From the times of Olaf Tratâlja, the first Christian king of Sweden
(about 1000 A.D.), who gained fame by the part he took in exploiting the
forests of Wermland, down to the 14th century Sweden suffered from a
superabundance of forest. Nevertheless, by the end of that century
restriction of the wilful destruction by fire was felt necessary, and an
ordinance with that object in view was promulgated.
It is questionable whether this order had any effect in a country, where
the homestead law provided, that a settler might take up “as much
pasture and arable land as he could make use of, twice as much forest,
and in addition on each side of this homestead as much as a lame man
could go over on crutches without resting.”
Not till 1638, do we again find an attempt at forest conservancy, this
time in the interest of supply of charcoal for the iron industry, by the
appointment of overseers of the public forests.
The first general forest code, however, dates from 1647, which among
other useless prescriptions made the existing usage of planting two
trees for every one cut obligatory, and this provision remained on the
statutes until 1789. In spite of this and other, restrictive, laws,
exploitation by the liege lords and the communities continued until, in
1720, a director of forests for the two southern districts, Halland and
Bohus, was appointed, and, at least in this part of the country, the
execution of the laws was placed under a special officer.
This appointment may be considered the first germ of the later forest
department.
A policy of restriction seems to have prevailed during the entire 18th
century, although it is questionable whether the restrictions were
enforced since there was no personnel to watch over their enforcement,
and the governors, in whose hands the jurisdiction lay, had other
interests, more engrossing. A law, enacted in 1734, restricted the
peasant forest owners in the sale of wood from their own properties,
and, in 1789, this restriction and other supervision was extended to
those of the nobility.
It appears that soon after this a considerable sentimental solicitude
inside and outside the Riksdag was aroused regarding an apprehended
deterioration of climate as well as scarcity of wood as a result of
further forest destruction--in the light of present experience a rather
amusing anticipation. These jeremiads, however, after an unsatisfactory
attempt at legislation in 1793, led, in 1798, to the appointment of a
commission which reported after 5 years of investigation. A new set of
forest regulations was enacted as a result in 1805.
In further prosecution of these attempts at regulating forest use a
commissioner, Prof. F. W. Radloff, was sent to Germany, in 1809, to
study methods employed in that country. Long before that time, about
1762, some of the iron masters, owning large forest areas had imported
a commission of German forest experts (among them von Langen and
Zanthier, the same who had done similar work in Norway and Denmark) with
a view of systematizing the forest use; but apparently without result.
After much discussion of Radloff’s report, and consultation with the
provincial governors, who suggested the propriety of different plans for
different localities, new legislation was had in 1810, 1818, 1823, and
new regulations for the crown forests were issued in 1824.
Yet at this very time not only the partition of the communal forests but
also the sale of town forests was ordered; and this policy of
dismemberment lasted till 1866, over 1 million acres having been sold by
that time. Nor was any diminution in wasteful practices to be noted as a
result of legislation, and it seems that, while on the one hand
restrictive policies were discussed and enacted, on the other hand
unconservative methods were encouraged. Indeed, in 1846, the then
existing restrictions of the export trade were removed; apparently a
reversion of restrictive policy had set in, and exploitation increased,
in the belief of inexhaustible supplies. On the other hand,
encouragement of reforestation was sought by giving bounties for
planting waste land and for leaving a certain number of seed trees in
the felling areas, also by paying rewards for the best plantations; all
without result.
Meanwhile a check to the wood trade had occurred through the imposition
of exorbitant customs duties by Great Britain, and at the same time the
government imposed an export duty to discourage export from Norrland,
and this was not abated until 1857.
A further project of forest supervision was attempted through a report
by a new commission appointed in 1828, which formulated rules for the
control of public and private forests, and recommended the establishment
of a Central bureau for the management of forest affairs, as well as the
organization of a Forest Institute, for the teaching of forestry. This
Institute was established at Stockholm in 1828, but, instead of
organizing the bureau, the director of that institute was charged with
the duties of such bureau. Again for years, committee reports followed
each other, but led to no satisfactory solution of the problems.
In 1836, however, a forestry corps (_skogstaten_) was organized for the
management of the State forests under the direction of the Forest
Institute, and, as a result of persistent propaganda, the central bureau
of forest administration (_skogsstyrelsen_) was created in 1859 with
_Björkman_ at the head, charged with the supervision of all the State,
royal, communal and other public forests, and the control of private
forest use.
