THE RENAISSANCE IN ITALY
Some differences between mediæval and modern history—The period of
the Renaissance is the transition between the two periods—The
Renaissance in its wider and in its narrower sense—Prominence of
Italy in the Renaissance—The revival of letters—Dante, Petrarch, and
Boccaccio—The age of collectors—The age of criticism—The revival of
art—(1) Painting—(2) Sculpture—(3) Architecture—Humanism and the
Reformation—The impulse given to education.
The division of history into periods is always arbitrary, and always, if
too rigidly interpreted, misleading. Yet some sort of division is not
only convenient, but almost [Sidenote: Mediæval and modern history.]
necessary, and the distinction between mediæval and modern history is as
clearly marked as any distinction of the kind can be. It is, of course,
impossible to fix upon any date, and to say that here the Middle Ages
come to an end and modern times begin, just as it is impossible to say
that on a given day in the year winter ends and spring begins. The
changes in history, as in the seasons, are gradual, and not sudden.
Between the great historic epochs there is a period of transition in
which the changes which mark them off from each other are slowly
developing, sometimes advancing, sometimes apparently receding, but
ultimately, by a gradual evolutionary process, reaching completion. And
another word of caution is necessary. It must be borne in mind that the
Middle Ages—the period which follows the disruption of the Roman Empire
by the immigration of the German peoples, and ends with the formation of
the great national states which still exist—do not constitute a complete
homogeneous and stationary epoch. Social and political changes were not
perhaps quite as rapid before the fifteenth century as they have been
since the Reformation, but changes were constantly taking place. A
generalisation about the eighth century cannot be applied without
serious modifications to the eleventh or the twelfth. All attempts to
estimate the Middle Ages as a whole can only be extremely superficial
and general.
It follows that it is impossible to give any adequate account of the
differences between mediæval and modern history in a few perfunctory
sentences or paragraphs. The [Sidenote: Differences between the two
periods.] differences are real and substantial, but they must be felt
rather than expressed, and can only be properly and usefully
comprehended by a prolonged study of the past. There is, it may be said,
a difference of historical atmosphere, to which some historians, eager
above measure to find comparisons and parallels, have never become
acclimatised, in spite of great learning and research. The often-quoted
phrase that ‘history is past politics’ has been responsible for a woful
number of anachronisms. For the historical student imagination, the
power of projecting himself by a sort of instinct into the conditions
and life of the past, is almost as necessary a quality as painstaking
industry. And imagination is rather fettered than assisted by the
attempt to express what it sees, in precise and formal language. For the
immediate purpose of this chapter it will be better to abandon all
attempt at minute precision or completeness of analysis, and to be
content with pointing out three salient characteristics of the Middle
Ages, which the modern reader should grasp at the outset. These may
serve to guide him to the appreciation of other and deeper distinctions
between that period and the more familiar times that have followed it.
In the first place, the modern conception of the state as a nation was
very imperfectly grasped in the Middle Ages. The modern nations, such as
the French, English, Spaniards, and others, were in process of
formation, but they only became fully conscious of their distinct
corporate unity at the end of the period. Mediæval theorists—guided by
the traditions of the Roman Empire, as modified by the influences of
Christianity—regarded Christendom as a single state under two heads—the
Pope and the Emperor—who held ecclesiastical and secular authority as
delegates of the Deity. The best concrete illustration of this
conception of unity is offered by the Crusades, which ended in failure,
partly on account of the distance of the scene of action, but mainly
because the unity of Christendom was theoretical rather than real.
Internally western Christendom was organised under what is called the
Feudal System, a semi-agricultural and semi-military organisation, in
which the mutual rights and duties of classes to each other were
regulated by the tenure of land, while industry, the most potent of
modern forces, had no place in it. Allied with feudalism was the
fantastic body of rules and customs known as Chivalry. Chivalry was as
essentially non-national as Christianity itself. A French and a German
knight had more in common with each other than either had with a French
or German citizen or peasant.
In the second place, the social unit in the Middle Ages was not what it
is now, the individual man, but a corporation; either the feudal unit
which in England is called the manor, or the municipal commune, or
within the commune the guild. There was no scope for the activity of the
individual by himself. The only way in which an able and ambitious man
could hope to rise from obscurity to eminence was by entering the
greatest of all corporations—the Church.
Thirdly, the mediæval period was a period of ignorance. Learning and
education were for the most part monopolised by the clergy, and in their
hands were bound down by prescription and by ecclesiastical authority.
Everybody knows with what ill-will the Church regarded freedom of
inquiry and scientific research: the charge of heresy was always ready
to be brought against a Roger Bacon or a Galileo. Moreover, quite apart
from the influence of the Church, learning and literature were withheld
from the mass of the people by their expense. Printing was unknown, and
paper was only introduced at the very end of the period. Parchment was
so expensive that many of the manuscripts of ancient writers were erased
in order to make room for monkish chronicles or service-books. Moreover,
such literature as existed was in Latin, and that in itself was
sufficient to close it alike to nobles, burghers, and peasants, most of
whom were unable to read or write even their native tongue. And
ignorance was, as usual, accompanied by gross superstition. To realise
this it is only necessary to peruse the lists of marvels with which the
mediæval chroniclers fill their pages, or to study the working of the
judicial system in which the guilt or innocence of an accused person was
decided by the ordeal.
The period of the Renaissance, in its proper and most comprehensive
meaning, may be regarded as the age in which the [Sidenote: The
Renaissance.] social and political system of the Middle Ages came to an
end, in which mediæval restrictions upon liberty of thought and inquiry
were abolished. It may be said to begin in the thirteenth century, to be
in full progress during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, and to
be continued in an altered form in the religious struggles of the
sixteenth century. It is, in fact, the period covered by the present
volume. To this great epoch of transition, ‘The Close of the Middle
Ages,’ belong a number of changes of the first magnitude: the decline of
the Empire and the Papacy, and of the ideas and traditions with which
they were connected; the growth and the hardening into shape of the
French, Spanish, and English nations; the rise of national literatures
and of the conception of national churches; the breaking up of feudalism
and chivalry by the growing importance of industry; the overthrow of
aristocratic and ecclesiastical predominance by the rise of the people
to political influence; the growth of strong territorial monarchies
based upon popular support, though in every country except England the
monarchy kicked away its support as soon as it was no longer needed.
With these changes must be coupled the results of the great inventions
and discoveries of the age: the employment of the compass and the
astrolabe, and the consequent development of maritime adventure, which
led to the finding of a new way to India and a new world across the
Atlantic, and so to an enormous extension of knowledge and a complete
alteration of the great trade-routes of the world; the discovery of
gunpowder, and the revolution which it effected not only in the art of
war, but also in the organisation of society, which in the Middle Ages
was inextricably bound up with the military system; the invention of
printing, followed by a vast extension and popularisation of literature
and knowledge; and, finally, the great astronomical discovery of
Copernicus, which overthrew the old belief in the stability and central
position of the earth, and dealt a fatal blow to the vast structure of
superstition which had been erected upon that belief.
All these vast changes belong to the Renaissance; they are all part of
the development which has been aptly called a new birth; no one of them
can be fully appreciated apart from the rest. Some of them have been
alluded to in the preceding pages of this volume; all of them merit the
most careful consideration; their mere enumeration is enough to show
their immense importance. But a single chapter can only serve as a sort
of sign-post, and the dictates of prudence compel a limitation of
attention to two movements with which the name of the Renaissance has
been pre-eminently and sometimes exclusively associated—the revival of
letters and the revival of art. And it is to the Renaissance in this
narrower sense that Italy rendered its most active and enduring
services.
The revival of literature and art was peculiarly the work of Italy. It
is not merely that the Italians began the work and that other nations
carried it on to completion. The recovery of ancient literature and art
and the application of the lessons to be learned from them to
contemporary needs were both begun and completed in Italy. It was only
after this completion [Sidenote: Prominence of Italy in the
Renaissance.] that the other countries came in to learn the lessons
which Italy was able and ready to teach them. It is true that the spirit
inspired by this teaching was applied by the other nations with great
results to the reform of religion, to the extension of geographical
knowledge, and to new discoveries in the realms of science. But this
must not blind us to the magnitude and completeness of the task
accomplished by Italy single-handed; nor must it be forgotten that, in
the departments of painting and sculpture at any rate, the actual
achievements of the Italians have never been surpassed by their pupils.
Nor is there anything surprising in the prominence of the part played by
Italy in the intellectual Renaissance. Although Italy, like the other
provinces of Rome, fell a victim to the barbarian invaders, yet the
tradition of supremacy which Roman victories had created was not wholly
destroyed, and it was revived with the growing authority of the Papacy
during the Middle Ages. Moreover, the geographical position of Italy was
of immense importance in an age when the Mediterranean was still the
centre of the world’s commerce. Trade and manufactures brought wealth to
the great civic communities of Italy, to Florence, Venice, and Genoa,
and wealth has rarely failed to create a sense of self-importance, a
consciousness of power and a desire for freedom, while at the same time
it supplies the leisure requisite for prolonged intellectual exertion.
But it may be thought—after what has been said before—that the Church,
having its central seat and authority in Italy, would be strong enough
to suppress independence of thought and inquiry. But to this suggestion
two answers may be made. It is an old saying that familiarity breeds
contempt. The Italians had no objection to the presence of the Papacy in
their midst. On the contrary, it flattered their pride to think that
Rome was still the head of a great spiritual empire, as it had once been
of a vast territorial power. Moreover, the tribute of other states was
poured into Italy by way of the papal coffers; and Italians had, if not
a monopoly, at any rate a preponderant share in the cardinalate and
other lucrative offices in the Church. But at the same time the Italians
by no means felt the same superstitious awe and reverence of the Church
and Papacy as prevailed in more distant countries. The ecclesiastical
thunders of excommunication and interdict were much less dreaded by
people who could see the working of the machinery which could produce
such awful sounds. The abuses of the papal court, which ultimately
produced the indignant revolt of the greater part of northern Europe,
were so familiar to the Italians that they were hardly scandalised by
them. Thus though the Italians, as a whole, showed little zeal for
religious reform, they were, at any rate the wealthier classes, usually
free from superstition and unlikely to tolerate ecclesiastical
despotism.
It is also to be noted that the popes in Italy did not always pursue a
policy of enlightened devotion to their spiritual interests. These
interests were, or were [Sidenote: The Papacy and the Renaissance.]
thought to be at a later time, opposed to freedom of thought, and
therefore to such an advance in literature and art as would favour such
freedom. But the popes were secular princes as well as heads of the
Church. The central provinces of Italy constituted a considerable
temporal principality; and it frequently happened that the interests of
this principality by no means coincided with the interests of Roman
Catholicism throughout Europe. The same motives which made so many
Italian princes the munificent patrons of literature and art appealed to
the popes also in their secular capacity. They, too, desired to have a
magnificent and learned court; they were ambitious to compete with the
Medici of Florence and with the kings of Naples; they wished to have
their palaces and their churches built and adorned by the most eminent
artists of their time; they were eager that their praises should be
handed down to posterity by men whose genius would secure immortality to
their patrons as well as to themselves. Thus individual popes, such as
Nicolas V. and Leo X., were the industrious furtherers of the
Renaissance; and they unconsciously stimulated a movement which was
destined to overthrow the magnificent structure of ecclesiastical
autocracy which had been built up by their great predecessors from
Gregory VII. to Innocent III. Such shortsightedness has many parallels
in history. It is easy to recall how the French nobles in the eighteenth
century flirted with a philosophy which preached the doctrine of popular
rights and liberties; and how the French monarchy gave practical aid to
a rebellion which secured such rights and liberties in North America,
thus encouraging the advance of that Revolution which for a time swept
the French monarchy and the French nobility from the face of the earth.
Turning now to a rapid survey of the actual achievements of Italy, we
find that the revival of literature and art was not only a stimulus to
intellectual progress and a [Sidenote: The Revival of letters.]
deathblow to ignorance and superstition; it also marks a great step in
the freedom of the individual from mediæval restrictions. In art, and
still more in literature, the individual found a career by which he
could exercise his highest talents, and in which he could attain a
personal eminence hitherto impossible. Dante, who stands on the
threshold of the Renaissance, was the first great man in the Middle Ages
who stood out by himself, unconnected with any corporate body or
institution. He used to boast exultingly that he was his own party. The
_Divine Comedy_ gave literary form to the first of the new living
languages of Europe. For Italy the work was almost too great; it has
left too weighty an impression upon his fellow-countrymen. To this day
it is the highest ambition of an Italian writer to use the language of
Dante, and he must have frequent recourse to a dictionary to make sure
that his words were really current in the thirteenth century. It is
never wholesome to have too marked a distinction between the language of
literature and that of ordinary life, and this servile habit of looking
back has checked the growth of a really great Italian literature in
later times. But Dante, with all his greatness, was not really imbued
with the modern spirit. He had not emancipated himself from the ideas of
his time, though he had raised himself above them. In his _De Monarchia_
he willingly surrendered himself to the scholastic philosophy, and made
a vigorous effort to defend the already effete and worthless theory of a
universal empire. Dante stands on the threshold of the Renaissance, but
he is rather the last giant of the Middle Ages than the herald of a new
epoch.
