints to preserve uniformity, which may
enable the proprietor to make up a few more copies from the waste of
both editions. I have added several, in which I think there is an
improvement in these particulars.
I have also endeavoured to make each size complete, by giving a
sheet, a half sheet, a quarter of a sheet, and the usual fragments
that occur; varying the arrangement of the pages in a great number of
instances, to suit the different ways of folding the paper.
The whole of the signatures in each form are given, that they may
serve as a guide in laying down the pages, particularly where there
are a great number in a sheet; they might then all be taken out, if
thought proper, except the first, and the first in the offcut, which
are the only ones I would retain, and all that are necessary, the
others causing the bottoms of the pages to look unsightly; for the
person who folds the sheets has only to keep the signature at the
outside, and the pages must be folded right.
When works are in half sheets, it is advantageous to work two
together, as it enables the bookseller to deliver a single copy in
sheets without cutting up the back; and also at the conclusion of a
work that is in sheets where there are two half sheets, as it saves
time and trouble in the warehouse; it not being necessary to divide
the sheet and insert a half in each volume, but the whole sheet may
be gathered in the volume to which either of the signatures belongs;
by which means there will be fewer mistakes, and fewer imperfections
required.
When we arrive at a great number of pages in a sheet, they resolve
themselves into the same order as quartos, octavos, and duodecimos;
and in these cases I have repeated the imposition rather than refer
to another size, which is not always very clearly understood when
two, three, or more sheets are combined. Upon this principle I have
repeated the half sheets, quarter sheets, and fragments, so as to
make each size complete in itself.
It is usual when a fragment at the end of a volume makes six pages to
impose it as eight: in this case there are two blank pages. Sometimes
the author fills these up, by adding to the text; at other times the
bookseller occupies them with advertisements of other publications in
which he is interested.