THE USE OF GOLD & COLOURS IN INITIAL
LETTERS & SIMPLE ILLUMINATION
Tools & Materials for Simple Illumination — Parchment, “Vellum,” &
Pounce — Colours — Simple Colour Effects — Matt Gold — Burnished
Gold — Burnished Gold Forms, & Outlines — Background Capitals —
Applying the Background — Ornament of Backgrounds.
TOOLS & MATERIALS FOR SIMPLE ILLUMINATION
_TOOLS, &c., FOR GILDING._—See Chapter IX. (pp. 145–6).
_IVORY TRACING POINT._—This is useful for various purposes, and for
indenting patterns in burnished gold (see p. 191).
_BRUSHES._—Red Sables are very good. A separate brush should be kept
for each colour—or at least one brush each for _Reds_, _Blues_,
_Greens_, _White_, and _gold “paint”_—and it is convenient to have a
medium and a fine brush for each.
_PENS FOR COLOUR._—Quill pens are used: “Turkey” or “Goose.” The
latter is softer, and is sometimes preferred for colour work. For
very fine work (real) Crow Quills may be tried. A separate pen should
be used for each colour.
_COLOURED INKS._—Brown ink (tempered with black if desired) may be
used for fine outlines: if the outlined forms are to be coloured
afterwards, it is convenient if the ink be _waterproof_. [p173]
Coloured inks seldom have as good a colour as the best paint colours
(see _Colours for Penwork_, p. 176).
_COLOURS._—(p. 175). ‹MATT GOLD› (see p. 183).
_PAINT-BOX._—The little chests of drawers, sold by stationers for 2s.
6d., make very convenient “paint-boxes”: pens, &c., may be kept in
one drawer; gilding, tools, &c., in another; and colours and brushes
in another.
_PAPER_ (see pp. 51, 98, 103).—_PARCHMENT_, _VELLUM_, _& POUNCE_ (see
below).
PARCHMENT, “VELLUM,” & POUNCE
(_See also Appendix on Gilding, p. 167 and pp. 98, 356_)
The name “Vellum” (strictly applicable only to calf-skin) is
generally given to any moderately good skin prepared for writing
or printing on. All the modern skins are apt to be too stiff and
_horny_: chemical action (substituted for patient handling),
followed by liberal sizing and “dressing,” is perhaps responsible.
The old skins have much more life and character, and are commonly
much softer. Their surface is generally very smooth—not necessarily
_glazed_—often with a delicate velvety _nap_, which forms a perfect
writing surface.
_Parchment_ (sheep-skin), as supplied by law-stationers, though
rather hard, still retains the character of a skin, and is in every
way preferable to the Vellum[33] which is specially prepared for
illuminators. A piece of parchment about 26 inches by 22 inches costs
about 2s. 6d. Lambskin is still better.
“_Roman Vellum_” is a fine quality of sheep or [p174] _“lamb” skin_,
made in imitation of the Vellum used in the Vatican.
The surface of a modern skin may be greatly improved by “_pouncing_”
but there seems to be a danger of its becoming rough or porous.
_Pounce._—Fine _powdered pumice_ (as supplied by drysalters) is
very good. It is rubbed on with the hand (p. 167), or with a pad
or a piece of rag. Law-stationers use a pounce in which the main
constituents are chalk (or “whiting”) and powdered resin. The latter,
when used before gilding, is apt to make the gold-leaf stick to the
surrounding parchment. (_Before Writing_, see Note 7, p. 359.)
_Chalk_, “_Whiting_” “_French Chalk_,” and _Powdered Cuttlefish
Bone_ might be used as substitutes for pumice, or as ingredients
in preparing a pounce. _Sandarach_ (a resin) rubbed on an erasure
appears to prevent ink spreading when the surface is written over.
A skin of parchment has a smooth (whiter) side—the original flesh
side—and a rougher, yellower side—the original hair side. The penman
will find the _smooth_ side preferable for writing on (though, of
course, both sides must be used in a book: see p. 110). This side is
more easily damaged, and erasures have to be very carefully made with
a _sharp_ knife, or by gentle rubbing with indiarubber. On the rough
side, erasures cause little or no damage to the surface. A piece of
rubber—or a paper stump—dipped in pounce may be used. It is better—as
it is more straightforward—to avoid erasures if possible, and to
correct mistakes frankly, as in ordinary writing (see p. 344).
