The Turks for centuries warred with, had under vassalage or otherwise
controlled, and misruled all the Slavish States, as well as Macedonia
and Greece--a territory of around 170,000 square miles and 16,000,000
people--until, by the Congress of Berlin (1878), ending the
Russo-Turkish war, these States were recognized as independent kingdoms,
namely Bulgaria, Servia, Montenegro, Roumelia, and Roumania, while
Bosnia-Hercegovina was placed under Austrian administration (see page
155 and 166).
With the exception of Roumania, these people are still in the lower
stages of civilization, the countries undeveloped, the forest still
serves largely for the mast and pasturage, probably less than 24 per
cent. of the country being forest covered, mostly with deciduous trees,
oak, beech and walnut, etc.
Roumania alone has systematically taken advantage of her freedom from
Turkish rule in developing a modern civilization, and can also boast the
beginning of a forestry system.
_Roumelia_, comprising _Macedonia_, _Albania_ and _Thrace_, the Turkish
possessions in Europe, with 67,000 square miles and 5,000,000 people,
contain large areas of untouched forest (not less than 5,000,000 acres
in Macedonia alone[10]) with valuable oak and walnut, which have
remained unused owing to their inaccessibility and the undesirability of
developing them under Turkish rule. Where accessible, the forest is
maltreated or destroyed.
[10] Lacretelle, Rapport sur les forêts de la Macédoine, 1893.
_Bulgaria_, to which, in 1885, East Roumelia was attached, represents
now 38,000 square miles and over 4,000,000 people, independent under a
German prince as king since 1879. The forest area[11] of 7.5 million
acres (30 per cent. of the land area), mostly deciduous (oak, beech,
walnut, etc.), and largely confined to the mountains, is one-half in
communal ownership, one-sixth in private hands, mostly small woodlots,
and one-third State property; but ownership rights are still much in
doubt, and until 1869 the State forests were freely open to the use of
all, when some sort or regulation of the cut according to the needs of
different communities was attempted. Since within 10 years such rights
of user establish ownership, endless litigation has resulted, until in
1883 a law was enacted ordering the stoppage of rights of user,
substituting money payment (10 per cent. of value), and another
restricting the diameter to which the most valuable export timber,
walnut, may be cut. Changes in detail were made in 1897, but political
exigencies, absence of an adequate organization, and other undeveloped
conditions have largely prevented enforcement of these laws, and rough
exploitation continues in spite of the nominal State control.
[11] _Forstliche Rundschau_, 1903.
Owing to inaccessibility of many of the agricultural districts to the
wooded mountains, a large import was necessary, but lately export almost
equals the import, and indeed the export of walnut has increased
fourteenfold in a few years. The forest administration is vested in a
bureau under the Minister of Commerce and Agriculture, with a chief, an
inspector general, and two assistant chiefs. When it is stated that in
1905 the entire budget for forestry was $150,000, the inefficiency of
the service is apparent.
_Servia_, a kingdom with 19,000 square miles and 2,000,000 people, has
over 42 per cent. (five million acres--according to others only 32%)
still in untouched forest, with valuable oak and walnut, the forest
being mainly used for hograising. Over 36% is State forest, over 43%
communal and institutional forest, leaving about 20% in private hands;
but, just as in Bulgaria, property conditions are still somewhat
unsettled. Like Bulgaria also on account of the uneven distribution of
forest area, lack of transportation and systematic development--a large
part of the population are more cheaply supplied by importation, which
amounts to near one million dollars. Curiously enough, by the law of
1891 only the wood cut from State and church forests could be exported
free of duty. This export duty was abolished in 1904, and the first
attempt was made by the Minister of Agriculture to bring order into the
forest administration by importing German foresters.
The law of 1891, with various subsequent additions and changes, placed
private forest property located on exposed mountain slopes or on
shifting sands, or on bogsoils under government surveillance, and
relieved plantations made under direction of the government of taxes for
10 years.
