No doubt, in some parts the first beginnings of care for forest property
and forest use date back even to Roman times. Charlemagne had his forest
officials here as elsewhere, and the number of ban forests seems to have
been especially great, some 400 “bannbriefe,” documents establishing
them, having been collected at Bern. The first forest ordinance
regulating the use of a special forest area in Bern dates from 1304. But
the first working plan seems to have been made for the city forest of
Zürich, the so-called _Sihlwald_, in 1680-1697, and to this day this
corporation property, with its intensive and most profitable management,
is the pride of all Switzerland. The Bernese cantonal forests were first
surveyed and placed under management from 1725 to 1739, and fully
regulated by 1765.
An excellent forest code for Bâle was drawn up in 1755 by Bishop Joseph
William; and in 1760, through the propaganda of the two scientific
societies of Zurich and Bern, the teaching of forestry was begun, and
forest organization in the two cantons secured in 1773 and 1786. The
canton of Soleure (Solothurn) was the first to start a regular system of
instruction, two citizens from each woodland district being given the
opportunity to qualify themselves as foresters.
Each canton had, of course, its own laws protecting forest property
against theft and fire; in the latter respect especially great care was
exercised and burning of brush could only be done by permit and under a
force of watchers.
The example of Zürich and Bern in organizing the management of their
forest areas was followed more or less by other cantons, but a real
serious movement is not discernible until the beginning of the 19th
century, when with the impetus of modern life and trade the value of
forest property increased, and most cantons issued regulative forest
laws.
Forest ordinances had from time to time attempted to prevent the
decrease of forest area by forbidding clearings, regulating pasture, and
forbidding wood export to other villages or cantons, a local timber
famine being dreaded. But, only when a severe flood, in 1830, had
accentuated the protective value of forest cover, were the forest
ordinances more strenuously enforced, and a general movement for better
management began in the various cantons. This was partly signalized by
sending young men to the forest schools of Germany.
Largely through the influence of a lively propaganda carried on by such
men as _Landolt_ and _Coaz_, backed by the Swiss forestry association,
(founded in 1848), and through the increase of torrential floods,
especially in 1834 and 1868, was it made clear that a central power
would have to be clothed with authority to regulate the use at least of
the alpine forest.
In 1857, the Bund ordered an investigation of the mountain forests in
all parts; this was made by Landolt. But opposition by the cantons
against restrictive measures prevented any legislative result. At the
same time, an annual vote of $2,000 was made to the forestry
association for reforestation and engineering works in the Alps. This
grant was changed, in 1871, by voting an annual credit of $20,000 to be
expended by the Bundesrath for similar purposes. The floods of 1868
brought such distress in certain cantons that contributions from all
other parts were required to assist the flood sufferers; and $200,000 of
the collections were appropriated for reforestation. Finally, in 1874,
through the effort of the forestry association, it was determined to
create a central bureau of forest inspection for the whole Bund in the
Department of the Interior, and an article was inserted in the
constitution declaring the superior right of oversight by the Federation
over the water and forest police in the high Alps, at the same time
proposing to aid in the engineering and reboisement work necessary to
correct the torrents, and to take measures for the preservation of these
works and forests.
The result was the installation of a federal forest inspector with one
assistant, in 1875, and the enactment of a law, in 1876, which
determined the area within which the federal government was to exercise
supervision. The execution of the law was, however, left to the
cantons--the jealousies of State rights as against federal rights being
even more strongly developed in Switzerland than in the United States.
Each canton proceeded in its own way, or neglected to proceed, and hence
no uniform progress in applying the law was made. Indeed, not a single
prescription of the law was applied within the prescribed time, although
again and again extended, and even to-day some cantons have not yet
complied. Stubborn opposition to the law continues even to date in some
cantons.
Besides the unwillingness to submit to federal authority, the lack of
technically trained foresters--their employment being a requirement of
the law--and the objection to their employment by the cantons, who
looked on them as disguised policemen, impeded the progress of the
reform. Until 1884, each canton held its own examinations for forest
officials, but in that year a standard was enacted for employment within
the federally supervised territory.
The most frequent quarrel was as to what was to be considered forest and
what pasture, so that finally as a compromise a classification between
the two, called pasture woods, was introduced.
It will be noted that the federal surveillance was to extend only to the
High Alps above a certain limiting line. This limitation was removed, in
1898, by resolution of the Council, and change of the constitution, by
which the federal exercise of water and forest police was extended over
the whole country, and a bill to carry this into effect was introduced.
Finally, in 1902, a revised law was passed establishing fully the
present Federal forest policy.
This law places the surveillance of all forest police in all forests of
Switzerland in the Bund, the private forests as well as the public,
i.e., State and communal or corporation forests. But, as there are
distinctive differences in the manner of this surveillance, a
differentiation of ownership conditions and forest conditions was to be
made by the cantons within two years.
The forests are to be divided into protection and non-protection forests
(by the cantons with sanction of the Bund), the former being such as are
located at headwaters or furnish protection against snowslides,
landslides and rockfalls, floods, and climatic damage. Most of this
segregation had already been made and mapped in consequence of the law
of 1876. In 1904, 71% of the total forest area had been classed as
protective forest; nearly 80% of the communal, and over 50% of the
private forest property.
All public forests are to be surveyed and their corners permanently
marked by the cantons according to instructions by the Bund, the latter
furnishing the needed triangulation survey, and inspecting and revising
any older surveys free of charge.
