Both the forest area and the ownership conditions vary very much
throughout the empire. Russian statistics are very unreliable and are
based on estimates rather than enumerations, and vary from year to year.
So little is known of conditions in Asia, where Russia occupies a
territory three times as large as its European possessions, that we can
dispose of them briefly. There exists a vast forested area, almost
unknown as to its extent and contents, or value. This area is mainly
located in Siberia, and although its extent is uncertain, it is known to
exceed 700 million acres, but it is also known that its character is
very variable, and much of it is “taiga” or swamp forest, much of it
devastated, and much of it in precarious condition, fires having run and
still running over large portions, destroying it to such an extent that
in several of the provinces within the forest belt, the question of wood
supplies is even now a troublesome one. The natives are especially
reckless, and devastation difficult to control. The railroad has only
increased the evils.
Here, in Siberia, the first attempt at a management was made in 1897 in
the government forests, which are estimated at over 300 million acres;
in addition about 400 million acres have been declared reserved forests.
Not one-third, however, even of the government forests is well stocked
and less than 4 million acres are under some form of management.
In European Russia, the forest area comprises about 465 million acres,
or 36% of the land area. The population being now over 120 million
(nearly one-half escaped from serfdom only since 1861), the forest area
per capita is only about 4 acres, somewhat less than in the United
States, half of what is claimed for Sweden and Norway, although seven
times as large as that of Germany or France.
It will be seen, therefore, that Russia, although still an exporting
country, has reasons for a conservative policy, even if only the needs
of the domestic population are considered, which alone probably consumes
more than the annual increment of the whole forest area; and the
consumption is growing with the growth of civilization as appears from
the increase of wood consuming industries, which in 1877 showed a
product of 8 million dollars, in 1887, of 12½ million, in 1897, of 50
million dollars.
This assertion, that the era of over-cutting has actually arrived, may
be made in spite of the stated fact, that in the northern provinces only
two-fifths of what is supposed to be a proper felling budget, is cut and
marketed, and that other most uncertain estimates make the cut 17 cubic
feet per acre of productive forest area, and the annual growth, on
still more uncertain basis, 31 cubic feet.[9] The same reasons that
operate in the United States contribute to wasteful practices, namely
uneven distribution of forest and population.
[9] An idea of the supposed productive conditions may be gathered
from the estimates which have been made, in 1898, for the State
forests and the operations in these.
In the two northern provinces, in which the state owns nearly the
entire forest area it is estimated that 8 cubic feet per acre would
be available felling budget, but only 10 per cent. of this is
actually cut and sold. Outside of this territory the available
felling budget is calculated at 24 cubic feet per acre, but only 60
per cent. or 14 cubic feet is being cut. Altogether in 1898 there
were cut in the State forests (somewhat over 300 million acres),
1,860 million cubic feet, say 6 cubic feet per acre or 40 per cent.
of the estimated proper felling budget. The administration claims
that three-fifth of the projected felling budget is saleable. In
1906, the budget was placed at 345 million cubic feet, but only 130
million were cut.
An estimate of the cut in the communal forests with 12 cubic feet,
in the peasants holdings with 20 cubic feet, and in the private
forests with 40 cubic feet per acre, brings the total for the
country to round 10 billion cubic feet, worth round 100 million
dollars for stumpage. It is assumed that 30 cubic feet should be the
annual increment per acre, when it would appear that only 70 per
cent. of the increment is cut.
The cut in the State forests was sold for 21 million dollars (1898),
or at an average of less than 1c. per cubic foot. The highest price
paid in the Vistula district was 2.5 cents, which scales down to 1c.
in Siberia and to one-third cent. in the Caucasus. This refers to
stumpage, nearly all sales being made on the stump to wood merchants
by bids, the trees being marked in some parts, in others the area
only being designated. The transportation is almost entirely by
river. From 1883 to 1901 the net revenue from the State forests
increased from 16 to 47 million dollars, while the expenditures
dropped from 29 per cent. of the gross revenue to 18.4 per cent. The
gross result is 46 cents per acre. In 1906, the returns were $27
million, and expenses $5 million.
