The Grand Duchy of Finland in the northeast of Russia is still in some
respects independent of Russia.
Finland, the “land of a thousand lakes” and of most extensive forests,
is hardly less important as a wood producer than Russia itself; its wood
exports amounting at present to around 200 million cubic feet and over
25 million dollars in value, represent over 50 per cent. of its trade,
and its most important resource.
Settled in the 7th century by an Aryan tribe, the Finns, congeners of
the Magyars, who subdued the aboriginal Laplanders, Finland became by
conquest in the 12th century, and remained for 500 years, a province of
Sweden. In the wars between Sweden and Russia; parts of this province
were conquered by Russia, and finally, in 1809, Sweden lost the whole;
but the Finns succeeded in preserving national unity and partial
independence under a constitution, adopted in 1772 and recognized by the
Czar.
Finland stands very much in the same relation to Russia as does Hungary
to Austria, the union being merely a personal one: the Czar is the ruler
or Grand Duke, but the administration is otherwise largely separate from
that of the empire, under a Governor-General, appointed by the Czar, and
a Senate of 18 members at Helsingfors, with a national parliament of the
four estates, nobles, clergy, burgers, peasants, which convenes every
five years; the Czar having the veto power over its legislation. The War
Department of Russia, however, is in charge of military affairs, and
other departments seem to be under more or less supervision of the
Russian administration. Lately repressive measures are threatening or
have nearly accomplished the destruction of this autonomy.
Of the 145,000 square miles of territory, nearly 50% is occupied by
lakes and bogs, marshes or tundra; less than 9 million acres (9.7%) is
in farms, and 37.5 million acres or 42%, is forestland, actual or
potential; The major part of this is located in the northern and eastern
sections, where the population is scanty, agriculture little developed,
and sand soils prevail. Beyond the 69th degree, forest growth ceases,
and naturally near the forest limit the scrubby growth partakes of the
character of all northern forests. Not more than 2.5 million acres,
mostly in the southwestern sections, are actually under cultivation; the
population being short of 2.5 million.
The rigorous climate makes a large consumption of fuelwood necessary,
and, since houses are also mostly built of wood, the home consumption is
over 32 cubic feet per capita. Over 10 million cubic feet of pine are
consumed in making tar, and a like amount for paper pulp. The total cut
is in the neighborhood of 370 million cubic feet, four-fifth of which
comes from private forests of the middle and southern area, and over
one-third of it is being exported.
The country generally is a tableland with occasional low hills. The
forest consists principally of pine, the latter a variety of the Scotch
Pine (or species?), called Riga Pine which excels in straightness of
bole and thrifty growth, and of spruce (10 per cent. of the whole,
mainly in the southeast). Aspen, alder and birch, especially the latter,
are considered undesirable weeds, and fire is used to get rid of them
where coniferous aftergrowth is desired, although birch is also employed
for fuel, bobbins and furniture, and aspen for matches. Basswood, maple,
elm, ash and some oak occur, and larch (_Larix sibirica_) was introduced
some 150 years ago.
Long, severe winters and hot, dry summers produce slow growth, the pine
in the north requiring 200 to 250 years, in the middle sections 140 to
160 years to grow to merchantable size.
Fires, used in clearing, have from time to time run over large areas and
have nearly killed out the spruce except in the lowlands, but the pine
being more resistant has increased its area and in spite of the
deterioration of the soil by fire reproduces well.
* * * * *
Originally the forest was communal property, but in 1524, Gustav Vasa
declared all forest and water not specially occupied to belong to “God,
King and the Swedish Crown,” although he allowed the usufruct to the
people free of charge or nearly so. These rights of user are still the
bane of the forest administration. Being left without supervision it
mattered little who owned the land, the forest was ruthlessly exploited.
Later, the rights of user thus originating were bought off by ceding
lands to the peasants.
Not until 1851 did an improvement in these conditions occur when a
provisional administration of the State forests was provided in
connection with the Land Survey; but a rational organization
materialized only after an eminent German forester, v. Berg, Director of
the forest school of Tharandt, had been imported (1858) to effect a
reconstruction. His advice was, however, only partially followed, and
the organization was not perfected until 1869.
Almost immediately, a powerful opposition to the administration
developed, because it could not at once show increased profits, and the
personnel which had been scanty enough, was still further reduced, the
large districts into which the State property had been divided were
still further enlarged, and to this day, improvement in these respects
has been only partial.
The State forest area, situated mainly in the north is stated as between
35 and 45 million acres (variable because of clearing for farms and new
settlements), but it contains about 15 million acres of bogs and moors
and much other waste land, which reduces the productive forest area to
about 12 million acres (35%), leaving 65% of the productive forest area
to private ownership.