Dante was followed by Petrarch, whose sonnets have influenced literary
form in all countries, while his passionate devotion to the literature
and liberty of the ancients makes him the first of Italian humanists. A
contemporary of Petrarch was a man of still greater original genius,
Giovanni Boccaccio. Like Petrarch, Boccaccio was a great lover and
student of ancient literature, and he did much to introduce the study of
Greek into Italy. But it is as the author of the _Decameron_ that he is
entitled to the greatest fame. In this collection of stories he
displayed a contempt for superstition and a delight in life which were
alien to the spirit of the Middle Ages. Chaucer borrowed many plots of
the _Canterbury Tales_ from the _Decameron_; and through Chaucer and
other writers Boccaccio has influenced the whole of later English
literature.
These three great men were followed by a crowd of collectors, men who
travelled throughout Europe and even [Sidenote: The age of collection.]
beyond it in search of manuscripts of ancient authors. It is almost
impossible nowadays to appreciate the extraordinary ardour with which
the search was carried on. In some cases the greed for these new and
valuable possessions tempted men into actions which in a less worthy
cause would have merited the name of fraud. The greatest of these
collectors, who really performed an invaluable service to the world with
marvellous industry and success, were Poggio Bracciolini, Francesco
Filelfo, and Niccolo Niccoli, the founder of the library of St. Mark in
Florence. Their most bountiful patrons were Cosimo de’ Medici, the
‘father of his country,’ and Pope Nicolas V. During this period, which
is roughly the first half of the fifteenth century, the Italian language
seemed likely to fall into oblivion. The only great writers in Italy
were Poggio and Æneas Sylvius, and they both wrote solely in Latin. That
Italian did not go wholly out of fashion was due, in the first place, to
the influence of the Medici in Florence. One great object of their
ambition was to attract the most learned men of the day to their court.
But their anomalous position as despots masquerading in republican robes
compelled them to appeal to popular favour. Hence even their studies had
to some extent to be regulated so as to please the people. The
magnificent Lorenzo himself set an example by writing the famous
‘carnival songs’ to be sung at popular festivals. These songs have a
place of their own in the history of Italian literature; but they are of
special importance as showing how a great prince, in the midst of Greek
and Latin studies, could find time to cultivate the language of the
people. The finest Italian poem of the century is the _Giostra_ of
Politiano, who was not only an eminent scholar, but also a courtier and
a favourite companion of Lorenzo de’ Medici.
In classical studies the second part of the fifteenth century was not so
much an age of collection as an age of criticism. [Sidenote: The age of
criticism.] Men set themselves to read and interpret the treasures which
had been already brought together, and they were insensibly led to apply
the teaching of ancient writings to the circumstances and problems of
their own time. Prominent among the scholars who gave to the world the
fruits of their researches were Lorenzo Valla in Rome and Naples, and
Ficino and Politiano in Florence. It is impossible to over-estimate the
solvent influence of these studies upon human thought. Much of the
scholastic philosophy which had been based upon a corrupt translation of
Aristotle from the Arabic gave way at once before a study of the
philosopher’s original text. All kinds of delusions and superstitious
beliefs were overturned by the new spirit of inquiry. Lorenzo Valla
published a treatise to prove that the pretended Donation of
Constantine, upon which the popes had professed to base their claim to
temporal sovereignty, was a forgery. Valla was at this time in the
service of Alfonso the Magnanimous of Naples, who had quarrelled with
the Pope. Under his protection Valla went on to attack the whole
ecclesiastical system, and especially the moral decline of monasticism.
These may serve as illustrations of the influence exerted by the new
culture. In fact, so great was the energy displayed in the work of
destruction, that it seemed probable that all the old religious bonds
would be broken before anything had been found to take their place. If
Italy had stood alone, this might have been the case. But by this time
the new learning had begun to spread to other countries. The more sober
temperament of the Germans revolted against the extravagances of many of
the Italian scholars. Luther and Reuchlin were impelled by the critical
spirit of the age to revolt against the mediæval system, but they were
not content with mere negation, and their revolt, constructive as well
as destructive, has been called the Reformation.
If we can trace to the Italians the origin of modern literature, we may
with still greater confidence call them the creators of modern art, or
at any rate of the arts [Sidenote: The revival of art.] of painting and
sculpture. Architecture was the only form of art which did not fall into
decay during the Middle Ages, and in which the northern peoples may
claim at least equality with the people of Italy. But in painting and
sculpture the Italians can claim not only that they are entitled to all
the glories of their revival, but also that they brought these arts to
their highest perfection. This is far more than can be said of their
services to literature.
In the Middle Ages painting was so bound down by fixed [Sidenote: 1.
Painting.] and arbitrary rules that it hardly deserved the name of an
art. It was employed only for religious purposes, and it was forced to
conform to the dominant religious spirit. Custom and tradition regulated
not only the subject and its treatment, but even the very colours to be
employed. Any departure from these recognised rules, if it had been
possible, would have been regarded as impious. The altar-pieces of
mediæval churches were covered with stiff and lifeless representations
of madonnas and saints. These had a conventional value, and no artistic
standard was dreamt of. There were many pictures, but no artists. The
individual, as was so often the case in the Middle Ages, was repressed
and kept down by the society of which he was perforce a member. Anybody
can obtain a concrete illustration of the differences in painting
between the Middle Ages and modern times, who can compare a picture of
Cimabue or any other contemporary artist with a picture by Titian. The
Renaissance, which bridges over the gap between these artists, is the
steady though gradual assertion of the freedom of the individual from
the bondage of mediæval rules and traditions. The change may be traced
in the increased love of nature, in the new reverence for and study of
the human figure, and in the improvement of artistic methods. The most
important of the technical changes were the introduction of fresco for
wall-pictures, the discovery of oil-colours, which is to be credited to
the Flemings, and the employment of copper-plate and woodcuts, which
made it possible to reproduce and disseminate great works of art. But
still more important than any change in method was the change in the
very spirit of art; for the old stereotyped forms were substituted
imitations of the beautiful from Nature. The study of anatomy and
perspective became necessary for a painter. Works of art ceased to be
mechanical copies of a pattern prescribed by ecclesiastical authority;
they became an index to the mind of the free artist. The change marks a
complete alteration in the motives of religion as well as of art.
Religion ceased to be a superstitious reverence for something unearthly
and inhuman; it was brought into closer relation with the ordinary life
of men and women.
The beginning of the Renaissance in painting is usually placed in the
fourteenth century. At that time two great art cities, Florence and
Siena, were especially prominent. The first great Florentine artist
whose name has been handed down to posterity is Cimabue. His Sienese
contemporary was Duccio. In their works we see the first conception of
the beauty of the human face and figure, though they were still bound
down to the old stiffness of composition and the prescribed distribution
of colours. They were followed by a number of artists who have obtained
lasting renown. In Florence Giotto, equally great as a painter,
sculptor, and architect, founded a school which raised the whole
character of art, besides effecting a great improvement in technique.
Giotto was the first to substitute dramatic painting for the stiff and
lifeless representation of human figures which had hitherto been
universal. With him may be coupled the name of Andrea Orcagna, Ambrogio
Lorenzetti, and Fra Angelico, though the last-named belongs
chronologically to a somewhat later period. But of these men the same
observation may be made as of Dante in literature. They are rather the
greatest men of an age which is already passing away than the beginners
of a new period. Giotto especially is the Dante of art. He and his
contemporaries sum up in a pictorial form the mediæval theories and
conceptions of religion and of human life. To their representation they
contribute a vast improvement in manner and style, as did Dante in his
great poem, but what they represent is essentially mediæval. In fact, if
any one wished to see the Middle Ages before his eyes, he might be
referred to three great pictures of this period. The gloomy personal
religion, which weighed down the spirits of thoughtful men in the Middle
Ages, may be seen in Orcagna’s picture, ‘The Triumph of Death,’ in the
Campo Santo of Pisa. On the other hand, the converse side of religious
life in the Middle Ages, the grand and awe-inspiring organisation of the
Church, is represented in ‘The Church Militant and Triumphant,’the work
of Giotto’s pupils, in the Spanish Chapel of Santa Maria Novella in
Florence. And the stormy political life of a mediæval commune may be
studied in the frescoes of Ambrogio Lorenzetti, entitled ‘Civil
Government,’ on the walls of the Palazzo Publico of Siena.
It is when we leave the school of Giotto and his pupils, and turn to the
next generation of painters in the fifteenth century, that we find the
artistic change associated with the Renaissance in full progress.
Florence was still the most important city in the history of art. The
first great painter in this transition period was Masaccio. His frescoes
in the Brancacci Chapel of the Church of the Madonna del Carmine at
Florence may be taken as illustrating the next marked advance in
independence and artistic beauty from the days of Giotto. These works
exercised great influence upon all later artists, and especially upon
Raphael, who made them the subject of special study. Masaccio was
followed by a large number of eminent painters, among whom may be named
Filippo Lippi, in connection with whom Browning’s poem gives so vivid a
picture of the artistic struggles of the early Renaissance, Sandro
Botticelli, who was the first to introduce classical myths and
allegories as alternative subjects with the old Biblical stories,
Filippino Lippi, Domenico Ghirlandaio, and Luca Signorelli. The last is
perhaps in some way the ablest, though by no means the most pleasing, of
the fifteenth century painters. In the boldness of his conceptions, in
his knowledge of anatomy, and in his contempt for arbitrary and
meaningless rules, he is not only the forerunner but the rival of
Michael Angelo. But Florence, although the most important, was by no
means the only city in which this artistic revolution was taking place.
The same sort of work was being done in Perugia by Pietro Perugino, the
tutor of Raphael, in Padua by Andrea Mantegna, one of the greatest of
fifteenth century painters, and, above all, in Venice by Giovanni and
Gentile Bellini and by Vittore Carpaccio. It was the work of these men,
in addition to that of the Florentine and many other painters, which
prepared the way for the supreme artists of the sixteenth
century—Leonardo da Vinci, Michael Angelo, Raphael, Andrea del Sarto,
Giorgione, Titian, and Tintoretto. These painters still devoted their
talents mainly to the illustration of religious subjects; but they
treated these subjects in a human and secular spirit. The religious and
devotional aspect was subordinated to the desire for artistic perfection
of form and colour, and to the exciting of natural associations in the
minds of men and women. There is nothing really irreligious in their
art, though it shows a new way of regarding both art and religion. At
the same time, it is possible to discover in these artists of the
completed Renaissance a certain relaxation of moral earnestness and
purpose as compared with their predecessors; their very mastery of
colour and of drawing seems to mislead them; there is no longer the
noble struggle to express a lofty meaning in spite of difficulties and
drawbacks. It was the perception of these differences which led many
thoughtful artists and art students, who formed what has been called the
pre-Raphaelite school, to devote themselves to the study of the earlier
and less faultless painters of the fifteenth century, and somewhat to
undervalue the more mature artists who had been the idols of previous
generations.
The Renaissance marks almost a greater epoch in the history of sculpture
than in that of painting. In some [Sidenote: 2. Sculpture.] respects the
change which took place was the same. Great artists revolted against the
prescribed forms of the Middle Ages, and produced works of greater
beauty and greater originality. But sculpture was more profoundly
influenced than painting by the revived study of antiquity. The great
painters of ancient Greece were mere names, their works had perished. It
was therefore only the classical spirit that influenced painting. Direct
imitation was impossible. With sculpture it was otherwise. Greek and
Roman statues were still in existence, and many that had been buried
were unearthed and welcomed with passionate reverence. In some of these
statues had been realised the utmost possible beauty of form and truth
to nature that were possible in sculpture. It was impossible to surpass
them, and before long the passion for antiquity led to a servile
imitation of the ancient originals. But the first enthusiasm did produce
a few great master-workers who rivalled the artists of Greece. The first
to inaugurate the new epoch in the history of sculpture was Niccolo da
Pisano. A Greek sarcophagus, still preserved, had been brought to Pisa,
and Niccolo was induced by its beauty to make a thorough study of Greek
forms and methods. From this time he set himself to reconcile, as far as
was possible, the Greek love of beauty with the traditions of Christian
art. He was followed in the next century by a number of great sculptors,
most of whom were Florentines. Among their names the most important are
those of Lorenzo Ghiberti, who carved the gates for the Baptistery in
Florence, which Michael Angelo declared worthy to be the gates of
Paradise; Luca della Robbia, whose chief works are reliefs in
terra-cotta; Donatello, the sculptor of the famous figure of David; and
Andrea Verrocchio, the modeller of the grand equestrian statue of
Bartolommeo Coleone, which stands near the Scuola di San Marco in
Venice. After them came the great masters of Renaissance
sculpture—Benvenuto Cellini and Michael Angelo. The Memoirs of the
former may be commended to any one who wishes to study the purely
artistic temperament, uninfluenced by considerations of religion or
morality, which was produced in the later stages of the Renaissance.