As in the United States the East and West are or were well wooded, with
a forestless agricultural region between, so in Russia the North and the
South (Caucasus Mountains) are well wooded, with a forestless region,
the steppe, between. This leads, as with us, to an uneconomical
exploitation of the woods, the inferior materials being wasted because
not paying for their transportation in one section, and dearth of timber
and fuelwood in the other section.
The two most northern provinces of Archangel and Vologda, in size equal
to all Germany, are wooded to the extent of 75 and 89 per cent.
respectively, and the 14 northern provinces together contain nearly
one-half the entire forest area. Here the forest covers 64 per cent. of
the land area, and nowhere below 20 per cent., and the acreage per
capita ranges from 3 to over 200.
These largely unsettled provinces are the basis of the active wood
export trade, and, as in the similarly conditioned areas of North
America, the territory is devastated by fires, which sweep again and
again over large areas without check.
Southern Russia (excepting the Caucasus), is largely prairie or steppe,
forest cover sinking below 20 per cent. on the whole, down to 2 per
cent., and less than one-half acre per capita.
Altogether, one-half the country and three-fourths of the population
are, with less than 14 per cent. of the forest area, exposed to a dearth
of timber.
* * * * *
The northern forest, the most important economic factor, is composed
largely of pure or mixed coniferous woods (74%), principally Norway
Spruce (34%) and Scotch Pine (29.5%) with only slight admixtures of
larch and fir, and more frequently White Birch. Open stand,
comparatively poor development, and slow growth, characteristic of
northern climate, reduce its productive capacity, while frequent bogs
and other natural waste places outside of those produced by
mismanagement reduce its productive area by not less than 20 per cent.
Toward the south, deciduous species are more frequent, oak finally
becoming the prevailing timber and forming forests, with beech, maple,
ash and elm as admixtures. As the plains are approached pure deciduous
forest indicates the change of climate. The forest of the Caucasus is
principally of coniferous composition.
* * * * *
There are six classes of forest property: the government domain; the
apanage or imperial family (crown) forests; private forests; peasant or
communal forests; institute or corporation forests; and forests of mixed
ownership in which government and private owners participate.
The larger part of the forest area of European Russia is in control of
the Crown or State, namely, nearly 278 million acres, or a little less
than two-thirds of the whole, and a similar amount in Asia, besides the
so-called apanage forests of 14 million acres set aside for the support
of the court. Especially the northern forest is in government control,
in some governments (Archangel) the entire area; 67% of the domain
forest lies in the two governments of Archangel and Wologda.
In the less wooded districts State property, is insignificant. The area
under government control in Europe and Asia is estimated in the official
report for 1908 at around 957 million acres. This is, however, not the
exclusive property of the State; only about 260 million acres are so
claimed, the larger balance includes 170 million acres which are to be
apportioned to the liberated peasants, 200 million acres in which the
government is only part owner, or the ownership is in dispute; and the
rest is only temporarily placed under the management or surveillance of
the administration. Yet, 60% in Europe and 13% in Asia is exclusive
State property. In 1907, the area in Europe under working plans of the
Forest Administration, however, was only 48 million acres, 86 million
having been examined for working plans. Of the State property in Europe
34% is spruce forest, 30% pine, and 26% mixed conifer forest; altogether
88% of coniferous timber. The Asiatic area is also over 80 per cent.
coniferous.
The apanage or crown forests, the yield of which goes toward maintenance
of the imperial family, comprise about 16 million acres, or 3.4%.
Private forest property to the extent of over 100 million acres (23%) is
most developed in the Baltic provinces and along the Vistula. Mining
corporations and other institutes own about 7 million acres.
The peasants, who until 1861 were mere serfs and had no ownership of any
kind, being supplied with their necessities by the landed proprietors,
still largely supply themselves in the northern provinces by the
exercise of rights of user from the public domain on designated areas.
In the central and southern provinces, farm and forest land, the latter
to the extent of nearly 40 million acres, were given to them in communal
ownership. As stated above, about 170 million acres classed as
government domain still awaits partition and cession to the peasants.