Originally divided up among a number of petty kings, Norway was brought
under one rule by Harold in 863; and united to Denmark in the 11th
century, becoming gradually a mere dependency. Its later political
fortunes and changing relations with Denmark and Sweden have been
referred to on p. 286. The history of the forestry development, however,
has proceeded more or less independently of the other two countries.
Norway, occupying with 124,445 square miles over one-third of the
Scandinavian peninsula, is for the most part a mountainous plateau with
deep valleys and lakes. Its numerous fjords and water ways make
accessible much of the interior mountain forest, yet a large part of the
inland area still remains inaccessible and trackless.
More than 75% of the country is waste land and water; only 3% in farms,
leaving for the forest area 21%, or little over 17 million acres.
According to latest data (1907) from this productive area a further 2
million acres must be deducted as non-producing.
The distribution of this forest area is most uneven. The bulk and the
most valuable portion of it is found in the south-eastern corner around
Christiania in eight counties, in which the forest per cent. exceeds 40
to 50, with conifer growth (pine and spruce) up to the 3,000 foot level.
Again in the three counties around Trondhjem a large and important
forest area is located at the head of the fjords. But the entire western
coast and the higher elevations are devoid of valuable forest growth and
the northern third of the country (north of the Arctic circle) is mostly
heath and moors with only 7% wooded, mainly birch growth of little
commercial value.
The commercially important forest area is, therefore, locally confined.
It is estimated that one-half of the territory has to import its lumber,
one-quarter has sufficient for home consumption, and the excess which
permits exportation is confined to the last quarter. This export, mostly
in logs and staves, which amounts to nearly 20 million dollars (40% of
the total export) half of it woodpulp is estimated to represent only
one-fifth or one-sixth of the total cut, which is stated as about 350
million cubic feet, or at the rate of 23 cubic feet on the productive
area while the annual growth is estimated at less than this amount,
namely at the rate of nearly 21 cubic feet in the southern districts,
and in the northern not over 12 cubic feet.
Scotch Pine is the principal timber, and occurs beyond the Arctic
Circle--the northernmost forest in the world--where its rotation becomes
150 to 200 years, with Norway Spruce more or less localized, these two
species forming 75 per cent. of the forest growth; oak, ash, basswood
and elm occurring sporadically, and White Birch being ubiquitous.
* * * * *
Forest property developed on the same lines as in Sweden and in other
European countries, hence we find State, communal, and private property.
When in the ninth century, upon Harold’s accession, the commons were
declared the property of the king, the rights of user, both to wood and
grazing, were retained by the _märker_, and the so-called State commons
(_stats-almenninger_) remain to date encumbered by these rights, similar
to conditions in Sweden. From the end of the 17th to the middle of the
19th century it was the policy of the kings to dispose of these commons
whenever their exchequer was low, and the best of these lands became, by
purchase, property of the districts (_bygdealmenning_), provinces, city
and village corporations, or else became private property on which the
rights of user continued (_privatalmenninger_).
At present the State owns, largely in the northern districts, somewhat
over 4.8 million acres (28.5%); but of this hardly 2 million acres are
productive, and of these productive acres half a million consists of
encumbered commons from which the State receives hardly any income. The
district commons or communal, and other public institute forests
comprise around 7,800,000 acres (46%); but here again only 580,000 acres
are productive. The balance then, or a full one-quarter is in private
hands.
* * * * *
Export trade in wood had been very early carried on, and had been
considerably developed in the 13th and 14th century. By the middle of
the 17th century the coast forest of oak had been cut out by Dutch and
English wood merchants who had obtained logging privileges under special
treaties of 1217 and 1308, and by Hanseatic cities, especially Hamburg
entering this market in the middle of the 16th century.
There are records which would make it appear that at least some of the
now denuded coast was forested in olden times. The development of the
iron industry increased the drain on these supplies, which forest fires,
insects and excessive grazing prevented from recuperating.
As early as the middle of the 16th century we find attempts to arrest
the devastation by regulating the export trade and supervising the
sawmills, forbidding especially the erection of sawmills intended to
work for export only.
In the 17th century, various commissions were appointed by Christian IV
to make forest reconnaissances and elaborate rules for proper forest
use. In 1683, Christian V issued a forest ordinance increasing the
number of forest inspectors instituted by his predecessor, and giving in
detail the rules governing forest use, many of which proved impractical.
In 1725, a commission, the socalled forest and sawmill commission, was
appointed to organize a forest service. It functioned until 1739, when
the first _Generalforstamt_ was established and the first attempt at
real forest management was made. This came into existence through the
efforts of two famous German foresters, J. G. von Langen and von
Zanthier, who with six assistants were called in from the Harz mountains
(as also afterwards to Denmark and Sweden), during the years 1736 to
1740, to make a forest survey and organize a management. Descriptions
and instructions were elaborated in German and the service was largely
manned by German “wood foresters” (_holzforsterne_). The strictness of
the department which had been organized after von Langen’s departure in
1739, made it, however, unpopular, and, in 1746, it was abolished, von
Zanthier returning to his country, the sole survivor, the other
assistants having succumbed to scurvy. The administration was again
placed in the hands of a commission which continued till 1760.
Only the forests connected with mines remained under the administration
as instituted, and those belonging to the copperworks of Roras continued
under its forest inspectors until 1901.
In that year, 1760, another shortlived attempt to organize a forest
administration was made, but the new organization did not fare any
better and was superseded in 1771. Then followed an interim regimen,
during which the general government and district officers were in
charge.