The law of 1859, however, did not settle upon any new policy of control
over private forest properties. Again and again, forest committees were
appointed to propose proper methods of such control, but not until 1903
was a general law enacted, which was to go into effect on January 1,
1905.
Previous to this, locally applicable laws were enacted. In 1866, a law
was passed which referred only to a particular class of private lands,
namely those forests of Norrland which the State was to dispose of for
ground rent, or which had been disposed of and on which the conditions
of settlement had not been fulfilled. In 1869, a law applicable only on
the island of Gotland provided a dimension limit, and that in case of
neglect of regeneration on private fellings the owner may not cut any
more wood for sale, until the neglect had been remedied.
Exactly in the same manner as the homestead and other colonization laws
in the United States have been abused to get hold of public timber
lands, so in Sweden large areas of government land had been taken up for
settlement, but actually were exploited. It was to remedy this evil that
in 1860 an examination of the public lands was ordered with a view of
withdrawing portions from settlement and of making forest reservations.
The royal ordinance of 1866 resulted, which was to regulate the cutting
on settled lands and in such new settlements as were thereafter allowed.
Here, private owners at first were allowed to cut only for their own
use, and the new law prescribed the amount of yearly cut and required
the marking of timber designed for sale by the government officers.
This “compulsory marking” or “Lapland” law with a dimension limit, was,
in 1873, extended to all private forests in Norbotten, and in 1888, to
Vesterbotten. This law limits the diameter to which fellings are to be
made (8 inches at 15 feet from base), and if the cutting of smaller
trees is deemed desirable for the benefit of the forest these are to be
designated by forest officials.
The law for Gotland was renewed in 1894, adding a reforestation clause,
the governor being authorized to prohibit shipping of timber under 8
inch diameter, and that not until new growth was established; or at
least no new fellings may be made until this condition is fulfilled. The
same law applies to sand dune plantations in other, southern districts.
Altogether one-quarter of the private forest property was in this manner
subjected to restrictions, until the present conservation law came into
existence.
This law, of 1903, which became operative in 1905, was the result of a
most painstaking, extended canvass by the legislative committee,
appointed in 1896, which reported in 1899, and of a further canvass by
the Director of Domains, who reported in 1901. A large amount of
testimony from private forest owners, sawmill men, provincial and local
government officials, etc., was accumulated, and it may be reasonably
expected that this new legislation will be more effective than most of
the preceding seems to have been.
The law requires in general terms the application of forestry principles
in the management of private woodlands. For this purpose, a Forest
Protection Committee, one for each province, is constituted which has
surveillance over all private forests, an institution similar to that
existing in Russia.
The Committee, or Forest Conservation Board, consists of three persons
who are appointed for three years, one by the government, one by the
County Council, one by the managing committee of the County Agricultural
Society. In addition, where the communities desire, elected Forest
Conservation Commissioners may be instituted to make sure of the
enforcement of the law. The Board secures the services of an expert
adviser from the State forest service paid by the government but leaves
to the Board discretion as to the interpretation of the law which is for
the most part expressed in general terms, to secure conservative
management. Hence different Boards have worked in different ways, but
gradually all are coming to similar methods, and all apply persuasive
means rather than force.
The law requires regeneration, but does not prescribe detail methods as
to how re-growth is to be obtained, leaving these to be determined by
the Board in consultation with the owners. If no agreement can be
arrived at, or if the measures stipulated are not taken by the owner,
the Board may enforce its rulings by Court proceedings, in which
injunctions to prevent further lumbering, confiscation of logs, or of
lumber, or money fines may be adjudged.
The time of contracts for logging rights is reduced from 20 to 5 years.
Short courses of instruction to forest owners, and the issuing of
popularly written technical publications (_Folkskrifter_) is one of the
efficient methods of securing the result, which seems to have been
attained in the few years since the law is in operation, namely in
arousing such interest that opposition has become very small.
An export duty (4 to 8 cents per 100 cubic feet of timber, 8 to 14 cents
per ton of dry wood pulp) is levied for the purpose of carrying out the
law the export duty amounting to over $160,000, and a more general
export duty is under contemplation.
The management of communal forest is to be placed under the State forest
administration, the corporations paying 1.6c. per acre; but this feature
does not seem entirely settled.
Protective forests under special regulations are established at the
alpine frontier and on the drift-sand plains, which are planted up.