For ordinary purposes parchment should be cut to the size desired,
and be held on the desk by the [p175] tape, guard, &c. (see p. 50).
It is generally a mistake to pin it down, or to damp and stretch it
on the drawing-board (see p. 356).
_Parchment is stained a fine purple_ with “Brazil-wood”: this may be
obtained from a “store chemist.” Three teacups full of Brazil-wood
are stewed in about two pints of water, with two teaspoonsful
of alum (which acts as a mordant). The colour of this liquid is
brownish-red, and to make it purple, carbonate of potash is added
(_very carefully_, or it will become too blue). The liquid is poured
into a tray, and the parchment skin is placed in it for half a day or
a couple of days. The colour dries lighter, so it should be prepared
rather dark, and diluted if necessary: strips of parchment should be
used to test it; they are taken out and dried at the fire.
The parchment skin is stretched on a frame, the edges being caught up
over little buttons or pegs, and tied at these points with string. It
is allowed to dry slowly.
COLOURS
_POWDER COLOURS_ are the purest: they may be mixed with gum arabic
and water. Yolk of egg and water is sometimes used as a medium (or
white of egg) (see pp. 166, 179). It is more convenient for the
beginner to use prepared colours, which are ready and dependable.
_CAKE COLOURS_ rank next to powder colours for purity: they seem to
need tempering with a little gum or honey or glycerine (or egg—see
above) for use on ordinary parchment.[34] Used [p176] plain with
water, they are apt to flake off when dry.
_PAN COLOURS_ are very safe for ordinary use.
_TUBE COLOURS_ sometimes seem to have too much glycerine; they are,
however, very convenient for preparing mixed colours in any quantity,
because of their semi-fluid condition, and because the amount of each
colour in the mixture may be judged with considerable accuracy by the
_length_ which is squeezed out of the tube (p. 178).
_COLOURS FOR PENWORK, &c._—For simple letters or decoration it is
well to use a pure
_RED_—_neither crimson nor orange tinged_:
_BLUE_—_neither greenish nor purplish_:
_GREEN_—_neither bluish nor “mossy._”
A little “body colour” is generally used with _blues_ and _greens_ to
keep them “flat” (p. 118). These colours should be mixed as required,
and be diluted to the right consistency with water (see p. 118).
Colour which has been mixed and in use for some time—especially if it
has been allowed to dry—is best thrown away (see _mixing size_, p.
148).
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 112.›]
If there is much rubricating to be done, a quantity of each colour
sufficient to last several days may be mixed, and kept in a _covered_
pot. A little pomatum pot is convenient—the smaller the better, as it
keeps the colour together, and does not allow it to dry so quickly.
The filling-brush (a rough brush kept for filling the pen) may rest
in the pot (see fig. 112), being given a stir round every time
it is [p177] used to prevent the settling of the heavy parts of
the colour. A drop of water is added occasionally as the liquid
evaporates and becomes too thick.[35]
_TINTS FEW AND CONSTANT._—_Red_, _Blue_, and _Green_ (and perhaps
_purple_) with _Gold_, _White_, and _Black_, are sufficient for
everything but the most advanced type of Illumination. And it is in
every way desirable that, until he has become a _Master_ Limner,
the Writer and Illuminator should strictly limit the number of his
colours (see p. 215).
It is one of the “secrets” of good “design” to use a limited number
of _elements_—forms or colours or materials—and to produce _variety_
by skilful and charming manipulation of these.
It is well to follow the early Illuminators in this also: that these
few colours be kept constant. When you have chosen a _Red_, a _Blue_,
and a _Green_—as pure and bright as you can make them—keep those
particular tints as _fixed_ colours to be used for ordinary purposes.
For _special purposes_ (pp. 182, 202) paler tints may be made by
adding white, and varied tints may be mixed, but even when your work
has advanced so that you require a more complex “palette,” you should
stick to the principle of _constant tints and modes of treatment for
regular occasions_: this is the secret of method.
_RED._—Vermilion is prepared in three forms: “_Vermilion_,” “_Scarlet
Vermilion_,” and “_Orange Vermilion_.” For ordinary use “_Scarlet
Vermilion_” is the best (it may be tempered with a minute quantity
of white). “_Vermilion_” is not quite so bright, and tends more to
crimson, but, mixed with [p178] “_Orange Vermilion_” it gives the
“scarlet” form. The _pan_ colour is generally most convenient.
