visit to General Galassi’s museum at Rome, says, “If we had been
surprised at Campanari’s exhibition, we were petrified at the
general’s. Here we saw an immense breastplate of gold, which had been
fastened on each shoulder by a most delicately wrought gold fibula,
with chains like those now made at Trichinopoly. The breastplate was
stamped with a variety of arabesques and small patterns, as usual
in the Egyptian style. The head had been crowned with fillets and
circular ornaments of pure gold, and a rich mantle had covered the
body, flowered with the same material. In this grave also had been
found a quantity of arms, round bronze shields with a boss in the
centre which was stamped, spears, lances, and arrows; a bier of
bronze, as perfect as if made a year ago; a tripod, with a vessel
containing some strange looking lumps of a resinous substance, and
which on being burnt proved to be perfumes so intensely strong,
that those who tried them were obliged to leave the room. There
were many small images, perhaps of lares, or of ancestors, in terra
cotta that had been ranged in double lines close to the bier; also
some large common vessels for wine and oil, and some finely painted
vases and tazze, with black figures upon a red ground, which had been
consecrated to the dead. There were wheels of a car upon which the
bier had been brought into the sepulchre, and many other things which
I do not remember; but the wonder of all these treasures was a sort
of inkstand of terra cotta, which had served as a schoolmaster’s A.
B. C. On it were the Etruscan letters, first in alphabet, and then
in syllables, and both the letters and the syllables are the same as
the oldest form of the Greek. It was deciphered by Dr. Lepsius, and
is the key to all we at present know, and will be the basis of all
we are ever likely to know, of the Etruscan tongue.”----“This humble
article is likely to prove to Europe, what the stones of Alexandria
and Rosetta have been before it, the dictionary of a lost language,
and the interpreter of an extinct race.”
“I noted that upon this inkstand were four alphabets engraved, and
after each the syllables,--thus, ba, be, bi, &c., ma, me, mi, and
so forth; that one of these is in the oldest or archaic form of the
Greek alphabetic letters, and that hence connexion is likely to be
traced and demonstrated between the Egyptian, Etruscan, and Pelasgic.”
[Illustration: The Etruscan Alphabet]
_The Primitive Etruscan Alphabet._
+-----------+----++-----------+----+
| [#]. | M. || [#]. | A. |
| [#]. | N. || [#]. | E. |
| [#]. | P. || [#]. | F. |
| [#]. [#]. | R. || [#]. | H. |
| [#]. | S. || [#]. | I. |
| [#]. | T. || [#]. | K. |
| | || [#]. | L. |
+-----------+----++-----------+----+
To these letters may be added the four following complex characters
[#], [#], [#], and [#].
_Etruscan in the British Founderies._
_Pica._--Caslon and Livermore. Cut by Caslon for the celebrated
linguist, the Rev. John Swinton, Oxford, about 1733.
EVEN LINES.
When a piece of printing has to be executed in great haste, a
number of compositors are employed on it, and the copy is cut into
small pieces for each, to facilitate the making-up, imposing, and
the general furthering of the work; if the copy should be in long
paragraphs, the compositors have each to begin a line and to make
their copy end a line, frequently with great irregularity of spacing;
this is termed making even lines. In daily newspapers it is of
constant occurrence.
EVEN PAGE.
The second, fourth, sixth, or any other even numbered page is called
an even page.
EXCLAMATION, Note of. _See_ PUNCTUATION.
EXERCISING THE PELT.
Frequently currying a pelt, to get it into condition, is termed
_Exercising the Pelt_, or _Giving the Pelt Exercise_.
F.
FAC.
Before the introduction of printing into Europe, and its application
to the production of books, the Librarii or writers of books, in
Rome, were a regular company who had several immunities: their
business was a trade, and they were regulated by certain laws.
Besides these writers of books, there were artists whose profession
was to ornament and paint manuscripts, who were called Illuminators;
the writers of books first finished their part, and the illuminators
embellished them with ornamented letters and paintings. We frequently
find blanks left in manuscripts for the illuminators which were never
filled up. Some of the ancient manuscripts are gilt and burnished in
a style superior to later times. Their colours were excellent, and
their skill in preparing them was very great.