The old orders under which forest use had been regulated remained mostly
in force until in 1795 all the reasonable and the unreasonable
obstructions to export were removed. The sawmill privileges, under which
English lumbermen held large areas for long terms and devastated them
without regard to the impractical regulations, were, however, not ended
until 1860. The wood industries were then relieved entirely from
restrictions, and forest destruction progressed even more rapidly with
the increasing facilities for transportation.
This final cessation of the destructive policy was the outcome of a
campaign which started once more with a forest commission instituted, in
1849, to take stock and make new propositions. This commission reported
in 1850, and pointed out not only the necessity of terminating the
sawmill privileges, which was done in 1854, giving time till 1860, but
also very wisely accentuated the need of technically educated foresters
if anything for forest recuperation was to be done.
To meet this latter want, young men were sent to Germany at government
expense to study forestry. Some 10 or 12 men were educated in this way
during the next decade and thereby the basis for a technical forest
management was laid. In 1857, the first two professional foresters,
Mejdell and Barth, were placed in charge of affairs under the Interior
Department, and when in 1859 a new commission was charged with
organizing a forest service, these two men were members. Gradually an
organization took shape under the direction of these two
_forestmeisters_, and, finally, in 1863, the modern forest department
and forest policy was established by law, placing the State domain and
other public forests under an effective management, making provision for
the extinction of the ruinous rights of user and also for reducing the
mismanagement of private forests.
The forest service, as now constituted after a reorganization in 1906,
is in the Department of Agriculture under a director (_Skovdirector_)
and 4 _Forstmeister_ or inspectors with some executive officers under
various names, and 360 rangers (_skogsvogternes_), including the rangers
employed in the public forests outside the State domain. The ranges are
so large, sometimes several million acres, and many of them so
inaccessible that only the most extensive management is possible; the
officials being poorly paid and poorly educated, the management is, of
course, not of a high order.
Besides a “forest engineer,” who is a public lecturer, the officers of
the forest department are under the obligation of advising private
forest owners in their management, under contracts somewhat similar to
the present practice of the U. S. Forestry Bureau, the owners agreeing
to follow the advice.
Since 1860, the State has begun to purchase forest lands for
reforestation in the forestless districts and where, for protective
reasons, it is desirable. In late years, regular appropriations of
$15,000 to $20,000 were annually made for this purpose, besides
extraordinary grants. In this way, the cut-over lands, neglected by
their owners, are cheaply acquired by the State. Besides its own
planting, the State assists private owners by advice and money grants
and plantmaterial in reforesting their waste lands.
The communal forests are under government supervision; they are usually
worked under plans and under supervision of foresters with a view to
supply the needs of the community. Only when the area is more than
sufficient may they obtain the right to cut for sale outside of their
parish; on the other hand all fellings may be prohibited by the
government, if this is found desirable. As regards private property
there seems to be little or no supervision, although the law of 1863 had
declared _Kulturplight_ and _Kulturtvank_, i.e., the duty of
reforesting, but it had not defined that duty, and the law remained a
dead letter.
In 1874, a special commission was charged to consider the forest policy
which the public welfare required. The commission reported in 1879 with
propositions, which were submitted to the officials of the department
and the district. A new proposition was worked out and submitted in
1882, but it was pigeonholed until 1891, when the forest administration
brought in not a general law but one merely forbidding the export from
Nordland, Tromsoe and Finmarken, the thinly forested northern provinces.
Finally, in 1893, legislation was had enabling municipalities to protect
themselves against destruction of forests needed for their protective
function. This gives to them the right to formulate rules which are to
prevent devastation, as for instance a diameter limit for felling, or
reforestation of clearings. But the costs of such restriction must be
borne by the municipalities as well as half the cost of inspection, the
other half being paid by the State. The procedure to determine the
protective quality of forests and the financial difficulty have left the
law unused.
In 1878, however, a committee of private owners formed itself, to fix
the sand dunes, which with the State subventions started work the
following year.
* * * * *
Many of the State forests are so burdened with rights of user, which
were granted to help in developing the country, that the financial
results of the forest administration and the conditions of the State
property are most unsatisfactory, and the application of silviculture
greatly circumscribed.
The silvicultural system applied is most generally the rough selection
forest or an approach to group system, relying upon voluntary
reproduction entirely. Management is much hampered by rights of user to
certain dimensions, and in the more distant districts by the difficulty
of disposing of any but the best sizes. An orderly organization is still
almost unknown. The stumpage is sold and removed by the buyer and the
axe is still mainly used.
* * * * *
Higher forest schools there are none, but three schools for the lower
grades had existed for some time, the first having been established in
1875 at Kongsberg; one of them was abandoned in 1889. Forestry is also
taught at two farm schools.
Until recently the higher class foresters had to get their education in
Germany, or in the Swedish Forest Institute at Stockholm; but in 1879,
a chair of forestry was instituted in the Agricultural college at
Kristiania.
In 1881, the first forestry association was formed, which by 1898 had
over 500 members, and then was re-organized with a special view to
elevate private forestry practice. It has now (1907) 1,500 members, and
employs a forester paid by the State, to give professional advice, and
works with State aid. It has set out over 50 million trees besides
sowing 8,000 lbs. of seed. It publishes a journal _Tidskrift for
Skogsbruk_, and a Yearbook. There is also another journal, _Forstligt
Tidskrift_, and a professional Society of Foresters.
Altogether forestry is not yet on a high level in this country, but the
subject is now being brought even into the primary schools, and the
efforts to improve conditions are widespread.