Where scarlet is in juxtaposition with gold, their effect may be
harmonised by having a large proportion of blue in the neighbourhood:
sometimes a more crimson colour than vermilion may be used.
_Chinese Vermilion_ is a fine colour, but difficult to obtain; it
is even said that the genuine pigment is reserved exclusively for
the Chinese Emperor (whose edicts are written with “The Vermilion
Pencil”).
_GREEN._—Verdigris is a very fine colour, closely resembling, and
possibly the same pigment as, the green in early MSS., but I believe
that it has not been rendered permanent in modern use.
_Green Oxide of Chromium_ (_transparent_) (or “Veridian”) is a very
good permanent green. It is rather a thin colour, and requires body,
which may be given with _lemon yellow_, or with _white and yellow
ochre_; being a rather bluish green, it is the better for a little
yellow. This (mixed) green is most conveniently prepared from tube
colours.
_BLUE._—_Ultramarine Ash_ (whole tube about 4s.) is a very beautiful
colour. It is rather pale and transparent (and a little “slimy” to
work) when used alone. A mixture (preferably made with tube colours)
consisting of _Ultramarine Ash and Chinese White and (a very little)
Prussian Blue_ makes an extremely fine, pure blue. A similar mixture
with _cobalt_ as a base makes a very good blue.
_Ultramarine or Powdered Lapis Lazuli_ (unfortunately known as
“Genuine Ultramarine”[36]) is a fine colour; it may have a slightly
purplish tint and need [p179] tempering with green to make a pure
blue (whole cake about 18s.).
The Blue in common use in early MSS. (before Ultramarine came into
use) has a fine, pure colour, and considerable _body_: it is more
raised than any other colour; it is often seen to be full of little
sparkles, as though there were powdered glass in it. It is supposed
to have been prepared from a copper ore.
The following note on this blue has been given to me by Mr. C. M.
Firth:—
“The blue is Native Carbonate of Copper finely powdered and tempered
with white of egg (Vermilion is tempered with the Yolk).”
“The ore is of two kinds, a crystalline of a medium hardness found
in France at Chessy, and hence called Chessylite, and a soft earthy
kind which is obtained in Hungary, and largely now from Australia.
The latter is from its ease of manipulation the best for paint
making. It should be ground dry till it is no longer gritty and is
of a sky blue (pale) colour.”
“The Blue in MSS. was liable to wash off, but the oil in the Yolk
prevented a similar result with the Vermilion. The Blue is identical
with the Azzuro della magna (for d’allemaigne) of the Middle Ages.
The frequently advanced hypothesis that the blue was due to a glass
is based on the accounts of (I.) The Vestorian blue copper ‘frit’
for enamels probably; (II.) on the accounts in sixteenth century of
the Manufacture of Smalt, which owes its colour to a glass tinted
with Cobalt. This Azzuro is the oldest known Western blue, and was
probably employed on Egyptian walls, where it has gone green, as
also in Italian Frescoes.”
“The Green tint of the chemical change in the Copper is seen in
initials in books too much exposed to the damp. These exhibit a
bright green tint in places where the colour was thinly applied.”
[p180]
It appears that Yolk, besides being unsuited in colour for tempering
this blue, changes it to a greenish colour (the effect of the oil,
which forms about 30 per cent. of Yolk of Egg).
_WHITE._—The tube _Chinese White_[37] is the most convenient to use
when tempering colours.
“_White Line or Hair Finishing_” (see p. 183). Various tools have
been recommended for this. A sable pencil with the outer hairs cut
away, “the smallest brush” made, and even a fine steel pen. I am
inclined to believe that some of the early Illuminators used a fine
quill—such as a crow quill, or a goose quill scraped thin and sharply
pointed.
_PURPLE_ is seldom used in simple pen-work, lettering, &c., but
largely and with very fine effect in complex illumination. A
_reddish-purple_ is to be preferred. A good colour can be made from
the purple _stain_ described on p. 175, or from Ruby madder and a
little Rose madder, with a very little Ultramarine.
SIMPLE COLOUR EFFECTS
_Simple “Rubrication”_ (see p. 127).—Red letters were most commonly
contrasted with _blue_ (the “warmest” and “coldest” colours),[38]
in some MSS. with _green_ alone, but more commonly the three [p181]
colours were used together, the alterations being generally—
┐ ┐
«R»_ed cap._ │ in columns «RED» │ in lines of Caps.