This practice, of introducing ornaments, drawings, emblematical
figures, and even portraits into manuscripts, is of great antiquity.
Varro wrote the lives of seven hundred illustrious Romans, which
he enriched with their portraits, as Pliny attests in his Natural
History. Pomponius Atticus, the friend of Cicero, was the author of
a work on the actions of the great men amongst the Romans, which he
ornamented with their portraits, as appears in his life by Cornelius
Nepos; but these have not been transmitted to posterity. However
there are many precious documents remaining, which exhibit the
advancement and decline of the arts in different ages and countries.
These inestimable paintings and illuminations, display the manners,
customs, habits, ecclesiastical, civil, and military, weapons and
instruments of war, utensils and architecture of the ancients;
they are of the greatest use in illustrating many important facts,
relating to the history of the times in which they were executed.
In these treasures of antiquity are preserved a great number of
specimens of Grecian and Roman art, which were executed before the
arts and sciences fell into neglect and contempt. The manuscripts
containing these specimens, form a valuable part of the riches
preserved in the principal libraries of Europe. The Royal, Cottonian,
and Harleian libraries, as also those in the two Universities in
England, the Vatican at Rome, the Imperial at Vienna, the Royal at
Paris, St. Mark’s at Venice, and many others.
When the art of printing was first applied in Europe to the
production of books, they were in imitation of, and sold as,
manuscripts; and blanks were left at the commencement of the
respective divisions of the work, for the illuminator to fill in
with the proper letters, and ornaments, as was usual in manuscripts,
and so close was the imitation that, even in our own time, it has
required the assistance of a chemical test to ascertain which was
manuscript and which was printed. When the secret of printing was
divulged, and the deception could not be continued, ornamental
letters of a large size were introduced, and printed with two
colours, generally red and blue, the letter being of one colour, and
flourishes, extending the whole length of the page, in the other, so
as to have the appearance of being done with a pen; then succeeded
various grotesque figures, in attitudes to resemble letters;
afterwards small Roman Capital Letters, with ornaments round them
forming a square design; subsequently the block was pierced so that
any letter could be introduced, and the ornamented part could be used
for any initial; the next descent was for the letter founders to cast
the ornament in type metal, and pierce it for general use, and these
cast ornaments for letters were called Facs, as an abbreviation, I
believe, for Facsimile. The last descent was to the extreme, to put a
plain Roman Capital Letter, frequently extending four or five lines
in depth; and this is the substitute for a beautiful coloured drawing.
FACE OF A LETTER.
The surface of that extremity of the type which bears the letter.
FACE OF A PAGE,
or FORM. The superficies of a page or form, where the faces of every
letter lie in the same plain.--_M._
FALLING OUT.
The same as DROPPING OUT, which _see_. But this term is more
generally applied to a page, a quarter, or a whole form, when any one
of them falls out of a chase from the shrinking of the quoins and
furniture.
In summer time particularly, forms in chase require to be frequently
examined, and the quoins tightened, to prevent this accident, and
more especially when they have been imposed in wet furniture.
Compositors should neither be negligent, nor forgetful of this, as
in the progress of a work the forms are in their charge, and if the
whole of a form, or part of it, falls out, they not only have to
distribute the pie, but to recompose the matter gratuitously.
FANNING.
This is a term used in the Warehouse, in counting paper. It consists
of taking hold of the right hand lower corner of a portion of the
paper between the flat side of the fore finger and the end of the
thumb, and pinching it tolerably tight; then with a twist of the
wrist turning the right hand edge of the paper up, and running the
left hand over the surface of the paper, it separates the sheets at
the top corner, so as to have somewhat the appearance of a fan, and
enables the person to count it with facility.
FAT.
With compositors, short pages, blank pages, and light open matter:
with pressmen, light forms, forms that only require one pull at
wooded presses; and very small numbers, such as five, ten, fifteen,
or twenty copies each, are termed Fat.