The surveyed public forests are to be fully regulated according to a
sustained yield management, under working plans made according to
instructions by the Cantons, to be sanctioned by the Bundesrath. For the
unsurveyed forest areas at least a provisional felling budget is to be
determined, as nearly as possible representing the sustained yield. In
protection forests the working plans must conform to the objects of
these forests, and clearings in these are as a rule forbidden. The
fellings are to be made under direct supervision of foresters, and,
after being cut, the wood must be measured. Sale on the stump is
forbidden, otherwise no interference in the management is intended.
Up to 1902, under the law of 1876, working plans for 540,000 acres had
been made. In 1907, 90,000 acres of State forest, and over one million
acres of corporation forests were under working plans.
For other than protection forests the law provides a number of
restrictions, such as the following: Pasture woods may not be decreased
in area except by permission of the cantons. Communal forests are not to
be subdivided without consent of the cantonal government, except where
two or more communities have joint ownership, nor are they to be sold
except with such permission. Rights of user in public forests,
especially in protection forests, may be forcibly extinguished by the
cantonal government, but under appeal to the Bundesrath. Money
equivalents are to be the rule, territorial equivalents to be given only
by special permission. By 1902, over $300,000 had already been spent in
extinguishing 2,842 different rights of user. The establishment of means
of transportation, roads, etc., is encouraged by subventions from the
Bund and in other ways.
Private forests as far as they fall under the classification of
protection forests are subject to the same supervision and rules as the
public forests as regards their survey, the prohibition of clearings
except by permission of the Federal Government, of diminishing pasture
woods, the extinguishment of rights of user, the prevention of damaging
use, and assistance in establishing means of transportation. The
cantonal government is obliged to insure the execution of these laws.
In addition, while the law encourages co-operative forest management of
small holdings as larger units, the Bund paying for the cost of
effecting such co-operation, it empowers the canton or the Bund to
enforce such co-operative management of protection forest areas in
specially endangered localities as at the headwaters of torrential
streams. Otherwise, in the non-protective private forests, only the
prohibition of clearing except by permission of the cantonal government,
the obligation of reforesting felling areas within three years, and of
maintaining existing pasture woods is ordered. Wherever on private
properties conversion of forest into farm or pasture is permitted (after
report of the forest administration of Canton or Bund) an equivalent
reforestation of other parts may be ordered. Wherever by the
reforestation of bare ground protective forest areas can be created,
this may be ordered, the Federal or the Cantonal government contributing
towards such work; or else, if the owner prefers, he may insist upon
having his ground expropriated by the Canton or other public
corporation; the federal government assisting in the first case to the
extent of 30 to 50% of the cost, and in establishing new protection
forests to the extent of 50 to 80%.
Before 1902, under the law of 1876, some 16,000 acres had been
reforested and put in order at an expense of over one million dollars,
the federal government contributing just about fifty per cent. In 1910,
the area of planted protection forest had grown to 25,000 acres.
Besides the various restrictions with provisions of penalties for
disobedience (from $1 to $100 for each transgression) and enforced
execution by cantonal government, there are a number of directions in
which the Federal Government makes contributions for the purpose of
encouraging conservative management. For the salaries of the cantonal
higher forest officials 20 to 35 per cent. are contributed, for the
higher corporation and co-operative association officials 5 to 25 per
cent., for the lower forest service 5 to 20 per cent. The Federation
participates to the extent of one-third in the accident insurance of
forest officers; a minimum salary of the officials and also their proper
education being made conditions. To secure the latter the Federation
pays for teachers and demonstration material under prescribed
conditions.
In 1901, the federal contributions amounted to $100,000 in all. In 1903,
the total appropriation was $126,000, namely, $9,000 for the
Inspector-General’s office; $26,000 towards salaries of cantonal
foresters; $80,000 towards reboisement; $8,000 towards survey. The
cantonal governments contributed about the same amount outside of the
cost of their forest administrations. It is estimated that the budget
will have to be increased by $50,000 annually for some time to come. By
1910, the federal government had altogether contributed $2 million in
the 35 years towards the execution of the law, outside its
administrative office.
* * * * *
The organization which is to carry out this forest policy is still the
one which originated with the law of 1876, somewhat modified by the law
of 1892, namely, a forestry division in the Department of the Interior,
with one Superior Forest Inspector and three assistants.
The Cantons have their own administrations, mostly under one forester of
higher grade (called variously Oberförster, Forstinspektor,
Forstmeister, Oberforstmeister). Bern has three co-ordinate
Forstinspektor. The Cantons are or are to be districted into forest
circles (Forstkreise), the subdivision to be approved by the Bundesrath,
and some are further subdivided into ranges (Unterförsterei). These
forest districts, from 7,500 to 45,000 acres each, are to be managed by
properly educated and paid foresters elected by the people. The
eligibility depends upon an examination, the theoretical part of which
is conducted by the forest school, the practical part, after a year’s
practical work, is conducted by a commission of foresters, after
completion of which the candidate becomes eligible; the election being
for three years, and re-election being usual, unless there are good
reasons against it.
In 1903, there were employed as administrators or managers 119 State
(Cantonal) foresters and 33 Communal foresters, besides 11 Federal
forest officials. In 1909, the total number had grown to 193, besides
1091 under-foresters, to whose salaries the Bund contributed. The State
foresters are allowed to manage neighbouring communal properties.