«B»_lue cap._ │ of Versal «BLUE» │
«R»_ed cap._ │ letters «RED» │
«G»_reen cap._ │ (see fig. 93) «GREEN» │ (see fig. 89).
&c. │ &c. │
┘ ┘
_Repetition and Limitation of Simple Colours (and Forms)._—The
uniform treatment of a MS. necessitates that no colour (or form) in
it should be quite singular, or even isolated if it can possibly be
repeated. If, for example, there be a Red capital on the “Verso”
page, the “_opening_” is improved by some Red—a capital, a rubric,
or even a line-finishing—on the “Recto” page. Very often the one
piece of colour is very small, and, as it were, an echo of the
other (compare Line-finishings and Initials, pp. 205, 193). While
it is not always possible or desirable so to treat both pages of an
opening, yet, in the book taken as a whole, _every colour used should
be repeated as often as there is a reasonable opportunity_. And,
therefore, where the opportunities for colour in a book are few and
far between, it is well to limit the “colours” used to two, or even
one.
This necessity for repetition applies to _simple_ rather than to
complex “Illuminated” Forms—_e.g._ a book need not have more than
one Illuminated Initial—but within such complex forms themselves
[p182] _repetition_ is recognised as one of the first principles of
“decorative design” (see p. 215).
_Proportions of Colours._—In Harmonious Illumination, Blue very
commonly is the predominating colour; but no exact proportions can
be laid down, for the combined colour effect depends so much on the
arrangement of the colours.
_Effects of Neighbouring Colours._[39]—When blue and red are in
juxtaposition, the blue appears bluër and greener; the red appears
brighter and more scarlet. With Red and Green, the Red appears more
crimson, and the green, greener and bluër. A greenish blue will
appear _plain blue_ beside a pure green; a blue with a purplish tinge
will appear more purple. Experiments might profitably be made with
simple arrangements of Red, Blue, Green, Black, White, and Gold in
combinations of two or more.
_Tempering Colours with White._—Forms such as flower petals, &c., may
be painted in Blue or Red, paled with White, and then be shaded with
the pure colour; this gives considerable richness, and the effect may
be heightened by very careful white line work (_q.v._). Green leaves,
&c., may be made very pale and then touched with _Yellow_—this gives
a brilliant effect.
_Black Outlines._—The effect of these is to make a bright colour
appear brighter and richer, to define, and, to a certain extent,
_harmonise_, neighbouring colours and shapes, and to keep the design
flat [p183] (see p. 186). For one or more of these reasons, all
coloured forms—patterns, charges, &c.—in a compound colour scheme
have an outline—strong or delicate, according to the strength or
delicacy of the work (see pp. 188, 187, 202, 221, 165).
_White Lining._—A black outline is often separated from the colour
by a fine white line (see fig. 129). White lines also are used to
harmonise colours, one or more commonly being painted (or “penned”)
upon the colours. This tends to make the colours appear paler and
lighter—brightening them if they are dark. Care must be taken not
to overdo the white lining, or it will make the colours chalky and
cold. White is also used in groups of dots, and in fine patterns on
backgrounds (see pp. 213, 430).
_Gold_ is even more effective than white or black for harmonising
colours. It is commonly _Burnished_ in bars or frames (see p. 481),
and in spots (pp. 481, 187), or in large masses (p. 191). _Matt Gold_
(see below).
MATT GOLD
Matt gold, or gold “paint”—the pure gold powder with white of egg
is best—is generally _painted upon colour_. It was much used in old
miniatures for “hatching” and lighting landscapes, houses, costumes,
&c.; and stars, rays of light, and outlines of clouds were painted
in delicate gold lines upon the blue of the skies. Such gold lining
has a very mellowing and pleasant effect upon colour, but it can
easily be _overdone_. Matt gold may be used besides, for letters,
ornament, and patterns _painted upon colour_. Such forms have either
no outline, or a very faint one: their effect depends upon their
lightness, and they are not made to appear _solid_. [p184]
A very pretty effect may be obtained in a small and not very formal
manuscript by painting into the spaces left for the capitals little
squares of red and blue, and painting upon these the letters and
ornament—all in gold powder—very freely and quickly. The kind of
treatment is rather crudely suggested by fig. 113. The pleasant
appearance of the pages—as though they were scattered over with
tiny squares of cloth of gold and red and blue—is produced with
comparative ease, while the use of leaf gold might entail an
expenditure of more time and pains than the book was worth. In the
finest class of manuscripts, however, these matt gold letters would
be somewhat informal and out of place.