FAT. _See_ BEAT FAT.--_M._
FAT FACE,
or FAT LETTER, is a letter with a broad stem. For observations on
them and specimens, _see_ TYPE.
FAT FORM. _See_ FAT.
FAT WORK. _See_ FAT.
FEET OF A PRESS.
The frame of a wooden press that lies horizontally on the floor, into
which the cheeks and hind posts are inserted by means of mortises and
tenons.
FELT.
Pieces of felted hats. This is the best substitute for scaleboard,
when there is a deficiency of that article, to use as cards in the
head of a press; and even when there is no scarcity of scaleboard, a
few pieces put in improve the pull. _See_ CARDS.
FINE PRESSWORK.
This is the technical term for presswork of superior quality; it
is in some measure indefinite, for, as presswork is paid a certain
price for a given number, and the price advances according to the
time and care bestowed on it, that for which the lowest price is paid
is termed common work, and after the price has advanced about one
half in addition, it is styled fine work; although it may advance
gradually to six times the lowest price, or more, it is still called
fine work.
In aiming at excellence in printing, it will be found that Presswork
deserves particular consideration, as a part on which the beauty of a
book so much depends.
It will be necessary, in the first instance, to endeavour to define
more particularly what is meant by the term Fine Presswork,
for except this be understood, we shall come to no satisfactory
conclusion, as workmen vary in their opinions respecting it, and
frequently produce sheets of different shades of colour in the same
volume, when it is done at different presses, and all under the name
of the finest work; and when the same person either actually prints
the whole, or superintends it, the work will be executed according to
his criterion, without any fixed rule whereby to decide; thus one man
shall produce the finest work, according to his opinion, of a pale
grey colour, while another will produce it so black and surcharged
with colour, that if the ink be not of a very good quality, it will
not only smear, but the paper at the edges of the letters, nay, even
the whole page, will be tinged with the oil which separates from the
colouring matter of the ink, to the entire destruction of all beauty
of workmanship.
Fine Presswork is the art of printing perfect impressions from the
surface of engravings in relief.
By obtaining perfect impressions, I would be understood that the
subject transferred to paper should be an impression from the surface
and the surface only of the engraved lines, of such a tone as to
produce all the effect of which the subject is capable, without
either superfluity or deficiency of colour.
Having thus defined my meaning of the term Fine Presswork, I shall
speak of the means by which it is to be produced, which may be of use
to those who have not had opportunities of printing splendid books.
The press ought to be in the best condition, otherwise there will be
no certainty of the impression being equal, except with great trouble
and loss of time. The joints of the tympan should not have any play;
if they have, it will affect the register, which being out disfigures
the appearance of the book; it also causes a great risk of producing
slurs and doubles: the most certain way of having them without play
is to construct them on centres, so that if they should work a little
loose, they can at any time, with the greatest ease, be tightened by
means of the screws on which the centres are formed.
The parchments on the tympans should be thin, and of a uniform
thickness, and stretched on the tympans so as not to be flaccid. It
is said that the French printers in their finest works used silk
on the tympans, on account of its thinness, its smoothness, and
uniformity.
The face of the platen ought to be a true plane, and parallel to
the press stone, or table. It will be found in practice that an
iron platen is superior to a wooden one for producing a sharp clear
impression, where fine work is wanted; for, by discarding woollen
blankets, the pressure must be increased to obtain this effect, which
indents wood, and then requires so many overlays to make a uniform
impression, that they produce nearly the same effect as blankets, and
it becomes necessary to new face the surface frequently, which is
inconvenient and expensive: the iron platen is not subject to this
inconvenience; but it is more liable to injure the types, as it will
not yield; and should there be any inequality on the surface of the
form, owing to it not being well planed down, or to any extraneous
matter being upon it or under it, the types must give way, and be
destroyed. Generally speaking, the iron platen wears the types more
than a wooden one.
The head of the press should be so justified as to produce what is
termed a soaking pull; that is, the form should begin to feel the
pressure of the platen when about two thirds down; then, when the
bar is pulled home, or what is technically called cheeked, which I
would always recommend to be done in good work, as it keeps the pull
regular and uniform, the power slowly increases, and the paper has
time to be pressed gradually on the types, which causes it to receive
the ink on all its parts, and produces a clear impression.