Sculpture, it must be remembered, was more essentially non-religious and
pagan than painting. The beauty of the face was necessarily subordinate
to beauty of figure. Thus the new religious impulse of the sixteenth
century, which led to the Reformation in northern Europe and to the
counter-Reformation in the south, was in many ways alien or hostile to
sculpture, and from this time the art tended to decline.
In architecture the Renaissance exerted an overwhelming and permanent
influence, and here again Italy led the way, but it may be questioned
whether the influence resulted in unmixed gain. Architecture had never
been a lost art, as painting and sculpture had been. Nor was classical
influence a new thing, for the Romanesque style of the early Middle Ages
had been based upon ancient models. Beyond the Alps the early Romanesque
buildings had been followed by the great Gothic churches and cathedrals
which remain the great monument of the religious zeal of the Germanic
peoples in the later Middle Ages. Gothic architecture had been
introduced into Italy by German builders in the later part of the
thirteenth century. But Italian Gothic was a different style of
architecture from that which prevailed in the northern countries. From
the first it had been modified by national usages and by considerations
of climate. The great Gothic churches of Italy are the cathedrals of
Orvieto and Siena, and they are very different from the Gothic
cathedrals of Germany, France, and England. The excessive height in
proportion to the width and length, the enormous arches, and the flying
buttresses are absent in Italy. Italy never departed altogether from the
classical models.
The Renaissance in architecture, as in sculpture, was the result of the
revival of classical studies; and its formal changes [Sidenote: 3.
Architecture.] are to be seen in the return, first to the round arch of
the Romanesque period, and later, in the use of the flat top or lintel
of the Greeks and Romans. The great building of the early or
transitional Renaissance is the Cathedral of Florence, with its
magnificent dome, the work of Filippo Brunellesco, and the progress of
the movement, may be traced in St. Peter’s in Rome, designed by
Bramante, but modified and completed after his death, and finally in the
palaces built by Palladio in Vicenza and Verona. Thus only the beginning
of the architectural Renaissance belongs properly to the period covered
in this volume, whereas much more progress had been made in painting and
sculpture by the end of the fifteenth century. And its ultimate results
were in many ways alien to the true spirit of the real Renaissance.
Gothic architecture, whatever its defects, had given great scope for
originality. After the main design had been agreed upon, the completion
of details had been left in great measure to the ability and imagination
of the individual workmen. But the architecture of the later Renaissance
laid supreme stress upon symmetry and uniformity. Thus the workmen could
no longer be allowed to be original. Every detail, as well as the
central design, had to be fixed from the outset. The result was
magnificent and imposing, but it was purchased at the sacrifice of
originality and imagination. When the first vigour of the intellectual
revival was spent, there was a marked decline in architecture as in
sculpture, because in both the imitative faculty was cultivated rather
than the power of independent creation.
The Renaissance, like all great historic movements, contained good and
evil intermingled together. Its two prominent [Sidenote: Humanism and
the Reformation.] directions, especially in its earlier period, were the
revival of classical influences in literature and art, and the
vindication of originality of thought and of individual freedom. Both
had their special dangers, and they only went together for a limited
distance. The first tended to degenerate into the slavish and mechanical
imitation of ancient models; the second led in many cases to atheism, to
licence, to the chaos of pure negation. Nor were these the only evils.
The Renaissance spirit of free inquiry, when applied to religion, gave
rise to the Reformation, and the religious Reformation hastened to turn
against the spirit that had given it birth. Extreme Protestantism or
Puritanism was in many ways diametrically opposed to humanism.
Savonarola, who may be said to represent the Puritan spirit upon Italian
soil, urged his followers to make bonfires of their pictures, their
personal ornaments, and even of their books. The English Puritans
denounced the love of beauty in art as a carnal and misleading pleasure.
The Protestants, who owed their origin to the assertion of freedom of
thought and worship, soon came to erect a rigid system of dogma and
church government, which was fully as repressive and intolerant as that
against which they had revolted. The persecution which they resisted
with such heroism impelled them, unfortunately, not to practise
toleration, but to become persecutors in their turn.
That the good results of the Renaissance were not entirely destroyed or
overwhelmed either by the evils of the movement [Sidenote: Spread of
education.] itself or by the reaction provoked by those evils, is due to
the impulse which the Renaissance and the Reformation both gave to
education. In every country the introduction of the new learning and the
reformed religion was followed by the creation of new schools and
universities, and by the improvement of educational methods in the
institutions which already existed. To the spread of education we owe
the greatest and most permanent result of the Renaissance, the union,
instead of the antagonism, of morality and culture. And this union has
resulted in a higher morality than that inspired by compulsory beliefs
and compulsory observances—the morality of the free mind and conscience
of the individual.
APPENDIX
GENEALOGICAL TABLES
[Illustration: A. The Succession in Bohemia. (See p. 15.)]
[Illustration: B. The Succession in Tyrol. (See pp. 107 and 120.)]
[Illustration: C. The House of Hapsburg.]
NOTE.—The Hapsburg territories were divided between Albert III. and his
brother Leopold, the former taking Austria, and the latter all the rest.
Of the sons of Leopold, Ernest succeeded to Styria and Carinthia,
Frederick to Tyrol and the lands in Swabia. The Albertine line became
extinct with the death of Ladislas Postumus, when Austria passed to
Frederick III., and the latter’s son, Maximilian I., reunited all the
territories of the house.
[Illustration: D. The House of Wittelsbach.]
[Illustration: E. The House of Luxemburg.]
NOTE.—Luxemburg was transferred by Elizabeth, daughter of John of
Görlitz, to her husband’s nephew, Philip the Good of Burgundy, to the
exclusion of her own nearest surviving relative, Ladislas Postumus.
[Illustration: F. The Later Capets in France.]
[Illustration: G. The House of Valois.]
[Illustration: H. The Duchy and County of Burgundy.]
NOTES.—The duchy and county were united by the marriage of Eudes IV.
with Jeanne, daughter of Philip V. of France (see p. 64). On the death
of Philip de Rouvre the duchy fell to the crown, and was granted by John
to his fourth son, Philip the Bold. The County, with Artois, passed to
Margaret, widow of Lewis II. of Flanders: and her grand-daughter,
another Margaret, brought these provinces, together with Flanders,
Nevers, and Rethel, to the Valois dukes of Burgundy.
[Illustration: I. The First House of Anjou in Naples and Hungary.]
NOTES.—Charles I., called in by the popes, acquired both Naples and
Sicily, but lost the latter in the Sicilian Vespers, 1282 (see p. 25).
Joanna I., in order to disinherit her nephew, afterwards Charles III.,
adopted as her heir Louis of Anjou, who could claim a distant descent
from Charles II. Louis obtained possession of Provence, but he and his
descendants carried on a long and unsuccessful struggle for the crown of
Naples.
[Illustration: K. The Second House of Anjou in Naples.]
NOTE.—Several members of the family made strenuous efforts to gain the
crown of Naples, but without any substantial success. Réné le Bon, who
spent a long life in Provence, disinherited his grandson, Réné of
Lorraine, and left his possessions to his nephew, Charles of Maine, with
remainder to the French crown. This enabled Louis XI. to annex Provence
in 1481, and also gave rise to the claim upon Naples which was put
forward by Charles VIII. in 1494.
[Illustration: L. The House of Aragon in Sicily and Naples.]
[Illustration: M. The Houses of Visconti and Sforza in Milan.]
[Illustration: N. The Medici in Florence.]
[Illustration: O. The Union of Kalmar.]
[Illustration: P. The Palæologi.]
[Illustration: Q. Castile.]
[Illustration: R. Aragon.]
[Illustration: S. Navarre.]
NOTE.—Spanish Navarre was annexed to Spain by Ferdinand the Catholic in
1512. French Navarre was permanently united to France by an edict of
Henry IV. in 1607.
[Illustration: T. Some European Connections of the House of Portugal.]
INDEX
Abul Hakam, 471.
Acciaiuoli, Angelo, 299, 301, 302.
Acre, siege of, 452;
fall of (1291), 55, 168, 456.
Adolf of Nassau, King of the Romans, 11, 52;
relations with France, 12;
confirms the Swiss league, 129;
death, 13.
—— Count of Holstein, 444;
Duke of Schleswig, 445;
offered Danish crown, 446;
death, 447.
Adrianople, captured by the Turks, 502.
Æneas Sylvius Piccolomini, 524;
at the Council of Basel, 234, 235, 239;
reconciles Frederick III. with the Papacy, 239-241, 272, 405;
elected Pope as Pius II., 276.
Agincourt, battle of, 329.
Aiguillon, siege of, 75, 77.
Ailly, Pierre d’, 194.
Aladdin III., last Sultan of Iconium, 499.
Albania, 501, 508, 511, 513.
Albert I. of Hapsburg, 11, 12;
chosen King of the Romans, 13;
policy of, 14, 15;
action in Swabia, 129;
murdered, 16.
—— II. of Austria, 111, 133, 134, 136.
—— III. of Austria, 136;
shares Hapsburg territories with his brother Leopold, 137, 398.
—— IV. of Austria, 398.
—— V. of Austria (II. as King of the Romans), 397, 398, 239;
King of Hungary and Bohemia, 399;
elected in Germany, 400;
death, 401, 507.
—— Achilles of Brandenburg, 406.
—— the Bear, 3, 453.
—— of Hohenzollern, last Grand-master of the Teutonic Order, 466.
—— Duke of Mecklenburg, 436, 437, 441.
Albert, son of above, King of Sweden, 436, 437, 442;
abdicates, 443.
—— II. of Saxony, 3.
—— III. of Saxony, 226.
Alberti, Benedetto, 165, 166.
Albizzi, the, 163, 164.
—— Maso degli, 166, 289.
—— Piero degli, 289.
—— Rinaldo degli, 289, 292, 293, 294.
Albornoz, Cardinal, 160, 161, 176, 177.
Albret, house of, in Navarre, 487.
Alexander V., 200, 201.
—— VI., 281, 287;
bull of, 493.
Alfonso III. of Aragon, 480, 481.
—— V., 239;
King of Aragon and Alfonso I. of Naples, 269, 271, 272, 484, 525;
death of, 297, 484.
—— II. of Naples, 257, 285, 287.
—— X. of Castile, 6, 8, 48, 470.
—— XI. of Castile, 470;
war with the Moors, 471.
—— son of John II. of Castile, 476, 477.
—— V. of Portugal, 477, 492.
—— of Poitiers, 47.
Algeciras, 471.
Aljubarrota, battle of, 474, 491.
Alsace, acquired by Charles the Bold, 377, 408;
recovered by Sigismund of Tyrol, 379, 380, 409.
Altenburg, battle near, 16.
Alvaro de Luna, Constable of Castile, 475, 476.
_Ammonizio_ in Florence, 163.
Amurath I., 502;
killed, 503.
—— II., 506;
his wars with Hungary, 507, 508.
Anagni, outrage at, 29, 54;
papal election at, 186.
Andrea del Sarto, 529.
Andrew of Hungary, marries Joanna I. of Naples, 152;
murdered, 152, 153.
Andronicus II., 497;
deposed, 498.
—— III., 498, 499;
death of, 500.
—— son of John V., 171, 503, 504.
Angelico, Fra, 527.
Angora, battle of, 505.
Anjou, first house of, acquires Provence, 9, 24;
acquires Naples and Sicily, 24;
loses Sicily, 25, 48, 50, 479, 480;
acquires Hungary, 15, 16, 26, 123;
becomes extinct, 155, 271.
—— second house of, acquires Provence, 154;
claims Naples, 154, 155, 260, 266, 269, 271, 275, 277, 278, 286;
its possessions and claims pass to French crown, 258, 279, 389.
Anne of Beaujeu, 390, 391, 392.
—— of Bohemia, 208.
—— of Brittany, 391, 392.
—— of Burgundy, marries Duke of Bedford, 336;
death of, 346.
Antony, Duke of Brabant, 321, 322, 337;
killed at Agincourt, 329.
Aquitaine, Duchy of, 45, 95.
Aragon, constitution of, 478;
acquires Sicily, 25, 479;
loses Sicily, 26, 480;
acquires Sardinia, 480;
annexes the Balearic islands, 481;
recovers Sicily, 482;
falls to house of Trastamara, 483;
acquires and loses Naples, 484;
relations with Navarre, 484-487;
united with Castile, 477, 487.
