Hungary is mainly a fertile plain, traversed by the Danube and Theiss,
an agricultural country, with the forest confined to the hilly portions,
to the mountainous southern provinces of Slavonia and Croatia, and to
the Carpathians, which bound it on the north and east. Nevertheless,
while wood in the plain is scarce, the total forest area, including that
of the two mentioned provinces, is but little less than that of Austria
proper, namely, 23,000,000 acres (28%). Large areas of shifting sands,
and, along the Danube and Theiss rivers, swamps, partly created by
deforestation, are interspersed with the heavy black prairie and compact
clay-soils.
At present, of the 23 million acres of forest the State owns 16%,
corporations somewhat over 20%, churches, cloisters and other institutes
7.5%, and the balance, over 13 million acres, is owned privately. The
administration of the State forests is in the Department of Agriculture
but some are still under the control of the military and railroad
departments.
All but the private forests are under State surveillance. Of the private
properties the majority consists of large holdings and about ten per
cent. are entailed, a hopeful condition for conservative management. Yet
with an export of 10 to 12 million dollars or more, exploitation would
appear still to be general, and devastated areas abound. It is claimed
that half the area is under working plans, and that the 1000 million
cubic feet of annual cut do not approach the annual increment. The State
forests yield now in the neighborhood of $600,000 net.
Although naturally influenced by Austrian precedent, forestry matters in
Hungary like all matters of administration are largely independent of
Austria, the connection being only in the identity of the ruler.
The forests, which had been for the most part the property of the kings
of the Arpad dynasty, had by them been turned over from time to time in
donations to the churches, cloisters and to colonists, so that when the
Hapsburgs succeeded on the throne, in 1526, only a small portion
remained undisposed, and this became State property.
In the forests which were necessary for the working of the royal mines
and furnaces, an attempt was early made to secure systematic treatment
under an ordinance (1565) which gave instructions as to the order of
fellings, the reservation of seed trees, etc. But, otherwise, the
government did not make much effort at regulating forest use until the
middle of the 18th century, and then, largely owing to military
considerations, urged by General von Engelshofen commanding on the
frontier against the Turks. The planting of forests for defense was
ordered (1743) by Maria Theresa, but this order was probably never
executed.
About this time, however, movements of reform in various directions are
noticeable. Complete working plans were made for the Kremnitz forest in
1750, and for the Schemnitz forest in 1763. The forest ordinances of
1770 and 1781 and the law of 1791 attempted to regulate the use of
communal forests, and ordered the reservation of devastated forest
areas. Other legislation followed in 1807, designed to arrest the
further extension of shifting sands.
Although, since 1809, forest inspectors had been employed to look after
the execution of the forest laws, mismanagement and forest destruction
by promiscuous cutting, pasture and fire remained the rule, and with
the advent of the railroads, in 1850, increased apace.
Political troubles prevented any attempts at improvement until, in 1867,
comparative peace and the new régime had arrived, and finally, in 1879,
it became possible to pass a reform law, which is the basis of present
conditions.
A general forest law had been enacted in 1807; this was superseded in
1858 by the adoption of the Austrian law of 1852. But, in 1879, a new
law reorganized forest policy and forest service. In that year, the
State interests were placed under the administration of the
Department of Agriculture with a technical forester at the head
(Oberlandforstmeister), assisted by four section chiefs, one in charge
of the State forest administration, one for the administration of
corporation forests, one for the elaboration of working plans, and one,
with the assistance of 20 forest inspectors having supervision of the
execution of all forest laws. Otherwise the general features of German
administrative methods prevail, except that for purposes of executing
the protective forest laws, committees composed of three members chosen
from the country officials co-operate with the government service.
The law of 1879, modified and intensified in 1898, provides government
supervision of the management of corporation and of protection of
forests, and prescribes that land unfit for farming, i.e., absolute
forest soil (three-quarters of all forest land), no matter by whom
owned, is to be reforested within six years after having been stripped,
and no new clearings may be made on such soils. Mountain forests, which
are classed as protection forests (around one million acres or 5.4% of
the forest area so classed), as well as entailed properties, must be
managed according to working plans approved by the forest department.
The declaration of protective forests was to be made by a commission
within five years of the enactment of the law. New planting for
protective purposes could also be ordered, and this under certain
conditions may be done by the interested, i.e., protected parties, which
may associate themselves for this purpose. Violations of this law are
liable to be punished by a fine for each acre, imposed annually as long
as the offense continues. Two-thirds of the whole forest area is thus
more or less under State supervision, and working plans for over 12
million acres have been, or are to be prepared by the government. An
area allotment method with a normal forest formula as a check has been
mostly employed in this work, which is by no means as yet completed.
To promote forest planting several nurseries have been established by
the government, from which around 10 million plants are annually
distributed free of charge, and subventions for reforestation of wastes
are also granted annually. It is interesting to note in this connection
that more than 170,000 acres have been planted to Black Locust, which is
managed as coppice for vineyard stakes.
In 1884, a special fund for the purchase of forest land by the State was
instituted by turning all moneys received from eventual sales of forest
land into that fund. Another fund for forest improvement is accumulated
by placing four-fifths of all penalties collected for forest trespasses
into a separate account for that purpose. These funds have not
accumulated very fast, the forest improvement fund, in 1896, being only
about $120,000.
Similar to the Landes in France, there exist in various parts of Hungary
extensive sand wastes and shifting sands, partly caused by
deforestation. Ever since 1788, legislation has attempted to secure a
rehabilitation of these waste areas, which cover in all some 600 square
miles. In 1817, a first systematic beginning was made in the Banat, on
the “Alföld” of the Magyars, under the forest director _Bachofen_,
similar to _Brémontier’s_ undertaking in France. By 1842, the total
plantations amounted to about 12,000 acres, and by 1869, some 20,000
acres had been reforested, and parts of the plantations had begun to
yield profits. But even to-day, there are still large areas in a desert
condition.
A classic volume in German by _Joseph Wessely_, Hungarian forest
director, _Der europäische Flugsand und seine Kultur_, describes in
detail the principles and methods of reclamation of shifting sands.
Most of the Hungarian forestry literature being written in the Magyar
language, is inaccessible to the rest of the world.
Efforts by private endeavor to promote forestry education date back as
early as 1796, when Forest Inspector _Vizner_ opened an elementary
forest school and wrote a forestry catechism.
This effort was followed, in 1806, by introducing the subject in the
agricultural school at Keszthely, and, in 1808, in the school of mines
in Schemnitz (Selmecz banya), a German forester _Wilkins_ filling the
chair, while a special forest school was established at Hermannstadt in
1817.
The forestry courses at Schemnitz were enlarged and the school
re-organized in 1846 and again in 1872; one of the changes being the use
of the Hungarian language in its instruction, which had originally been
in German. In 1904, the course, which was 3 years and only optionally 4
(one year for engineering education), was made 4 years for all, and is
obligatory for all higher grade State officials.
In Croatia-Slavonia, which is in many respects separately administered,
an agricultural and forestry school exists at Kreutz (Körös) with a
three-year course.
For the lower service four schools of two-year courses have been
established by the government, the instruction being given by
practitioners, and some of the students receiving free tuition.
A forest experiment station was established in 1898; it issues a
quarterly magazine, _Irdeszeti Kiserletek_, in which its results are
recorded.
A Hungarian forestry association was formed in 1866; it issues a monthly
journal, distributes pamphlets, gives prizes for literary effort, etc.,
and is, with over 2000 members, an active agent in the work of reform. A
separate forestry association, which also publishes a monthly in the
Slavish language, exists in Croatia.