_Roumania_,[12] with 50,000 square miles and nearly 6,000,000 people,
under the capable administration of a Hohenzollern prince, King Charles,
was in Roman times as _Dacia felix_ one of the most prosperous
provinces, half of it hilly and mountainous, the other half in the rich
alluvial valley of the Danube, now largely deforested. The hill and
mountain country was until the end of the eighteenth century still well
wooded. A rapid depletion then took place by the demands of the Turkish
markets, until now not quite 17 per cent. (according to others 18 or 20
per cent.) of the area is forested, and multifarious rights of user,
which made commons of the woods, have naturally led to widespread
devastation in the accessible parts. In 1847, the National Assembly
attempted regulation of the cut and of the rights of user, but with
little effect. In 1894, the total area had decreased to less than 5
million acres (according to others 6.7 million acres), of which
two-fifths is in private hands, two-fifths State property and Royal
forest (formerly, until 1863, in the hands of the monks), the small
balance belonging to communities and institutes. In the higher
mountains, fir and spruce with some pine and larch form the forest; but
broadleaf forest, especially oak and beech is the prevailing type
occupying the middle altitudes and the hill country. The private forest
of small owners is being rapidly depleted, only the State forest and
that of large proprietors being in good condition.
[12] _Die forstwirtschaftlichen Verhältnisse Rumaniens_, Von Mihail
Vasilescu, 1891. _Notice sur les forêts de Roumanie, in Statistica
pâdurilor Statulin._ 1903.
In 1863, when the cloister property was secularized and taken over by
the state, the rights of user in this property were suspended, and sales
at auction to contractors were inaugurated, under condition that a
certain number of seed trees per acre be left. There was little
enforcement of this rule.
The first comprehensive law organizing the State property and
inaugurating a protective policy was enacted in 1881. This law
recognized State, Royal and Communal property as of public concern, and
also placed such private property under supervision as was situated on
steep slopes, near watercourses, and near the boundaries (of strategic
importance). These areas, coming under the protective policy, comprise
84 per cent. of the whole forest area. They were not to be cleared
except by special permit, and not to be exploited except under specially
approved working plans.
In 1885, three French foresters were called in to organize a State
forest department and to inaugurate the making of working plans. The
personnel (25 inspectors and 89 district officers) being insufficient,
and wood prices low (the income from state property being not over
$400,000), the progress of the work was slow. Although, in 1894, the
income had doubled, the administrative forces had not been enlarged to
any great extent (137 foresters of various grades), and by that time
only 150,000 acres had been brought under working plans. By 1900, about
200,000 acres of State property, or 14 per cent., and 500,000 acres of
private forest, or 22 per cent., were organized in some fashion. Lack of
means of transportation, however, prevents a really well regulated
management. Altogether only 65 per cent. of the State property is
accessible so that it can be worked, and the working plans consist
mainly in leaving a number of seed trees.
In 1889, a Forestry Association (_Progressul Silvic_) was formed, which
with its organ, _Revista pâdurilor_, pushes the propaganda. In 1890, an
energetic Minister of Domains, Carp, sought strenuously to bring
improvement into the situation. A budget of $500,000 for foresters’
dwellings was secured to bring the forest managers into closer contact
with their charges, a planting fund of $100,000, later increased to
$140,000 per annum, was voted, and reforestation and reclamation of sand
dunes was begun. A forest improvement fund was inaugurated in 1892 by
setting aside 2 per cent. of the gross forest yield. But, in the
political struggles, Carp’s party was displaced, and, depression in
agricultural prosperity causing financial distress, an era of increased
exploitation followed, so that the export of forest products, largely
cooperage, (mainly to Greece, Italy and France) which had been declining
to less than half, rose again to about four million dollars annually.
The financial embarrassment of the State led even to a proposition to
sell State forests, but, before contracts for this purpose were
consummated, relief came and the danger was averted.
The State cuts about 22,000 acres annually, yielding about $1,000,000,
the administration costing (in 1903) $240,000, leaving a net yield of 30
cents per acre. In 1898, the Forest Department, in the Direction of
Domains under the Ministry of Agriculture consisted of a Forest Director
with 156 foresters academically educated (mostly in France, and since
1892 in the Agricultural Institute at Bucharest), and over 2,500
underforesters and guards. Of some 30,000 acres of sand dunes, one-half
belonging to the State, about 18,000 acres have been recovered by
planting Black Locust, and some 9,000 acres of plains country have been
reforested, for which 330 acres of nurseries furnish the material. In
spite of all these efforts, excessive pasturing, although forbidden in
the State forest, and fires continue to devastate the property.
Private forestry is, of course, much less developed; yet some large
properties (Princess Schoenburg, with 20,000 acres) are under efficient
German forest management. Here, money is spent on developing means of
transportation, and a better revenue is secured than in State forests.