Architecture, influence of the Renaissance on, 531, 532.
Arezzo, annexed to Florence, 167.
Arles, kingdom of, 12, 56, 78, 116, 184.
Armagnac, Bernard of, 322, 330, 331, 351.
Armagnacs, the, 323, 326-332.
‘Armagnacs,’ the, in Switzerland, 408.
Army, standing, in France, 352, 353, 354, 355.
Arras, treaty of (1414), 327;
(1435), 347, 349, 359, 361;
(1482), 388, 416.
Artevelde, Jacob van, 71, 72;
murder of, 74.
—— Philip van, 317, 318.
Artois, succession in, 67;
passes to Margaret of Flanders, 90;
acquired by house of Burgundy, 320;
ceded to Louis XI., 388;
surrendered by Charles VIII., 393, 417.
Ascania, house of, 3, 10;
extinction in Brandenburg, 107, 110, 458;
extinction in Saxony, 226.
Athens, duchy of, 498, 512.
Auberoche, battle of, 74.
Austria, under Ottokar, 3;
transferred to the Hapsburgs, 10, 127;
separated from the other Hapsburg territories, 137, 398;
succession of Ladislas Postumus, 409;
falls to Frederick III., 414;
reunion of territories, 409.
Avesnes, house of, 14.
Avignon, papal residence in, 4, 17, 30, 140, 155, 185, 458;
sold to Clement VI., 153;
quitted by the Popes, 122, 185;
Clement VII. returns to, 122, 186.
Avila, Henry IV. deposed at, 477.
Aybar, battle of, 485.
Azof, Genoese in, 495, 513.
Azores, the, 491, 493.
Baden in Aargau, 138.
Bagnolo, treaty of, 257, 284, 311.
Bajazet I., 503, 504;
defeat at Angora and death, 505.
—— II., 513.
Baldwin, Archbishop of Trier, 17, 98.
Balearic Islands, conquered by James I. of Aragon, 479;
annexed to Aragon, 481.
Balliol, Edward, claims crown of Scotland, 68.
—— John, King of Scotland, 51.
Baltic, Danish preponderance in, 420, 428;
decline of, 431;
attempted restoration by Waldemar III., 433, 435, 437;
overthrown by Hanseatic League, 438, 439, 444;
trade in, 449;
diminished importance of, 450.
Barbiano, Alberigo da, 151.
Barcelona, treaty of, 392.
Barnet, battle of, 373.
Baroncelli, 160.
Basel, Council of, 229-242, 270, 272, 273.
Baugé, battle of, 333.
Bayonne, 96;
surrendered to France, 357.
Beatific Vision, heresy of the, 101.
Beaufort, Edmund, 357.
—— Henry, Bishop of Winchester and Cardinal, 326, 342, 345, 346, 347,
355, 356;
at council of Constance, 220;
heads crusade against the Hussites, 227, 228.
Beaujeu, Anne of, 390, 391, 392.
Bedford, John, Duke of, 334, 336-346;
quarrel with Burgundy, 346, 347;
death of, 348.
Belgrade, 507, 514;
relief of, in 1456, 406, 412, 511.
Bella, Giano della, 32.
Bellini, Gentile, 529.
—— Giovanni, 529.
Beltran de la Cueva, 477.
Benedict XI., 29, 54.
—— XII., 99, 102, 106.
—— XIII., 187, 217, 218, 221, 266.
Bentivoglio, Giovanni, 180, 181.
Bergamo, 144;
subject to Milan, 147;
acquired by Venice, 249, 251, 253.
Bergen, German ‘factory’ in, 426.
Berri, Charles, Duke of. _See_ Charles of Berri.
Béthune, Robert of, 54.
_Bianchi_, the, 22.
Black Death, 79, 110, 153, 471.
—— Prince, the, 69, 79, 80, 90;
gains battle of Poitiers, 81;
supports Peter the Cruel, 93, 473;
illness and ill-success, 94;
quits France, 95;
death, 96.
Blanche of Bourbon, wife of Peter the Cruel, 472.
—— of Navarre, 485.
—— daughter of John II. of Aragon, 487.
Blanchetaque, ford over the Somme, 76, 328.
Blois, Charles of, 73;
death of, 92.
Boccaccio, 523.
Boccanegra, Simone, 169.
Boguslav of Pomerania, 445.
Bohemia, succession in, 15, 16;
acquired by John of Luxemburg, 18;
under Charles IV., 113;
disturbances under Wenzel, 192, 193;
Hussite movement in, 207-210, 223;
crusades against, 224, 225, 227;
conclusion of compacts, 231;
accession of Sigismund, 232;
accession of Albert of Austria, 399, 401;
election of Ladislas Postumus, 410, 413;
election of George Podiebrad, 414;
war with Hungary, 415;
falls to house of Jagellon, 416, 417.
Bologna, seized by Giovanni Visconti, 160, 175.
—— recovered by Albornoz, 161.
—— under Giovanni Bentivoglio, 180.
—— subjected to Milan, 181.
Bona of Savoy, 261, 262, 305.
Boniface VIII., 13, 15, 22, 28;
quarrel with Philip IV. of France, 29, 54.
—— IX., 187, 195, 244, 245, 265, 266.
Bordeaux, trade of, 70;
rising in 1452, 357.
Borgia, Alfonso, 274.
_See_ Calixtus III.
—— Cæsar, 259.
—— Rodrigo, 275, 287 (Alexander VI.).
Bosnia, 502;
wars with the Turks, 503;
annexed by Mohammed II., 511.
Botticelli, Sandro, 528.
Boucicault, Marshal, 244.
Bourges, Pragmatic Sanction of, 237, 277, 363, 367.
Brabant, duchy of, 119, 123, 321, 337, 339;
acquired by Philip the Good, 344.
Braccio da Montone, 151, 267, 268;
death of, 269.
Bramante, designs St. Peter’s, 531.
Brandenburg, 3;
acquired by house of Wittelsbach, 107;
transferred to house of Luxemburg, 120, 123, 191, 201;
given to Frederick of Hohenzollern, 203, 216.
Bremen, 422, 451;
expelled from Hanseatic League, 429;
restored, 432.
Brescia, calls in John of Bohemia, 144, 146;
seized by Milan, 147;
battle of (1401), 151, 181, 196, 225;
acquired by Venice, 249, 251.
Brienne, Walter de, 147, 148.
Brittany, duchy of, 45;
Succession war in, 73, 92, 97;
united with French crown, 391, 392.
Bruce, Robert, King of Scotland, 68.
Bruges, centre of mediæval trade, 69, 422, 426.
Brun, Rudolf, 131;
practically despot in Zürich, 132, 136;
death, 138.
Brunellesco, Filippo, 531.
Brünn, treaty of, 417.
Brusa, in Asia Minor, 499.
Buchan, Constable of France, 336, 337.
Buonconvento, death of Henry VII. at, 42.
Bureau, Gaspar, 352, 355.
—— Jean, 352, 355.
Burgundian party in France, 323, 324, 326, 348.
Burgundy, county of, 12, 56.
_See_ Franche-Comté.
—— duchy of, 45;
given to Philip the Bold, 90, 320;
annexed by Louis XI., 386, 388.
—— old kingdom of, 12.
Bussolari, Jacopo, 177.
Cabochiens, the, 327.
Cade, Jack, rising of, 357.
Cagliari, naval battle off, 170.
Calais, taken by Edward III., 77;
besieged by Philip the Good, 351.
Calixtus III., 274, 275.
Cambray, League of, 259.
Campobasso, Count of, 385.
Canale, Niccolo, 256.
Canaries, the, 491.
Cane, Facino, 179, 244.
Cangrande della Scala, 141, 143.
Cantacuzenos, John, 498-502.
—— Matthew, 502.
Cape of Good Hope, 259, 492.
—— Verde, 491.
Capet, house of, 43, 44, 63, 65.
Capistrano, Fra, 412.
Caramania, princes of, 505, 512.
Caravaggio, battle of, 252.
Carinthia, 9;
united with Tyrol, 10;
acquired by Hapsburgs, 107.
Carmagnola, Francesco, 247, 249, 291;
executed, 250.
Carobert, King of Hungary, 15, 16, 26, 152.
Carpaccio, Vittore, 529.
Carrara, Francesco, 171, 174, 179, 180.
—— —— the younger, 179, 183, 245.
Casimir the Great of Poland, 458, 459.
—— IV. of Poland, 415, 464, 465.
Cassel, battle of (1328), 70.
Castile, constitution of, 469;
disorders in, 470;
under Peter the Cruel, 93, 472-474;
united with Aragon, 477, 487;
share in discovery, 492, 493.
Castillon, battle of, 358.
Castracani, Castruccio, Lord of Lucca, 31, 33, 105, 142, 143, 292.
Castriot, George (Scanderbeg), 255, 256, 508, 513.
Catalans, Grand Company of the, 497.
Catalonia, 478;
rebels against John II., 486.
_Catasto_, the, 291, 295, 296.
Catharine, daughter of John of Gaunt, marries Henry III. of Castile,
475.
—— of Navarre, marries Jean d’Albret, 487.
Cauchon, Pierre, Bishop of Beauvais, 342, 344, 345.
Celestine V., 28.
Cellini, Benvenuto, 530.
Cerda, Ferdinand de, 48.
—— Infantes de, 48, 470.
Cerdagne, ceded to France, 389, 486;
restored to Aragon, 392, 487.
Cesarini, Cardinal, 228, 229, 230, 236.
Cesena, Michael of, 100.
_Chambre des Comptes_, 58.
Champagne, acquired by France, 48, 65, 66;
offered by Bedford to Philip the Good, 343;
promised by Louis XI. to his brother Charles, 371.
Chandos, John, 90, 92;
death, 94.
Charles IV., King of Bohemia and Emperor, 108;
reign of, 109-123;
character, 112;
government of Bohemia, 113;
policy in Italy, 114;
issues the Golden Bull, 117;
his motives, 118;
his territorial acquisitions, 119, 120;
importance of his rule in Germany, 184;
relations with Rienzi, 159;
visit to Lübeck, 187, 441;
death, 123.
Charles IV., King of France, 65.
—— V., King of France, regent for his father, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88;
accession to the throne, 90;
government, 90, 91, 92;
renews the English war, 94, 473;
successes, 95, 96, 474;
death, 97, 315.
—— VI. of France, 194;
reign of, 315-333.
—— VII., King of France, 260, 330, 332;
accession, 334;
reign, 334-361;
reforms of, 352-355;
death, 361.
—— VIII., King of France, 264, 287, 313;
minority, 390, 391;
marries Anne of Brittany, 392;
sets out for Naples, 393.
Charles the Bold of Burgundy, 364-367;
wars with Liége, 368, 369;
quarrels with Louis XI., 370-376;
changed policy of, 377;
acquisitions in Germany, 377;
seeks a crown, 378;
war with the Swiss, 379, 380, 384;
death of, 385.
—— I. of Anjou, King of Naples and Sicily and Count of Provence, 9, 24,
25, 479.
—— II., King of Naples, 9, 15, 25, 26.
—— III., King of Naples, 154, 190;
assassinated in Hungary, 155, 191.
—— of Calabria, son of Robert of Naples, 142, 143.
—— of Durazzo, 152, 153.
—— (I.) of Maine, 279, 354, 356.
—— (II.) of Maine, 279, 389.
—— I. (the Bad) of Navarre, 79, 80, 93, 96, 484;
relations with Marcel, 85, 87, 88.
—— II. of Navarre, 484, 485.
—— of Berri, brother of Louis XI., 361;
joins League of Public Weal, 365;
acquires Normandy, 367;
loses it, 369;
receives Guienne, 371;
death of, 376.
—— of Valois, brother of Philip IV., 17, 25, 26, 49, 50, 53, 62.
—— of Viana, 485, 486, 487.
Chatillon, Jacques de, 53.
Chaucer, Geoffrey, 459, 523.
Chiana, val di, 308.
Chioggia, war of, 172, 173.
Christian of Oliva, 454, 455.
—— of Oldenburg, succeeds in Denmark and Norway, 446;
acquires Sweden, Schleswig and Holstein, 447;
loses Sweden, 448;
death, 448.
—— II. of Denmark, 449.
Christopher II., King of Denmark, 431, 432, 433.
—— of Bavaria, 445;
King of Denmark, Sweden and Norway, 446;
death, 446.
Cibo, Franchescetto, 285.
Cilly, Count of, 411;
death, 412.
Cimabue, 526, 527.
Cinque ports, the sailors of the, 51.
_Ciompi_, the, 32;
rising of, 164.
Clarence, Thomas, Duke of, 326, 333.
Clarence, George, Duke of, 372, 373.
