In the tropics, rainfall conditions more than any other factor determine
forest conditions. The rains of India depend on extraordinary sea winds,
or “monsoons,” and their distribution is regulated by the topography of
land and relative position of any district with regard to the mountains
and the vapor-laden air currents. Thus excessive rainfall characterizes
the coast line along the Arabian Sea to about latitude 20 degrees N.,
and still more along the coast of Lower Burma, and to a lesser extent
also the delta of the Ganges and the southern slopes of the Himalayas. A
moderately humid climate, if gauged by annual rainfall, prevails over
the plateau occupying the larger part of the peninsula and the lower
Ganges valley, while a rainfall of less than 15 inches occurs over the
arid regions of the lower Indus.
The rainfall, so unevenly distributed territorially, is, moreover, as
unevenly distributed through the year. In most districts the principal
rains are experienced in summer, the rainy season being followed by a
long dry season. But on the Eastern coast the summer rains are slight,
and the principal rainy season is delayed into October and November,
while in Northern India and the Himalayas, also winter rains occur,
irregular and of short duration.
Even where a relatively large rainfall prevails, the climate is dry on
account of the high temperature, hence some 30,000,000 acres of the
cultivated acreage (which comprises 225,000,000 acres in all) depend on
irrigation, over half of this irrigated area lying in the tropical zone.
Roughly speaking, at least four climatic zones with many sub-types, may
be recognized: the truly tropic, intensely hot and wet (over 75 inch
rainfall), prevailing on the plains and tablelands of the lower half of
the peninsula; the hot and dry (below 15 inch rainfall) climate of the
Northwestern Indus plain and plateau; the moderately warm and dry to
humid (30-75 inch rainfall) climate of the Ganges plain and central
plateau; and the temperate to alpine, humid climate of the Himalaya
mountains, with snow and ice in winter, and moderate heat in summer.
In keeping with this great diversity of climate, both as to temperature
and humidity, there is a great variation in the character and
development of the forest cover. At least six types can be recognized,
namely the evergreen forest, found along the West coast, in Burma,
Andaman Islands, and the sub-Himalaya zone, which is composed of
broadleaved species with a dense undergrowth of small trees and tangled
lianas (vines), but few shrubs, as is characteristic of most tropical
forest; the deciduous forest, mainly in the interior of Central India,
with Sal, Teak and Ironwood as characteristic trees; the arid region
forest, found in the Punjab, in Raiputana, and in Sindh, of varying
composition, from the open shrub forests of the latter province,
composed of acacias, tamarisk and mesquite, to the denser, more
diversified, dry, low tree forest of the former; the alpine coniferous
forest of the Himalayas and of the mountains of Afghanistan,
Belutchistan, and Burma, composed of pine, deodar, juniper, with oak,
walnut, boxwood, approaching our own forest types. In addition, there
may be segregated the coast forest, of small extent, composed of trees
which, like the mangrove, will bear salt water; the overflow forest
along rivers; and river forests in the desert regions, of which latter
large areas exist.
The natural differences in the forest cover are emphasized by the action
of man, who for many centuries has waged war against the forest,
clearing it permanently or temporarily for agricultural purposes, or
else merely burning it over to improve grazing facilities, or for
purposes of the chase.
Statistics, except of government properties, are somewhat doubtful.
Apparently, the forested area of the whole of India comprises somewhat
over 40 per cent. of the land area. The government forests, settled and
unsettled, represent at present about 24 per cent. of the area under
British rule (149 million acres), not over 20 per cent. being under
cultivation, leaving about 56 per cent. either natural desert, waste, or
grazing lands.
The great forests of India are in Burma; extensive woods clothe the
foothills of the Himalayas and are scattered in smaller bodies
throughout the more humid portions of the country, while the dry
northwestern territories are practically treeless wastes. Large areas of
densely settled districts are so completely void of forest that millions
of people regularly burn cow dung as fuel, while equally large districts
are still impenetrable, wild woods, where, for want of market, it hardly
pays to cut even the best of timbers.
The great mass of forests in India are stocked with hardwoods, which in
these tropical countries are largely evergreen, or nearly so, although
the large areas of dry forest are deciduous by seasons; only a small
portion of the forest area is covered by conifers, both pine and cedar,
these pine forests being generally restricted to higher altitudes in the
Himalayas. The hardwoods, most of which in India truly deserve this
name, belong to a great variety of plant families, some of the most
important being the Leguminosæ, Verbenaceæ, Dipterocarpeæ, Combretaceæ,
Rubiaceæ, Ebenaceæ, Euphorbiaceæ, Myrtaceæ, and others, and a relatively
small portion represented by Cupuliferæ and other families familiar to
us. The most important, valuable species are Teak, Sal, and Deodar.
In the greater part of India the hardwood forest consists not of a few
species, as with us, but is made up, like most tropical forest, of a
great variety of trees unlike in their habit, their growth, and their
product; and, if our hardwoods offer on this account considerable
difficulties to profitable exploitation, the case is far more
complicated in India, several thousand species entering into the
composition. In addition to the large variety of timber trees there is
a multitude of shrubs, twining and climbing plants, and in many forest
districts also a growth of giant grasses (bamboos), attaining a height
of 30 to 120 feet, which is ready to take possession of clearings. These
bamboos, valuable as they are in many ways, prevent often for years the
growth of any seedling trees, and thus form a serious obstacle to the
regeneration of valuable timber. The growth of timber is generally quite
rapid, although to attain commercial size, Teak requires usually a
rotation of 150 years. But in spite of their rapid growth and the large
areas now in forest capable of reforestation, India is not likely--at
least within reasonable time--to raise more timber than it needs. In
most parts of India, the use of ordinary soft woods, such as pine, seems
very restricted, for only durable woods, those resisting both fungi and
insects (of which the white ants are specially destructive), can be
employed in the more permanent structures, and are therefore acceptable
in all Indian markets.
At present, Teak is the most important hardwood timber, while the Deodar
(a true cedar) is the most extensively used conifer. Teak occurs in all
moist regions of India except the Himalayas, grows usually mixed with
other kinds, single, or in clumps, is girdled two or three years before
felling, is generally logged in a primitive way, commonly hewn in the
woods and shipped--usually floated--as timber, round or hewn, and rarely
sawn to size.
In 1905-6, the cut in the State forest area was 240,000,000 cubic feet,
timber (25%) and fuel, of which 20 per cent. was given to grantees or
those holding rights of user free of charge, and less than 2 per cent.
was exported. In addition, over 200 million bamboos and nearly two
million dollars worth of by-products, such as lac, caoutchouc, cutch,
gambier, myrobalans, were secured.