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 113.›]
BURNISHED GOLD
Gold is always raised and burnished as bright as possible, unless
there is a special reason for using matt gold.
The height to which it is raised varies, according to the effect
desired, from a considerable thickness to the thinnest possible
coat of “size.” Extremely thin and extremely thick raising are both
objectionable (see p. 150): roughly speaking, a suitable height for
any ordinary purpose is between 1/100 and 1/32 of an inch.
The surface, in the case of large forms, is generally made as smooth
and perfect as possible, so that, as Cennino Cennini says, the
burnished gold “_will appear almost dark from its own brightness_”;
and its [p185] brightness is only seen when the light falls on it at
a particular angle. The gilding of a manuscript, however, is slightly
flexible, and a large gilded surface is likely to be bent, so that
some part of it is sure to catch the light.
Small surfaces highly burnished very often do not show the effect
of, or “tell” as, gold, unless they catch the light by accident. It
is well, therefore, where the forms are small to have several on the
page, so that one or another will always shine out and explain the
rest. And while the proper craftsman tries always to get the best
finish which he reasonably can, the natural, slight unevennesses or
varying planes of small gilded forms may be of advantage to the whole
effect. The pleasant effect of such natural variations may be seen
in thirteenth-century Initials, where numbers of little gold pieces
are fitted into the backgrounds, and their changing surfaces cause
the whole to be lit up with little sparkles of light. A parallel
to this may be found in the hand-tooling of a book-cover, which
sparkles with gold, because the binder could not press in each piece
of gold-leaf absolutely level. On the other hand, the “deadness” of
a machine-stamped cover is largely due to the _dead level_ of its
gilding.
_Black and Gold._—One of the finest effects in calligraphy can be
obtained by the simple contrast of gold capitals with black writing
(see p. 299).
While, as in the case of _black and red_, the strongest effects are
obtained by a marked contrast, gold may yet be very effectively used
for small capitals throughout the black text. It does not lose or
blend its brilliance with the black of the writing as colour is apt
to do, but lights up and illuminates the page. For this reason gold
will [p186] “help out” and make agreeable a black and colour effect
which, by itself, would have been a failure (see p. 134).
BURNISHED GOLD FORMS & OUTLINES
_Plain gold letters, symbols, and other detached forms, not having
backgrounds, are usually not outlined._ An outline cheapens their
effect, making them darker and heavier, and, if the line be at all
thick, concealing the true form of the letter, and giving it a clumsy
appearance.
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 114.›]
It is an instructive experiment to make a gold (or plain white)
letter with a thick outline (_a_, fig. 114), and then paint a
background round it. The effect is quite altered, and greatly
improved (_b_, fig. 114). The outline no longer tells as the outer
line of the form, but partakes more of the nature of the background,
in which it cuts out, as one might say, a little _niche_ for the
letter to rest in.
_Gold-leaf forms on coloured backgrounds_ are [p187]
outlined—generally in black—in order that letter and background may
together form a flat design, stable and at rest in the page.
The distinction between the use of gold “_paint_” and the treatment
of a leaf gold form should be carefully observed: the _matt gold
powder_ lies upon colour, and may appear to blend with it (p. 183);
the _bright gold-leaf_ constitutes a distinct form, which either
lies upon the surface of _a page_, or is, as it were, _set in_ a
background.
_Gold (leaf) Floral Ornament, &c._—If the stalk and leaves are both
gold: they are commonly not outlined, unless on a background.
If there be a thin stalk in black or colour with gold leaves: the
leaves are outlined with the stalk-colour (they were commonly
_furred_: _c_, fig. 115).
If there be a _thick_ coloured stalk with gold leaves: both stalk
and leaves commonly have a black outline, the “leaves” often being
treated as spots of gold (below).
_Gold Spots or Dots_ are usually outlined and furred with black
(fig. 115). The effect produced is of a bright gold form on a _grey_
background.
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 115.›]
A simple “leaf” or detached spot of gold has a formless look, much as
a small _blot_ of colour or ink would have. The black outline and the
grey background-effect seem in this case to give form and interest to
the spot; at least they give it a place to _rest_ in—a nest to hold
the small golden egg. [p188]
Even a stalk and tendril (_d_, fig. 115) has the same effect of
giving intention and meaning to what might otherwise be a mere blot.