Clement V., 30, 55, 457.
—— VI., 99, 107, 110, 158, 159, 160.
—— VII., schismatic pope at Avignon, 162, 186.
—— VII., 285.
Clementia of Hapsburg, 9, 15.
—— of Hungary, second wife of Louis X., 63, 64.
_Clericis laicos_, papal bull, 29, 52.
Clisson, Olivier de, 97, 319.
Coleone, Bartolommeo, 300, 301;
statue of, 530.
Cologne, importance in German trade, 422;
rivalry with Lübeck and Hamburg, 427;
position in Hanseatic League, 432;
Hanse meeting at, 437, 439.
Colonna, the family of, 28.
—— Oddo, 220, 269.
_See_ Martin V.
—— Stefano, 157.
Columbus, Christopher, 492.
Commines, Philippe de, 23, 49, 308, 361, 362, 377, 403.
Comminges, Count of, 377.
_Compactata_, the, 231, 232, 410.
_Condottieri_, foreign, 150;
native, 151.
Conflans, treaty of, 367, 369.
Conradin, 496;
execution of, 24.
_Conseil du roi_, the, 58.
Constance, Council of, 205, 206, 211-220, 267.
—— daughter of Manfred, marries Peter III. of Aragon, 24, 479.
—— daughter of Peter IV. of Aragon, 481.
—— of Castile, marries John of Gaunt, 474, 475.
Constantine Palæologus, last of the Byzantine emperors, 509;
his heroic death, 510.
Constantinople, recovered from the Latins by Michael Palæologus, 494;
first siege by the Turks, 505;
second siege, 506;
final siege and capture, 273, 509, 510;
treaty of, 256, 283, 308, 513.
Copenhagen, captured by Hanse forces, 438.
Cordova, 468.
Cornaro, Catarina, 257, 258.
Corsica, seized by the Genoese, 168.
Cortes of Castile, 60, 469, 488;
of Aragon, 60, 478, 479.
Cortona, annexed to Florence, 167, 289.
Cossa, Baldassare, 201, 266, 267.
_See_ John XXIII.
_Cour du roi_, the, 44, 57, 58.
Courland, duchy of, 466.
Courtrai, battle of, 53.
Cracow, University of, 209.
Crecy, battle of, 76.
Crema, 252.
Cremona, 251, 259.
Crevant, battle of, 337.
Crimea, the, 168, 495, 513.
Crusades, the, 55.
Cyprus, 168;
acquired by Venice, 257.
Dalmatia, 202, 204, 246.
Dante, 22, 41, 42, 139, 522, 523, 527.
Danzig, 458, 462, 465.
Dauphiné, 12;
acquired by France, 78;
Louis XI. in, 354, 357, 359.
David II., King of Scotland, 68, 77.
Denmark, relations with Germany, 410;
war with the Hanseatic League, 433-438;
united with Sweden and Norway, 443;
with Schleswig and Holstein, 447;
separated from Sweden, 448, 449.
Diaz, Bartholomew, 259, 492.
Diesbach, Nicolas von, 380.
Dinant, 368;
taken by Charles the Bold, 369.
Discoveries at end of fifteenth century, 259, 491-3.
Ditmarsh, peasants of, 448.
Döffingen, battle of, 189.
Donatello, 530.
Doria, Luciano, 172.
—— Paganino, 170.
—— Pietro, 172.
Douglas, Earl of, and Count of Touraine, 336, 337.
Duccio, Sienese painter, 527.
Dunois, bastard son of Louis of Orleans, 342, 352, 354, 365.
Dupplin Moor, battle of, 68.
Durazzo, house of, 152, 153, 191, 195.
Dushan, Stephen, King of Servia, 501.
Easterlings or Osterlings, 428.
_Écorcheurs_, the, 351.
Education, stimulated by the Renaissance, 533.
Edward I., King of England, 29, 60;
wars with France, 51, 52.
—— II., King of England, 52;
marries Isabella of France, 53;
deposed, 65.
—— III., King of England, 65, 66, 67, 69, 111;
war in Scotland, 68;
allied with the Flemings, 71;
relations with Lewis the Bavarian, 72, 75;
claims the French crown, 71;
war in France, 71-78, 80, 81, 88, 89, 94, 95;
death, 96.
—— IV., King of England, 365, 370, 372, 373, 375, 386;
invades France, 381, 382;
death of, 388.
Eger, peace of, 190, 192.
Eleanor, daughter of Peter IV. of Aragon, 483.
—— of Navarre, marries Gaston de Foix, 487.
Electors, the seven, 7, 98, 108;
as regulated by the Golden Bull, 116, 117.
Elizabeth, widow of Lewis the Great, 190, 191.
Elna, fortress of, 49.
Elsa, val d’, 308.
Epila, battle of, 482.
Ercole d’Este, 283, 301, 308.
Eric Glipping, King of Denmark, 446.
—— Menved, King of Denmark, 430, 431, 446.
—— of Pomerania, 443;
succeeds to the Scandinavian kingdoms, 444;
deposed, 445.
Ernest of Styria, 398.
Ertogrul, Turkish leader, 499.
Esthonia, 453, 458, 465, 466.
Étaples, treaty of, 392.
Eudes IV., Duke of Burgundy, 63, 64, 65;
death of, 79.
Eugenius IV., 229, 270-272, 508;
quarrel with Council of Basel, 230, 231, 233, 234, 235, 236;
deposed, 238;
triumphs over the Council, 239-241.
Evreux, Louis, Count of, 49.
—— Philip, Count of, marries Jeanne of Navarre, 66.
_Execrabilis_, papal bull, 277, 407.
Falier, Marin, 169, 171.
Falköping, battle of, 443.
Fastolf, Sir John, 340.
Felix V., anti-Pope, 238, 239, 242.
Ferdinand I. of Aragon, 475, 483.
—— II. (the Catholic) of Aragon, 477, 485, 487, 488, 489.
—— IV. of Castile, 470.
—— de Cerda, 48, 470.
Ferrante I., King of Naples, 260, 282, 283, 285-287, 307, 309.
Ferrara, war with Venice, 257, 283, 311;
Council of, 236, 272.
Ficino, Marsilio, 525.
Filelfo, Francesco, 523.
_Filioque_ controversy, 236, 503.
Flanders, county of, 45, 90;
at war with Philip IV., 53, 54, 62;
commerce of, 69, 320;
allied with Edward III., 71;
Philip van Artevelde and war with France, 317, 318;
acquired by Dukes of Burgundy, 320;
relations with Louis XI., 387.
Flor, Roger de, 497.
Florence, 141, 150;
constitution of, 31-35, 148, 149, 165, 166, 296, 297, 303, 310;
offers lordship to Charles of Calabria, 142;
fails to get Lucca, 146, 147;
Walter de Brienne in, 148;
parties in, 163, 164;
oligarchical government from 1382 to 1435, 166, 167, 288-293;
wars with Milan, 179, 180, 181, 248, 249, 291, 292;
under Medicean rule, 293-314;
Council of, 236;
cathedral of, 531;
importance in history of art, 527, 528, 530.
Foix, house of, in Navarre, 487.
Forli, 282, 309.
Foscari, Francesco, 248, 249, 252;
deposition and death, 254.
—— Jacopo, 253.
Fougères, attack upon, 357.
Franche-Comté, 12, 56, 64, 79, 90;
acquired by Valois Dukes of Burgundy, 320;
attacked by the Swiss, 380;
annexed by Louis XI., 387, 388;
surrendered by Charles VIII., 393, 417.
Francis I. of Brittany, 357.
—— II. of Brittany, 363, 366, 369;
death, 391.
Franciscans, their quarrel with John XXII., 101, 103.
Frankfort, Diet of, 187.
Fraticelli, the, 101, 159.
Frederick III., Burggraf of Nuremberg, 8, 10, 16.
—— I. of Brandenburg, 216, 395.
_See_ Hohenzollern, Frederick of.
—— II. of Brandenburg, 465.
—— (the Handsome) of Hapsburg, elected King of the Romans, 98;
captured by his rival, 99;
death, 105.
—— of Tyrol, 395, 398;
opposes Sigismund at Constance, 212, 213, 215, 216, 219.
—— III., Emperor, 239, 402, 404-411, 464;
relations with the Papacy and Council of Basel, 240, 241;
joint ruler in Styria, 398;
character, 403;
acquires Austria, 414;
relations with Charles the Bold, 378, 380, 416;
last years, 417;
death, 418.
—— I. of Sicily, 26, 482, 497.
—— II. of Sicily, 482.
Friuli, 246.
Froissart, 49, 69.
Gabelle, the, 61;
upon salt, 82, 91.
Galata, 168, 495.
Gallipoli, seized by the Turks, 502.
Gama, Vasco da, 259, 492.
Gaston de Foix, 487.
Gavre, battle of, 359.
Genappe, 359, 361.
Genoa, 35;
rivalry with Venice, 167-173, 255, 502;
factions in, 169;
relations with France, 180, 247, 260, 263;
relations with Milan, 175, 176, 247, 260, 262, 263;
relations with Greek empire, 495, 502, 509;
loss of Kaffa and Azof, 513.
Gerhard, Count of Holstein, 444.
Gerona, siege of, 49, 486.
Gerson, Jean, 194, 218, 323.
Ghent, 69, 70, 71.
Ghiara d’Adda, 252, 259.
Ghiberti, Lorenzo, 530.
Ghirlandaio, Domenico, 528.
Giac, Pierre de, 338.
Giano della Bella, 32.
Gibraltar, 471.
Giorgione, 529.
Giotto, 527, 528.
Girona, fortress of, 49.
Glarus, 133;
leagued with the Swiss, 134, 135, 136, 138.
Gloucester, Humphrey, Duke of, 337, 338.
Golden Bull, the, 116-118, 187.
Göllheim, battle of, 13.
Gonfalonier of justice, 33.
Görlitz, John of, 123, 193.
Gothland, island of, 425, 433.
Granada, kingdom of, 468, 471;
conquest of, 490.
Grand Company of the Catalans, 497.
Grandella, battle of, 24.
Granson, 380, 385;
battle of, 261, 384.
Gregory IX., grants Prussia to Teutonic knights, 455.
——X., 9, 24, 27, 48.
——XI., 122, 162, 182, 185.
——XII., 187;
negotiations with Benedict XIII., 197, 198;
deposed at Pisa, 200;
relations with Ladislas of Naples, 204, 266, 267.
Guelfs and Ghibellines in Italy, 22, 31, 39, 40, 139, 140, 141, 143,
144, 145.
Guesclin, Bertrand du, 90, 92, 93, 94, 473;
death, 97.
Guienne, lost by the English, 357;
ceded to Charles of Berri, 372;
recovered by French crown, 376.
Guinea Coast, 491.
Guinigi, Paolo, 180, 244.
Gunther of Schwartzburg, 111.
Guy, Count of Flanders, 53, 54.
Guzman, Eleanor de, 471, 472.
Hagenbach, Peter of, 377, 379, 380.
Hainault, united with Holland and Zealand, 14;
acquired by house of Wittelsbach, 75, 108, 320;
acquired by house of Burgundy, 321, 337, 339.
Hakon, King of Norway, 434, 438;
marries Margaret of Denmark, 435, 436, 442;
death, 442.
Halidon Hill, battle of, 68.
Hallam, Robert, Bishop of Salisbury, 220.
Hamburg, 422, 451;
allied with Lübeck, 427, 428;
supports Holstein against Denmark, 444.
Hans, or John, King of Denmark and Norway, 447, 448.
_Hansa_, meaning of word, 423, 424;
_Hansa Alamanniæ_, 428.
Hanseatic League, 5, 19, 183, 420;
origin of, 429;
war with Denmark, 121, 433-438;
zenith of its power, 439;
decline of, 449-451.
Hapsburg, house of, 4, 16, 19, 98, 119;
in Swabia, 126;
acquires Austria, 10, 127;
acquires Carinthia, 107;
acquires Tyrol, 120;
partition of territories, 137, 398;
acquires Hungary and Bohemia, 399, 401, 410;
hold on imperial crown, 400;
loses Hungary and Bohemia, 413,414;
acquires the Netherlands, 388, 389, 416;
reunion of territories, 404, 409, 417.
Hawkwood, John, 151, 167, 179;
death of, 180.
Hedwig, Queen of Poland, marries Jagello of Lithuania, 190, 191, 459.
Helsingborg, siege of, 434, 438.
Henry VII., Emperor, 17, 18, 129, 457;
in Italy, 39-42;
death, 42, 98.
—— of Trastamara (Henry II.), 472;
claims crown of Castile, 93, 473;
gains it, 94, 474.
—— III. of Castile, 475.
—— IV. (the Impotent) of Castile, 476, 477.
—— IV., King of England, 323, 324, 26, 459.