This justifying the head relates to wooden presses, where the head
and the winter are allowed some play, which is filled up with pieces
of scaleboard, called cards, cut to the size of the mortises in the
cheeks, and inserted in them upon the tenons of the head, and under
the tenons of the winter, allowing the pull to have some elasticity.
For my own part, I would have the winter lie solid, and the spring be
confined to the head. _See_ WINTER.
In the iron presses constructed on the late Earl Stanhope’s
principle, where increased power is produced by means of a compound
lever applied to the screw, and where there is no elasticity in the
pull, this effect is produced in a greater degree than in a press of
the common construction; for, as the platen descends on the form,
the power increases considerably, but the motion is slower; thus the
effect of the soaking pull is preserved, with a considerable addition
of power, owing to the combined action of the screw and the compound
lever.
In Ruthven’s press, where the platen is suspended from the head, and
brought over the form by means of small wheels with grooves in their
edges running on the ribs, the pull is regulated by screws on the
locking pieces, and also through the springs by which it rests on the
ribs, that bring it nearer to, or remove it from the form.
In Clymer’s Columbian press, where the power is obtained by a
compound lever, the pull is regulated by a screw that connects the
bar with the lever, and additionally by thin plates of iron placed
upon the top of the platen under the bottom of the spindle. It is
also regulated in the same way, in the Albion press, as originally
constructed by R. W. Cope.
In Sherwin and Cope’s Imperial press the pull is justified by a wedge
above the head of the spindle or bolt in the front, which has a screw
attached to it with a projecting head, by which the pull is adjusted
to the greatest nicety, with ease and facility. Mr. Hopkinson has
adopted the same plan in the Albion press since it came under his
management on the death of Mr. Cope.
The advantage of having a good press will be unavailing for the
production of fine work, if the types are much worn; for it will be
found impossible to produce a sharp clear impression if the perfect
shape of the letter and the fine lines are rounded and worn away by
much use, as, in consequence of this roundness of the letter from
wear, it will be necessary to use much blanket in the tympan to bring
up the shape of the whole letter, which will produce a gross and
indelicate impression of more than the surface.
I have been told that Didot, of Paris, in his most splendid works,
never printed more than three sheets from the same fount of letter,
when it was sent to the melting pot, and replaced by a new fount.
The colour of the ink must depend on the taste or fancy of the master
printer;--but no, I am mistaken, for, unless he prepares his own ink,
he is obliged to use that only which is manufactured for general use;
and there is little if any choice in purchasing this article, when it
is wanted of a superior quality. Leaving the particular shade or tone
out of the question, I will state my opinion as to what the qualities
of black printing ink ought to be for fine work.
Intenseness of colour.
Impalpability.
Covering the surface perfectly of the type or engraving.
Quitting the surface of the type or engraving, when the paper is
pressed on it, and adhering to the paper.
Not smearing after it is printed.
Retaining its first appearance without any change.
Ink ought to be reduced to an impalpable smoothness, either in a mill
or on a stone with a mullar; and this is essentially necessary, as
the process gives it the next quality--of completely covering the
surface of the type, or the lines of the engraving, and that with the
smallest quantity; and, with proper care in printing, presents to the
eye an impression, in which the edges of the lines are smooth and
perfect, and the surface of the impression on the paper is completely
covered with ink, without any superfluity; which constitute the
perfection of presswork with types.
Another property required in ink is, that it shall not only cover the
surface of the lines on the paper printed, but that it shall also
quit the face of the type or engraving, and leave it quite clean when
the paper is impressed on it, and attach itself to the paper, so as
to give a perfect impression of the subject represented, without
the colour of the paper appearing through the ink; and that this
property, of quitting the type or engraving, and becoming attached to
the paper, shall continue the same through any number of impressions,
without any accumulation of ink on the surface printed from.