This State forest was divided (1896) into 53 districts, the districts
being aggregated into 8 inspections, and the whole service placed under
a central office with a forest director and 5 assistants under immediate
control of the Senate. The forest guards numbered 750, their ranges
averaging 50,000 acres, while the districts average 600,000 acres and
several contain as high as 2.5 million acres; the Forstmeister in charge
may live sometimes 200 miles from the nearest town and 60 miles from the
nearest road. His function is mainly to protect the property, to
supervise the cutting and sales, and to teach the people the need of
conservative methods. In spite of this insufficient service,
considerable reduction in forest fires and theft has been attained.
Beyond restriction of waste by axe and fire, and conservative lumbering
of the State forest, positive measures for reproduction have hardly yet
been introduced, both personnel and wood values being insufficient for
more intensive management.
At present, with a cut hardly exceeding 100 million cubic feet, the
revenue is still almost nominal, say $600,000, and hardly the annual
growth is cut.
* * * * *
Selection forest is, of course, the rule, but since no trees are marked
and cut less than 10 inch diameter at 25 feet from the ground (!), at
least the possibility for improved management will not be destroyed
when, through the exhaustion of the private forests and increased wood
prices, more intensive management has become practicable.
When the market is good, a clearing system with 100 to 160 year rotation
is practised; on the clearings about 20 seed trees are left, and after 6
years the natural regeneration is repaired by planting.
This latter method is especially prescribed on the government farms.
These form an interesting part of the State property, some 900 small
farms with woodlots aggregating over 500,000 acres, mostly in the
southern districts. These came into existence in the 17th and 18th
centuries, being granted as fiefs to officers of the army as their only
compensation. They reverted to the State and are rented for terms of 50
years upon condition that the woods are to be managed according to rules
laid down by the State department; and special inspectors are provided
to supervise this work. This system, in vogue since 1863, at first met
with opposition on the part of the renters on account of the impractical
propositions of the department. At present the department manages many
of these woodlots directly, as well as those which the clergy have
received in lieu of emoluments.
Since 1883, a corps of forest surveyors has been occupied in making
working plans based upon diameter accretion at the curiously selected
height of 25 feet from the ground. A commission was also instituted some
years ago to segregate forest and farm soils in the State domain with a
view of disposing of the latter preparatory to improved management of
the remaining forest area.
The State has also in a small way begun to purchase absolute forest
soils in the southern provinces with a view to reforestation.
The private forest areas, located in the more settled southern portions
are found mostly in small parcels and in peasants’ hands, although the
nobility also owns some forest properties, but the size of single
holdings rarely exceeds 1,000 acres. These areas are mostly exploited
without regard to the future, furnishing still four-fifths of the large
export, and according to competent judges will soon be exhausted.
Although attempts have been made from time to time to restrict the use
of private forest, practically little has been accomplished, and such
restrictions as have been enacted are hardly enforced.
A law, enacted in 1886, forbids clearing along waters adapted to
fishing, and orders the leaving of seed trees or “providing otherwise
for regeneration,” if more than 12 acres are cut at one time.
The method of utilizing the ground for combined forest and farm use,
which is still frequently practised, was forbidden on the light sandy
soils of the pineries, or was otherwise regulated. Forest fire laws are
also on the statutes.
Propositions for further restrictions, made in 1891, were promptly
rejected by the parliament.
* * * * *
Educational opportunities are offered in the Forest Institute at Evois,
first established in 1862 as a result of v. Berg’s visit, and
re-organized in 1874. It accepts new students only every second year for
the two years’ course. It has had a precarious existence, being left
sometimes without students, and is naturally not of a high grade,
practical acquaintance with woodswork being its main aim.
Since 1876, a school for forest guards and private underforesters has
been in existence, where 6 students are annually accepted for a two
years’ course.
In addition there are two instructors provided by the government,
wandering teachers who are to advise private owners. Premiums are paid
for the best managed woodlots on the government farms.
The Finnish forestry association, which is in part of propagandist
nature, was organized in 1877. It supplies, besides an annual report,
other forestry literature, and employs an experienced planter to direct
efforts at reforestation.
A forestry journal (quarterly) is also published, and a professional
literature is beginning to start into existence.
* * * * *
It may be of interest in this connection to cite a rough calculation
made by Dr. Mayr of the available material in European Russia and
Finland combined, which he places at 4,500 million cubic feet, and of
which he considers one-half available for export.
It is impossible to prognosticate what position Russia and Finland,
together the largest wood producers in Europe, will take in the future
world commerce, and how rapidly better practices, for which the
machinery is already half started, will become generally adopted. At
present, especially in Russia proper, the general corruption of the
bureaucracy is an almost insurmountable obstacle to improvement.