—— V., King of England, 218, 327-333.
—— VI. of England, 334.
—— VII., King of England, 391, 392.
—— Duke of Lower Bavaria, 3.
—— Duke of Carinthia and Count of Tyrol, 15;
King of Bohemia, 16;
deposed, 18;
death, 106.
—— Count of Holstein, 444, 445.
—— of Mecklenburg, marries Ingeborg of Denmark, 436, 442.
—— the Navigator, 491, 492.
—— of Wettin, Margrave of Meissen, 3.
_Hermandad_, in Castile, 470, 471.
Hermann von Salza, 454.
Hermanstadt, 507.
Herrings, battle of the, 340.
Hesse, Lewis of, 402.
Hohenstaufen, house of, 2, 400.
Hohenzollern, Frederick of, 202, 203, 213, 214, 222, 395, 399, 400,
402;
receives Brandenburg (1415), 215;
attempted reforms in Germany, 226, 227, 228;
death, 403.
—— house of, 4, 400;
acquires Brandenburg, 215.
Holland, 14;
acquired by house of Wittelsbach, 75, 108, 320;
acquired by dukes of Burgundy, 321, 337, 339.
Holstein, relations with Denmark, 430, 434, 435, 438;
united with Schleswig, 442, 444, 445;
acquired by Christian of Oldenburg and made a duchy, 447.
Honorius IV., 28.
Humanism, 524, 532.
Humbert, the last Dauphin of Vienne, 78.
Hungary, succession in, 15;
passes to house of Anjou, 15, 26;
acquired by Sigismund, 191;
accession of Albert of Austria, 399;
accession of Ladislas of Poland, 409, 507;
accession of Ladislas Postumus, 410;
election of Mathias Corvinus, 414;
falls to house of Jagellon, 417, 465.
Hunyadi, John, 410, 411, 507, 508;
relieves Belgrade, 412, 511;
death, 412, 511.
—— Ladislas, 412, 413.
Hus, John, 207, 209, 210;
goes to Constance, 211;
imprisoned, 214;
trial, 216;
executed, 217.
Husinec, Nicolas of, 223, 225.
Iconium, Turkish sultans of, 495, 498, 499.
India, trade with, 491.
Indies, the West, 492.
Ingeborg, daughter of Waldemar III., 442, 443.
Innocent VI., 117, 160, 161.
—— VII., 187.
Interregnum, the Great, 6.
Isabel of Bavaria, wife of Charles VI. of France, 321, 330, 332.
Isabella of Castile, 476, 477, 487, 488, 489.
—— of France, wife of Edward II., 53, 65.
—— of Portugal, wife of John II. of Castile, 476.
Italy, 20;
causes of disunion in, 21-23.
Jacqueline of Hainault, 337, 339.
Jacques Cœur, 352;
fall of, 358.
Jacquetta of Luxemburg, 346.
Jagello, 191, 192, 459.
_See_ Ladislas V. of Poland.
Jagellon house in Poland, 183, 191, 208, 225, 410, 459, 466;
acquires Bohemia, 415, 416, 465;
acquires Hungary, 417, 466.
James I. (the Conqueror) of Aragon, 479.
—— II. of Aragon, 25, 26, 480.
—— III. of Aragon, 480.
Janissaries, formation of the, 500.
Janow, Mathias of, 207.
Jeanne, heiress of Champagne and Navarre, wife of Philip IV. of France,
48, 49, 53.
—— daughter of Louis X., 63;
excluded from the succession in France, 64;
Queen of Navarre, 66;
death, 79.
—— Countess of Blois, 73, 77.
—— Darc, 334, 340-345.
Jerome of Prag, 208, 217.
Jews, expelled from Spain, 489.
Joanna I., Queen of Naples, 152, 153, 154, 186.
—— II., Queen of Naples, 155, 267.
—— of Portugal, wife of Henry IV. of Castile, 477.
—— ‘la Beltraneja,’ 477, 492.
—— Henriquez, second wife of John II. of Aragon, 485, 486.
Jobst of Moravia, 123;
receives Brandenburg from Sigismund, 191, 193;
candidate for empire, 201, 202;
death, 203.
John XXII., 99, 145;
his heresy, 101;
death, 102.
—— XXIII., elected Pope, 201;
quarrel with Naples, 204, 211, 267, 268;
summons Council of Constance, 205;
conduct at Constance, 213-215;
deposed, 216, 217;
death, 221.
—— I. of Aragon, 482, 483.
—— II. of Aragon, 484, 485, 486, 487.
—— King of Bohemia, 18, 75, 98, 107, 112;
his expedition to Italy, 144, 145, 146;
crusade in Prussia, 459;
death of, 76, 108.
—— III., Duke of Brittany, death of, 73.
—— the Fearless, Duke of Burgundy, 321-332;
murder of, 332, 338.
—— of Calabria, 260, 299, 486;
joins League of the Public Weal, 365, 367.
John I. of Castile, 474, 475.
—— II. of Castile, 475, 476.
—— or Hans, King of Denmark and Norway, 447, 448.
—— I., posthumous son of Louis X., 64.
—— II., King of France, 79-90;
captured at Poitiers, 81;
death of, 89.
—— of Gaunt, 95;
relations with Castile, 474.
—— V., Greek Emperor, 171, 234, 236, 500, 501, 502, 503;
death of, 504.
—— VI., Greek Emperor, 236, 506, 509.
—— Cantacuzenos, 498, 499, 500;
crowned Emperor, 501;
abdicates, 502.
—— Palæologus, nephew and colleague of Manuel II., 504, 505.
—— of Hapsburg assassinates his uncle, Albert I., 16.
—— I. of Portugal, 474, 491.
—— II. of Portugal, 492.
—— of Procida, 24.
John Henry, Margrave of Moravia, 107.
Joinville, 49.
Julius II., 281, 287.
Justiciar of Aragon, the, 478, 479.
Kaffa, in the Crimea, 168, 170, 495, 513.
Kalisch, treaty of, 458.
Kalmar, union of, 183, 443, 444, 445, 446, 447, 449, 460.
Karl Knudson, 445;
King in Sweden, 446;
deposed, 447, 448.
Katharine of France marries Henry V., 332.
Ketteler, Gotthard, 466.
Kniprode, Winzig von, 458, 459.
Königsberg, 456, 462, 464.
Korybut, 225.
Kossova, battle of, 503;
second battle of, 508.
Kremsier, Milecz of, 207.
Kroja, 256.
Kulm, 454, 455.
Kulmerland, 454, 455.
Ladislas, King of Naples, 155, 195, 196, 197, 199, 204, 211, 245, 246,
266, 289;
death of, 205, 267.
—— Postumus, 360, 409;
succeeds in Austria, Bohemia, and Hungary, 410;
released from guardianship, 411;
death, 413.
Ladislas V. of Poland (_see_ Jagello), 191, 225, 459, 460.
—— VI. of Poland, King of Hungary, 409, 507;
killed at Varna, 410, 508.
—— King of Bohemia and Hungary, 465.
—— King of Bohemia, 416;
King of Hungary, 407.
Lahnstein, imperial election at, 195.
Lampugnani, Andrea, 261.
Lancaster, Henry of, 74, 77.
Lausanne, interview at, 9.
Lecoq, Robert, Bishop of Laon, 83.
Leghorn. _See_ Livorno.
Leipzig, University of, 210.
Leo X., 285;
furthers the Renaissance, 522.
Leopold of Hapsburg, son of Albert I., 129.
—— —— son of Albert II., 136, 213;
shares the Hapsburg territories with Albert III., 137, 398;
killed at Sempach, 138, 189, 398.
Lesbos, taken by the Turks, 512.
Levant, trade in, 167, 168, 256, 492.
Lewis the Bavarian, 98;
quarrel with the Papacy, 90-103;
causes of failure, 103;
his visit to Italy, 104, 105;
his policy of territorial aggrandisement, 75, 106, 107;
confirms the Swiss League, 130;
death, 108, 110.
—— of Brandenburg, son of Lewis the Bavarian, 107, 108;
death, 120.
—— the Roman, brother and successor of above, 120.
—— the Great, King of Hungary and Poland, 121, 123, 459;
expedition to Naples, 152, 153;
war with Venice, 171;
death, 190, 459.
—— II., Count of Flanders, 70, 76, 77.
—— de Mâle, Count of Flanders, 77, 78;
death of, 320.
—— II., Count Palatine and Duke of Upper Bavaria, 3, 8, 10.
—— Elector Palatine, 213.
—— of Taranto, 152, 153.
Liége, attacked by Charles the Bold, 368, 369, 370, 371.
Limoges, massacre at, 95.
Lipan, battle of, 232.
Lippi, Filippo, 528.
—— Filippino, 528.
Lithuania, 421, 453, 458;
united with Poland, 191, 459, 460.
Livonia, 421, 453;
Order of the Sword in, 454, 465, 466.
Livorno, annexed to Florence, 167, 289.
Lodi, treaty of, 253, 298.
London, German _hansa_ in, 426, 427.
Loredano, Antonio, 256.
Lorenzetti, Ambrogio, 527, 528.
Loria, Roger di, 49.
Lorraine, succession in, 345;
seized by Charles the Bold, 383, 385.
Louis IX. of France, death of, 46.
—— X. of France, 44, 62;
death of, 63.
—— XI., King of France, 261;
as Dauphin, 354, 358, 359, 360;
accession, 361;
character and policy, 362;
reign, 361-390.
—— XII., King of France, 258, 259, 264, 391.
—— I. of Anjou, Count of Provence and titular King of Naples, 154, 190,
317.
—— II. of Anjou, 155, 195, 198, 266, 269, 326, 330.
—— III. of Anjou, 269, 335;
claim to Aragon, 483;
death, 271.
—— de Mâle, Count of Flanders, 316, 318, 320.
_See_ Lewis de Mâle.
—— Duke of Orleans, brother of Charles VI., 319, 321;
assassination of, 198, 218, 322.
Lübeck, 6, 183, 422, 423;
alliance with Hamburg, 427, 428;
leadership in Hanseatic League, 439;
visit of Charles IV. to, 187, 441;
retains independence, 451.
Lucca, under Castruccio Castracani, 142, 143;
under John of Bohemia, 145;
disputed between Florence and Verona, 146, 147;
seized by the Pisans, 147.
Luna, Peter de (Benedict XIII.), 187, 194, 197.
Luther, Martin, 525.
Luxemburg, duchy of, 17, 123;
acquired by Philip the Good, 339, 359, 538.
—— house of, 4, 16, 17, 19, 112, 119, 123, 184, 185, 192, 195, 201;
gains Bohemia, 18;
gains Brandenburg, 120;
gains Hungary, 190-192;
extinction of male line, 397;
extinction of, 414.
Luxemburg, John of, captor of Jeanne Darc, 344.
Luzern joins the Swiss Confederation, 130, 131.
Lyons, 12;
seized by Philip IV. of France, 18, 56.
Macalo, battle of, 249, 250.
Madeira, 491.
Magnus, King of Sweden, 431, 432, 433, 434, 435;
deposed, 436.
_Maillotins_, the, 317, 318.
Mainz, Pragmatic Sanction of, 237.
Majorca, kingdom of, 481, 482.
Malatesta, Carlo, 249.
—— Pandolfo, 291.
Mantegna, Andrea, 528.
Mantua, Congress of, 277.
Manuel II., Greek Emperor, 504, 505, 506.
Marcel, Etienne, 82-88.
Marchfeld, battle of the, 10.
Margaret of Anjou, 278;
marries Henry VI. of England, 356;
reconciled with Warwick, 372;
defeated at Tewkesbury, 373.
—— of Artois, daughter of Philip V., 67, 90.
—— of Burgundy, first wife of Louis X., 63.
—— heiress of Flanders, Artois, and Franche-Comté, 320, 541.
—— daughter of Maximilian and Mary of Burgundy, betrothed to Dauphin,
388;
repudiated by Charles VIII., 392, 417.
—— Maultasch, 106;
Countess of Tyrol, 107;
death of her son, 119.
—— daughter of Waldemar III., marries Hakon of Norway, 435, 436, 442;
arranges Union of Kalmar, 443;
war with Holstein and death, 444.
—— daughter of Christian I., marries James III. of Scotland, 448.
—— of York, marries Charles the Bold, 370.
Maria of Hungary, marries Sigismund, 190, 191, 192.
Marienburg, 457, 461, 464.
Marienwerder, 455.
Marigny, Enguerrand de, 62.
Marin Falier, 169.
_Marmousets_, the, 318, 321.
Marsiglio of Padua, 100;
death, 105.
Marsilio Carrara, 143, 147.
Martin IV., 28.
—— V., election of, 220;
returns to Rome, 221, 267-269;
publishes crusade against the Hussites, 224;
summons Council of Siena, 228;
death, 229, 270.