When several spots of gold (or colour) are arranged in a simple
design, together they constitute a simple form which does not require
a background. Thus the _line-finishing_ @ (a, fig. 126) has a formal
and intentional arrangement in itself, and therefore need not be
outlined.
BACKGROUND CAPITALS
_Background Capitals or Initials_ frequently employ burnished gold,
either for the letters or the ground. All the parts (including
“solid” patterns) are generally outlined in black, or dark colour.
The commonest colours for grounds are Reds and Blues. The grounds are
frequently countercharged, or made one colour _inside_ and another
_outside_ the initial (p. 190). Sometimes little or no gold is used,
and many fine white lines are employed to separate and harmonise the
colours of the Initial and the ground. It is well, however, for the
beginner to keep the letter and the ground distinct, by observing the
Herald’s maxim, and using “Metal on colour, _or_ colour on metal.”
_The forms of the letters_ vary from those of ordinary capitals
in being thicker in proportion to their height, and frequently in
having no serifs. A very thin line or serif is apt to be lost in the
background.
A very good form of background initial may be [p189] made out of the
ROMAN CAPITAL (_a_, fig. 116) by thickening all its parts; in place
of the serifs, curving out and shaping the ends of the stems (_b_,
_d_) to a sort of “_blunderbuss_” pattern (_g_).
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 116.›]
APPLYING THE BACKGROUND
It is well first to make the letter,[40] and then to _apply_ the
background to it (as though it were a sort of mosaic). The background
is packed tightly round the letter, and the letter occupies the
background, [p190] so that they appear to be in the same plane (_a_,
fig. 117).
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 117.›]
Such “flatness” is secured even more certainly and effectively by
using two colours (_e.g._ red and blue) in the background—one inside
and one outside the letter (see Plate XII.).
The curves of the gold letter may with advantage slightly project,
and so break the hard, square outline of the background.
The letter should not have the appearance of being “stuck on,” as it
is apt to if the background is large and empty, or if the ornament
passes behind the letter (_b_, fig. 117).
In the case of letters with projecting stems or tails: the tail may
be outside the background (_a_, [p191] fig. 118), or the background
may be prolonged on one or both sides of the tail (_b_ and _c_), or
the whole “field” may be enlarged to take in the complete letter
(_d_).
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 118.›]
There is no limit to the variety of shapes which backgrounds may
take—symmetrical or asymmetrical, regular or irregular—provided they
fit the initial or the ornament (which may _itself_ partially, or
entirely, bound them), are properly balanced (see Plate XII., and p.
419), and take their right place on the page.
ORNAMENT OF BACKGROUNDS
The ornament, as a rule, covers the background evenly, and is closely
packed or fitted into its place.
_Gold grounds_ are generally plain, sometimes bearing patterns in
dots. These are indented in the surface by means of a point (p. 172)
which is not too sharp. It presses the gold-leaf into tiny pits, but
does not pierce it. Gold grounds may be broken up into small parts by
coloured chequers (p. 215) or floral patterns. [p192]
_Coloured grounds_ are, as a rule, more or less evenly covered with
some form of decoration in thin white or matt gold lines, or in
“solid” patterns in various colours (see pp. 202, 212). A simple and
pretty diaper pattern may be made by diagonal lines of matt gold,
cutting up the colour into small “lozenges,” each alternate lozenge
having a fleur-de-lis or little cross, or other simple ornament (fig.
119).
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 119.›]
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 120.›]
A bolder design, in a broad white or coloured line, may be, as it
were, woven through _counterfeited slits_ in the letter (fig. 120).
This helps to preserve the general flatness of the letter, [p193]
background, and ornament, and gives additional interest.
The mimic slits are made by black lines drawn on the burnished gold
of the letter. Where the stem of the ornament comes over the gold,
the size is cut away with a pen-knife; the part hollowed out is
painted with white to cover any blemishes, and then painted with the
stem colour, and outlined.
A plain or pale stem may have a faint or brown outline, and be
“shaded” at the sides (with _greys_, _browns_, or _yellows_) to
give an effect of solidity; a stem that is painted in strong colour
(_e.g._ red or blue) may have a central white line painted upon it.
Note that where the initials have backgrounds, the line-finishings
are commonly made with backgrounds to match, though their treatment
is naturally much simpler (see Plates XV., XVII.).