After having obtained these results, and when the printing is as
perfect as it can be made by workmanship, still something more is
requisite, viz. that the ink shall not smear on being slightly
rubbed; and that it shall retain its colour and appearance, without
the oil in the ink spreading at the edges, or tinging the paper--in
short, that it shall continue unchanged for any length of time, thus
preserving and continuing the beauty of the work.
The balls should be in good condition, otherwise the pressman may
exert his skill in vain, with a great loss of time and waste of
paper, without the intended effect. They are made smaller and stuffed
tighter with wool than those used for common work, which enables
the pressman to distribute the strong ink that is used with more
facility; they also cover the surface with ink better than if they
were softer, and are easier for the workman; for large soft balls,
used with ink made very strong with varnish and colour, would be
almost unmanageable.
The quality of the paper is of great consequence in fine printing,
but it is frequently overlooked by the printer’s employers, who are
too apt to pay more attention to a showy appearance and a low price,
than to quality.
The best paper for receiving an impression, as I have observed in the
article Engravings on Wood, is India paper; but as that which comes
to England is thin, it is not used for bookwork, neither would it be
durable, as it wants toughness to enable it to sustain much wear.
The next best paper for printing is French plate paper, which is
superior to English plate paper, as the latter has a good deal of
gypsum in its composition, which causes it to be very uncertain in
the wetting; for having given it a sufficient quantity of water,
judging from appearances and by comparison, and expecting to have
it in good condition, the pressman shall find it, when wanted for
use, nearly dry, and harsh, and the water unequally diffused; it has
then to be wetted again, and particular attention must be paid to
the turning and pressing of it, before it is in a proper state for
printing on. I attribute this effect to the gypsum, which has had its
water of crystallization driven off by fire in preparing it, and the
water which it takes up in wetting crystallizes to supply its place.
I do not say that all English plate paper is affected in this manner
by water, but I have repeatedly experienced it in practice; and in
the second wetting, if great care be not taken, the gypsum being
already saturated, it will imbibe too much water, which will squeeze
out in printing, and prevent the paper from taking the ink uniformly,
so as to spoil the impression.
The best English paper for printing on is that which is made of
fine linen rags, and moderately sized, without the use of acids in
bleaching, and without being adulterated with cotton rags: this paper
takes water kindly, is easily got into good condition, receives a
good impression, is durable, preserves its colour, and does not act
upon the ink.
Messrs. J. Dickinson and Co. have made great improvements in the
quality of paper, and manufacture one kind which is admirably
adapted for printing, being made by a peculiar process which gives
it a particular _affinity_ for the ink. They have also introduced
improvements in the manufacture which have superseded the use of
French paper with us, and have also nearly done so with the Chinese
or India paper.
Having thus spoken of what I mean by fine presswork, and of the
materials by which it is to be produced, I shall now proceed to
describe the process; for when a printing office is provided with
materials of the best quality, and the master of it is desirous of
producing superior workmanship, there is something more required--he
must resolve to lay in a fund of patience, as well as to submit to a
great and continued expense of materials, or else he will never excel.
A good pressman will, as a matter of course, be well acquainted with
the whole of the usual routine of presswork; in addition to which, to
form his judgment, he should make himself acquainted with the most
splendid books, and study them as patterns of workmanship.
In making ready it must be evident, that when a clear sharp
impression is wanted, the pressure should be on the surface only,
without penetrating into the interstices; of course the tympan ought
not to be very soft, neither should any woollen blanket be used:
the most perfect impression will be obtained when fine thick paper
alone is used in the tympans, and even of this article I would not
recommend many thicknesses.
After an impression is printed, the pressman examines if it be
uniform throughout; if it be, which is very rarely the case, he goes
on with the work; if not, he proceeds to overlay, in order to produce
regularity of pressure, and of colour, over the whole form.
To effect this object, he takes thin smooth paper, and wherever the
impression is weak he pastes a bit of it, of the size and shape of
the imperfect part, on the tympan sheet, and proceeds in the same
manner with every part that is imperfect; he then pulls another
impression to examine the effect of his overlays, and continues to
add to them where wanted, till the pressure of the platen is the same
in every part, and the impression is uniformly of one shade of colour.