—— I. of Aragon, 482, 483.
—— the Younger of Aragon, 482, 483.
Mary of Aragon, wife of John II. of Castile, 476.
—— of Burgundy, 386, 387;
marries Maximilian, 388;
death, 388.
—— of Sicily, marries Martin the Younger of Aragon, 482.
Masaccio, 528.
Masovia, Konrad of, 454, 455.
Mastino della Scala, 143, 144, 145, 146, 147, 169.
Mathias Corvinus, 277, 279;
elected King of Hungary, 414;
relations with Bohemia, 415;
war with Austria, 416;
death, 417.
Matthew Cantacuzenos, 502.
Maximilian I., 466;
marries Mary of Burgundy, 388, 416;
elected King of the Romans, 417.
Medici, Cosimo de’, 290, 292;
exiled, 293;
recalled, 294;
rule in Florence, 295-299;
patronage of literature, 524.
—— Giovanni de’, 290, 291, 292.
—— Lorenzo de’, the Magnificent, 282;
rule in Florence, 302-312;
relations with Innocent VIII., 285;
his poems, 524;
death, 263, 286, 312.
—— Maddalena de’, 285.
—— Piero (I.) de’, 299-302.
—— —— (II.) de’, 263, 313;
flight from Florence, 314.
—— Salvestro de’, 164, 165, 290.
—— Vieri de’, 166, 290.
Meinhard, Count of Tyrol and Duke of Carinthia, 10.
—— son of Margaret Maultasch, 119;
death, 120.
Meloria, battle of, 31, 168.
Mercenary troops in Italy, 149-151;
in France, 94, 333, 351, 352.
Michael VIII. (Palæologus), 494, 496.
—— Angelo, 528, 529, 530.
—— of Cesena, 100.
Mocenigo, Tommaso, 248, 249.
Mohammed I., 505, 506.
—— II., 255, 256, 273, 279, 406, 411, 412, 508, 509;
takes Constantinople, 510;
conquers the Balkan provinces, 511;
conquers Greece, 511-513;
death, 283, 513.
Molai, Jacques de, 56.
Moldau, the, 113.
Mons-en-Puelle, battle of, 54.
Montefeltro, Federigo da, 307.
Montereau, 332, 338.
Montesecco, 305, 307.
Montfort, John de, claims Brittany, 73, 74.
—— —— son of above, John IV. of Brittany, 74, 92, 96.
Montiel, battle of, 94, 474.
Mont-lhéri, battle of, 366.
Morat, 380, 384;
battle of, 385.
Moravia, 107, 123;
annexed to Bohemia, 204.
Morea, 495, 511;
conquered by the Turks, 256, 512;
Venetian possessions in, 495, 512, 513.
Moreale, Fra, 151.
Morgarten, battle of, 130.
Mühldorf, battle of, 99.
Murad. _See_ Amurath.
Murcia, annexed to Castile, 468, 469, 470, 479.
Näfels, battle of, 138.
Najara, battle of, 93, 94, 473.
Namur, acquired by Philip the Good, 339.
Naples, 23;
acquired by first house of Anjou, 24;
under Joanna I., 152-154;
claimed by second house of Anjou, 154, 155, 266, 267, 269, 271, 275,
277, 278, 542;
acquired by Alfonso V. of Aragon, 271;
passes to Ferrante, 275;
rising against Ferrante, 285, 286, 312;
claimed by Charles VIII., 279, 287, 313, 392.
Narbonne, conference at, 218.
Nassau, John of, Archbishop of Mainz, 212, 213, 215.
Navarre, united with France, 48, 65, 484;
severed from France on accession of Valois line, 66, 484;
united with Aragon, 485;
independent after death of John II., 487;
split into Spanish and French Navarre, 487, 550.
Navarrette, battle of, 93, 473.
Negropont, 168;
taken by the Turks, 256, 513.
_Neri_, the, 22.
Neroni, Diotisalvi, 299, 301, 302.
Netherlands, the, acquired by Valois, Dukes of Burgundy, 320, 321, 339,
359.
Neumark, the, 465.
Neuss, besieged by Charles the Bold, 379, 381, 416.
Nevill’s Cross, battle of, 77.
Neville, Anne, marries Prince of Wales, 372.
—— Isabel, marries Duke of Clarence, 372.
Nicæa, 494, 498;
taken by the Turks, 499.
Niccolo da Pisano, 530.
Nicolas, son of John of Calabria, 278;
death, 378.
—— III., 24, 27.
—— IV., 28.
—— V., 272, 273, 274, 522, 524.
Nicopolis, battle of, 193, 202, 322, 403, 504.
Nissa, 507.
Northampton, treaty of, 68.
Novgorod, German ‘factory’ at, 425, 429.
Novigrad, 191.
Ockham, William of, 100.
Olaf, King of Denmark and Norway, 442;
death, 443.
Oleggio, Giovanni d’, 177.
Olgiati, Girolamo, 261, 262.
Oliva, Christian of, 454, 455.
Orcagna, Andrea, 527.
Orchan, 499;
his government, 500;
death, 502.
Ordinances of Justice in Florence, 32.
Orkneys transferred from Denmark to Scotland, 448.
Orleans, siege of, 340, 341;
states-general of, 352.
—— Charles, Duke of, 326, 329, 335;
release of, 346.
—— Louis, Duke of, 321, 322;
assassination of, 198, 218, 322.
—— —— Duke of, afterwards Louis XII., 258, 259, 264, 390, 391.
Orsini, the house of, 28, 156, 270, 313.
—— Clarice, 302, 313.
Orvieto, cathedral of, 531.
Osterlings or Easterlings, 428.
Othman, 499.
Otranto, occupied by the Turks, 283, 285, 310, 513.
Otto of Brandenburg, cedes the electorate to Charles IV., 120.
—— IV., Count of Burgundy, 56.
Ottokar, King of Bohemia, 3, 8;
crusade in Prussia, 456;
war with Rudolf I., 9, 10;
death, 10.
Ottoman Turks, origin of, 499;
their conquests in Europe, 502, 503, 504, 507, 508;
they capture Constantinople, 510;
further conquests, 511, 512, 513, 514.
Padilla, Maria de, 472, 473.
Padua, subjected to Milan, 179;
revolt of, 180;
seized by Venice, 245.
Palermo, rising at, 25.
Palladio, architect, 531.
Papal States, 26, 27.
Paris, University of, 194, 197, 201, 209.
Parliament, the model (1295), 60.
—— of Paris, the, 59.
—— the Florentine, 33.
Patay, battle of, 341.
Paul II., 280, 415.
Pavia, Council at, 228.
Pazzi, conspiracy of the, 262, 282, 305-307.
—— Francesco, 305, 306.
—— Jacopo, 305, 306.
Pecquigni, treaty of, 382.
Pelekanon, battle of, 499.
Peniscola, 221.
Pera, suburb of Constantinople, 168, 178, 495.
Péronne, interview at, 370;
treaty of, 371.
Perpignan, 198;
death of Philip III. at, 49.
Perugino, Pietro, 528.
Peter III., King of Aragon and Sicily, 24, 25, 48, 479, 480, 481.
—— IV., King of Aragon, 481, 482.
—— I. (the Cruel) of Castile, 93, 94, 472-474.
Petit, Jean, 218, 323.
Petrarch, 114, 523.
_Pfahlbürger_, 18, 117, 188.
Philadelphia, 499, 504.
Philip de Rouvre, Duke and Count of Burgundy, 79, 320;
death of, 89.
—— I. (the Bold) of Burgundy, 81, 90, 315, 317, 319, 320, 321, 324;
death of, 322.
—— II. (the Good) of Burgundy, 332, 333, 336, 349, 359, 361, 364, 405;
quarrel with Gloucester, 337;
acquisitions in the Netherlands, 339, 360;
hands over Jeanne Darc, 344;
rupture with Bedford, 346;
makes treaty of Arras, 347-348;
death of, 369.
—— III., King of France, 46-49;
acquires marquisate of Provence, 47;
Champagne and Navarre, 48;
wars in Spain, 48, 49.
—— IV., King of France, 14, 16, 19;
reign, 49-62;
quarrel with Boniface VIII., 29, 54;
wars with England, 53-55;
war in Flanders, 53, 54;
suppresses the Templars, 55;
administrative reforms, 56-61;
annexes Lyons, 18, 56;
death, 62.
—— V., King of France, marries heiress of Franche-Comté, 56;
accession of, 64;
death, 65.
—— VI. of France, 106;
accession to the throne, 65, 66;
reign, 66-79;
war with Flanders, 70;
war with England, 72-77;
annexes Dauphiné, 78.
Philippa, daughter of John of Gaunt, 474, 475.
Platina, 280.
Plauen, Henry of, 463.
Piccinino, Jacopo, 278, 285, 309.
—— Niccolo, 249, 251, 292.
Piccolomini, Æneas Sylvius, 234, 235, 239-241, 272, 276, 405, 524.
_See_ Pius II.
Pisa, decline of, 31;
supports Ghibellines, 141;
loses her maritime importance, 168;
Council of, 198, 199, 200, 210, 211;
subjected to Milan, 180;
subjected to Florence, 167, 244.
Pisani, Niccolo, 170, 171.
—— Vettor, 172.
Pistoia, annexed to Florence, 167.
Pitti, Luca, 297, 299, 301.
Pius II., 255, 276-280, 415.
_See_ Piccolomini, Æneas Sylvius.
Podiebrad, George, 401, 410, 413;
King of Bohemia, 414;
war with Hungary, 415;
death, 416.
Poggio Bracciolini, 523, 524.
—— Imperiale, 308.
Poitiers, battle of, 81.
Poland, 183, 190, 455, 467;
united with Lithuania, 191, 192, 459;
wars with the Teutonic Knights, 458, 460, 464, 465.
Politiano, 524.
Pomerania, 209, 453, 455.
Pomerellen, 458.
Porcaro, Stefano, 273.
Portolungo, battle of, 171.
Porto Santo, 491.
Portugal, 468, 490;
its share in geographical discovery, 491, 492, 493.
Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges, 237, 355, 363, 406.
Prague, University of, 113;
disputes between the Bohemians and the other nations, 209;
exodus of Germans from, 210;
four articles of, 223, 231;
death of Ladislas Postumus at, 413.
_Praguerie_, the, 46, 353, 354.
Premyslides, dynasty of, in Bohemia, 15
Privilege of union in Aragon, 481;
revoked, 482.
Procida, John of, 24.
Prokop, son of John Henry of Moravia, 123.
—— Hussite leader, 225, 227, 228;
attends Council of Basel, 231;
killed, 232.
Provence, 12;
marquisate of, 47, 56;
county of, 9, 47;
acquired by first house of Anjou, 24;
acquired by second house of Anjou, 154;
united with France, 279.
Prussia, 55, 209, 453, 454;
conquered by Teutonic Knights, 455, 456, 457;
divided into east and west, 465.
Prussian League, 463, 464.
Public Weal, war of the, 46, 365-367.
Puritanism, 532.
Raphael, 528, 529.
_Reichstädte_, 5.
Renaissance, the, 20, 518, 519;
prominence of Italy in, 520;
Papal patronage of, 521;
in literature, 522-525;
in art, 525-532;
its relation with the Reformation, 532;
stimulates education, 533.
Réné le Bon, 260, 271, 354, 378, 486;
claims Lorraine, 345, 346;
relations with Charles the Bold, 383, 389;
death of, 389.
—— of Lorraine, 279, 286, 312, 378, 381, 385;
claims Provence, 391.
Rense, meeting of electors at, 102, 106, 117.
Reuchlin, 525.
Reutlingen, battle of, 121.
Rheims, coronation of Charles VII. at, 341.
Rhodes, held by Knights of St. John, 55, 457, 495, 512.
Riario, Girolamo, 281, 282, 283, 304, 305.
—— Piero, 281.
—— Raffaelle, 306.
Ricci, the, 164.
Richard of Cornwall, 6;
death of, 7.
—— II., King of England, 208, 323, 325.
Richemont, Arthur of, 329, 336;
Constable of France, 338, 339, 346, 347, 350, 352.
Rienzi, Cola di, 156-161.
Riga, Bishop of, 454.
_Ritterschaft_, in Germany, 5.
Robbia, Luca della, 530.
Robert, Count of Artois, 53.
—— of Artois, grandson of above, 67.
—— King of Naples, 26, 42, 99, 140, 141, 153.
—— I., King of Scotland, 68.
Rocca Secca, battle of, 204, 266.
Roosebek, battle of, 318.
Rosenberg, Ulrich von, 410.
Roussillon, ceded to France, 389, 486;
restored to Aragon, 392, 487.
Rovere, Giovanni della, 281.
—— Giuliano della, 281 (Pope Julius II.).
—— Lionardo della, 281.
Rovigo, 257;
polesina of, 311.
Rudolf III. of Hapsburg, chosen King of the Romans (Rudolf I.), 8;
relations with Papacy, 9, 24, 26;
war with Ottokar, 9, 10;
action in Swabia, 126, 127;
death, 11.
—— IV. of Hapsburg, 120, 136;
activity in Swabia and death, 137.
Rupert III., Elector Palatine and King of the Romans, 151, 181, 195,
196;
death, 201.
Russia, 467.
Sachsenhausen, imperial election at, 98.
St. Jacob, battle of, 408.
St. John, Knights of, 55, 56, 453;
occupy Rhodes, 457, 495, 512.
St. Pol, Count of, Constable of France, 365, 367, 373, 374, 375;
capture and death, 382, 383.
St. Maur des Fossés, treaty of, 367.
St. Tron, battle of, 369.
Salado, battle of the, 471.
Salic Law, the so-called, 64, 73.
Salviati, Francesco, 305, 306, 307.
Salza, Hermann von, 454.
Sancho IV. of Castile, 48, 470.
_Santa Hermandad_, 488.
Sapienza, battle of, 171.
Sardinia, 168, 170;
acquired by King of Aragon, 480.
Sarto, Andrea del, 529.
Sarzana, 309, 312.
Savelli, the family of, 28.
Savonarola, attitude towards art, 532.
Savoy, 12;
relations with Charles the Bold, 380, 384, 385.
Scali, Giorgio, 165.
Scaligers, their rule in Verona, 141, 143, 147.
Scanderbeg, 255, 256, 508, 513.
Scarampo, 272.
Schaffhausen, 215.
Schauenburg, house of, in Holstein, 444, 445, 446.
Schleswig, united with Holstein, 442, 444, 445;
acquired by Christian I. of Denmark, 447.
Schwartzburg, Gunther of, 111.
Schwiz, canton of Swiss League, 126, 127, 407.
Scutari in Albania, 256, 308.
Selim I. conquers Egypt, 514.
Semendria, siege of, 401, 507.
Sempach, battle of, 138, 189.
Senlis, treaty of, 393.
Servia, under Stephen Dushan, 501;
attacked by the Turks, 503, 507, 508;
made a Turkish province, 511.
Seville, 468.
Sforza, Ascanio, 287.
—— Attendolo, 151, 267, 268;
death of, 269.
—— Caterina, 282.
—— Francesco, 249, 250, 251, 292;
Duke of Milan, 252, 253, 259, 298;
relations with France, 260, 365;
death of, 261, 300.
—— Galeazzo Maria, 261, 282, 300, 305;
relations with Burgundy, 380, 384.
—— Gian Galeazzo, 262, 263, 264.
—— Ippolita, 260.
—— Ludovico, il Moro, 262, 263, 264, 286, 392.
Shetland Islands, transferred to Scotland, 448.
Sicilian Vespers, 25, 48, 140, 479, 496.
Sicily, 23;
acquired by Charles I. of Anjou, 24;
transferred to house of Aragon, 25, 26, 48, 50, 140, 479, 480;
united with Aragonese crown, 26, 482, 484.
Siena, 18, 31, 244;
Council at, 228;
cathedral of, 531.
Sigismund, second son of Charles IV., 121;
inherits Brandenburg, 123;
acquires Hungary, 190-192, 201;
pawns Brandenburg to Jobst, 193;
fights at Nicopolis, 193, 504;
elected King of the Romans, 202, 203, 204;
forces Pope to summon Council of Constance, 205;
gives safe-conduct to Hus, 211;
action at the Council, 212-220;
succeeds in Bohemia, 224, 232;
death, 239.
—— of Tyrol, 398, 408;
relations with Charles the Bold, 377, 378, 379, 409.
Signorelli, Luca, 528.
Silesia, 209.
Simonetta, Francesco, 261, 262.
Sirk, Jacob von, Archbishop of Trier, 240, 241, 405.
Sixtus IV., 257, 281-284;
quarrel with Florence, 304-310;
establishes Inquisition in Spain, 489.
Skaania, province of, 433, 438;
fishing stations in, 428, 450.
Slavs in Northern Germany, 288, 420;
subjected to German rule, 421, 453, 456;
revolt against German influences, 208, 209, 210, 225, 228, 460, 465.
Sluys, naval battle off, 72.
Soderini, Niccolo, 299, 300, 301, 302.
—— Tommaso, 302, 304.
Somme Towns, the, ceded to Burgundy, 348;
recovered by Louis XI., 364;
restored, 367;
again recovered, 386, 388.
Soncino, battle of, 250.
Sorel, Agnes, 347, 354, 358.
Sound, channel of the, 428, 437, 438, 439.
States-General, origin of the, 59, 60;
meeting at Orleans (1439), 352;
meeting at Tours (1484), 390, 391.
Stephen, duke of Bavaria, 109, 120.
Stephen Dushan, King of Servia, 501.
Stralsund, treaty of, 121, 438, 439, 441.
Strozzi, Tommaso, 165.
Sture, Sten, 448.
—— Sten the Younger, 449.
—— Svante, 448.
Suffolk, William, Duke of, 356.
Suleiman, son of Orchan, 502.
Swabia, duchy of, 2, 8, 125, 126;
Hapsburg possessions in, 137, 213, 377, 379, 398, 407, 409.
Swabian League, 137, 138, 184, 187, 188, 189.
Swiss Confederation, 19, 183, 189;
rise of, 124-138;
at war with Frederick III., 408;
at war with Charles the Bold, 379, 380, 384, 385, 409.
Sword, Order of the, 454;
united with Teutonic Order, 453;
recovers independence, 465;
dissolved, 466.
Szegedin, treaty of, 507, 508.
Taborites, extreme Hussites, 224;
their defeat at Lipan, 232.
Tagliacozzo, battle of, 24.
_Taille_, the, made a royal tax, 353.
Tannegui du Châtel, 331, 332, 338.
Tannenberg, battle of, 396, 460.
Tarifa, 471.
Tauss, battle of, 228.
Templars, the, 452;
suppression of, 50, 55, 56, 456.
Teutonic Order, 19, 55, 183, 191, 208;
foundation of, 452;
conquers Prussia, 455, 456;
transferred to Prussia, 457;
at the zenith of its power, 458;
war with Poland, 460;
decline of, 461-466.
Tewkesbury, battle of, 373.
Thessalonica, 503, 505;
conquered by the Turks, 507.
Thorn, 455, 462;
first peace of (1411), 461;
second peace of (1466), 465.
Tiepolo, Bajamonte, 39.
Timour, the Tartar leader, 193, 505.
Tintoretto, 529.
Titian, 526, 529.
Tordesillas, treaty of, 493.
Torquemada, 489.
Torre, Guido della, 36, 40, 41.
—— Martino della, 35.
Tours, States-General at, 390.
Trastamara, Henry of, 93, 94, 472, 473.
—— House of, acquires crown of Castile, 474;
acquires crown of Aragon, 483.
Trebizond, Empire of, 495, 513.
Tremouille, George de la, 339, 340, 346, 347.
Treviso, 143, 245;
subjected to Venice, 147, 171;
lost by Venice, 174;
recovered, 179.
Trivulzio, Gian Jacopo, 308.
Troyes, treaty of, 332, 333.
Turin, peace of, 174.
Tyler, Wat, 316.
Tyrol, county of, 10, 15;
passes to Margaret Maultasch, 107, 108;
acquired by Hapsburgs, 120.
Unterwalden, 126, 127.
Urban V., 122, 161, 162, 185, 503.
—— VI., election of, 122, 162, 185, 186.
Urgel, house of, 481, 482, 483.
Uri, 126;
united with Schwiz and Unterwalden, 127.
Uzzano, Niccolo da, 289, 290, 292.
Valencia, 478;
annexed to Aragon, 480.
Valla, Lorenzo, 524, 525.
Valois, house of, 45;
accession in France, 65, 66;
dukes of Burgundy, 90, 184, 320, 321.
Varna, battle of, 410, 508.
Vaudemont, Antony of, 345.
—— Frederick of, 346.
—— Réné of, 378.
Venaissin, the, 30, 47.
Venice, constitution of, 36-39;
policy of, 140, 247, 248;
rivalry with Genoa, 168-173, 255;
relations with Greek Empire, 255, 495, 502, 509;
acquisitions on the mainland, 245, 249, 258, 259;
war with the Turks, 255, 256, 512, 513;
war with Ferrara, 251, 283, 284, 311;
decline of, 259.
Verdun, treaty of, 43.
Verme, Jacopo del, 167, 179, 181.
Verneuil, battle of, 337.
Verona, 20, 143, 147;
annexed to Milan, 179;
acquired by Venice, 245.
Verrocchio, Andrea, 530.
Viana, Charles of, 485, 486, 487.
Vicenza, 143, 179;
acquired by Venice, 245.
Vienne, Dauphins of, 78.
—— Jean de, 77.
Vinci, Leonardo da, 529.
Visconti, Azzo, 143, 145, 174, 175.
—— Bernabo, 161, 175, 176, 177.
—— Carlo, 261.
—— Caterina, 243, 245.
—— Filippo Maria, 243, 271;
character, 246;
restores duchy of Milan, 247;
quarrel with Eugenius IV., 231, 239;
war with Florence, 249;
war with Venice, 249, 270;
death, 251.
—— Galeazzo, 142, 143.
—— Gian Galeazzo, 167, 174, 176;
obtains sole rule in Milan, 177;
his aggressions, 178, 179, 180;
made Duke of Milan, 194;
death, 181, 196, 287.
—— Gian Maria, 243;
death, 244.
—— Giovanni, Archbishop and Lord of Milan, 170, 174, 175.
—— Lucchino, 175.
—— Matteo, 36, 40, 140;
imperial vicar in Milan, 41.
—— Matteo II., 175.
—— Otto, Archbishop of Milan, 36.
—— Stefano, 174, 175.
—— Valentina, marries Louis of Orleans, 178, 252, 321, 325.
—— Virida, 176, 252.
Vistula, valley of the, 453, 455, 465.
_Vitalien-Bruder_, 443.
Vitelleschi, Cardinal, 272.
Waldemar of Brandenburg, death of, 107;
the false, 110, 111.
Waldemar III., King of Denmark, 121, 420, 433;
wars with the Hanse towns, 183, 434-438;
death, 442.
Waldhäuser, Konrad, 207.
Wallachia, 507;
annexed by the Turks, 511.
Warwick, Earl of, the King-maker, 365, 372, 373.
Welf, house of, 3.
Wendish towns, 426, 431, 432, 435.
Wenzel II., King of Bohemia, 9, 10;
death, 15.
—— III. of Bohemia, 15.
—— brother of Charles IV., 123;
marries Duchess of Brabant and Limburg, 119.
—— eldest son of Charles IV., 112, 137, 187, 188;
elected King of the Romans, 121;
King of Bohemia, 123;
opposition in Germany, 192;
troubles in Bohemia, 192-193;
visit to France, 194;
declared deposed, 195;
death of, 224.
Wettin, house of, 3;
obtains Saxony, 226.
—— Frederick of, 16.
Wisby, 425, 427, 429, 432;
captured by Waldemar III., 433.
Wittelsbach, house of, 3, 118;
divided into two branches, 115;
acquisitions of, under Lewis the Bavarian, 75, 107, 108;
opposition to Wenzel, 192.
Woodville, Elizabeth, 365, 374.
Wordingborg, treaty of, 436.
Würtemberg, 187.
—— Eberhard of, 189.
Wyclif, John, 207, 208.
Yolande of Aragon, wife of Louis II. of Anjou and mother-in-law of
Charles VII. of France, 335, 336, 338, 341, 483.
—— daughter of Réné le Bon, 278, 346.
—— sister of Louis XI., 380, 384.
York, Richard, Duke of, 357.
Zagonara, battle of, 291.
Zeno, Carlo, 172, 173.
Ziska, John, 223, 225, 460.
Zug, a Swiss canton, 134, 135, 136, 138, 189.
Zürich, 131, 134, 136, 138;
joins the Swiss League, 132;
war with the other cantons, 407, 408.
[Illustration: France.]
[Illustration: Burgundy.]
[Illustration: Italy.]
[Illustration: Swiss Confederation.]
● Transcriber’s Notes:
○ Missing or obscured punctuation was silently corrected.
○ Inconsistent spelling and hyphenation were made consistent only
when a predominant form was found in this book.
○ Text that was in italics is enclosed by underscores (_italics_).
○ Text that was in bold face is enclosed by equals signs (=bold=).
○ Notes printed in the margin of the book have been moved into the
paragraphs near where they appear, contained in square brackets,
and begun with the word "Sidenote".
○ Footnotes have been moved to follow the chapters in which they are
referenced.