THE ASSASSINATION OF CALIGULA.
A.D. 40-41
Plots against Caligula.--Cassius Chaerea.--Chaerea's bravery.--His legion
mutinies.--Chaerea escapes the mutineers.--His appearance.--His just
dealings displease the emperor.--Passwords given by Caligula to
Chaerea.--Accusation of Propedius.--Quintilia's testimony.--Chaerea
alarmed.--Quintilia's private signal.--Quintilia is put to the
torture in vain.--Anger of Chaerea.--His determination to destroy
Caligula.--Conspiracy formed.--The confederates.--Various
opinions.--Various plans proposed for destroying Caligula.--Final
determination.--The three days festival.--Brief conversation.--The
recess.--Chaerea's duty.--The plan seems likely to fail.--Chaerea's
ambuscade.--Minucianus.--Adroit management of the conspirators.--The
Asiatic boys.--Chaerea strikes Caligula down.--End of a despot.--General
joy in the palace.--Savage exultation of the conspirators.--Caesonia and
her child.--They are murdered.--Supposed necessity for destroying the
child.
The emperor Caligula came to his death in the following manner:
Of course his wanton and remorseless tyranny often awakened very
deep feelings of resentment, and very earnest desires for revenge in
the hearts of those who suffered by it; but yet so absolute and
terrible was his power, that none dared to murmur or complain. The
resentment, however, which the cruelty of the emperor awakened,
burned the more fiercely for being thus restrained and suppressed,
and many covert threats were made, and many secret plots were
formed, from time to time, against the tyrant's life.
Among others who cherished such designs, there was a man named
Cassius Chaerea, an officer of the army, who, though not of high
rank, was nevertheless a man of considerable distinction. He was a
captain, or, as it was styled in those days, a centurion. His
command, therefore, was small, but it was in the praetorian cohort,
as it was called, a sort of body-guard of the commander-in-chief,
and consequently a very honorable corps. Chaerea was thus a man of
considerable distinction on account of the post which he occupied,
and his duties, as captain in the life-guards, brought him very
frequently into communication with the emperor. He was a man of
great personal bravery, too, and was on this account held in high
consideration by the army. He had performed an exploit at one time,
some years before, in Germany, which had gained him great fame. It
was at the time of the death of Augustus, the first emperor. Some of
the German legions, and among them one in which Chaerea was serving,
had seized upon the occasion to revolt. They alledged many and
grievous acts of oppression as the grounds of their revolt, and
demanded redress for what they had suffered, and security for the
future. One of the first measures which they resorted to in the
frenzy of the first outbreak of the rebellion, was to seize all the
centurions in the camp, and to beat them almost to death. They gave
them sixty blows each, one for each of their number, and then turned
them, bruised, wounded, and dying, out of the camp. Some they threw
into the Rhine. They revenged themselves thus on all the centurions
but one. That one was Chaerea. Chaerea would not suffer himself to be
taken by them, but seizing his sword he fought his way through the
midst of them, slaying some and driving others before him, and thus
made his escape from the camp. This feat gained him great renown.
One might imagine from this account that Chaerea was a man of great
personal superiority in respect to size and strength, inasmuch as
extraordinary muscular power, as well as undaunted courage, would
seem to be required to enable a man to make his way against so many
enemies. But this was not the fact. Chaerea was of small stature and
of a slender and delicate form. He was modest and unassuming in his
manners, too, and of a very kind and gentle spirit. He was thus not
only honored and admired for his courage, but he was generally
beloved for the amiable and excellent qualities of his heart.
The possession of such qualities, however, could not be expected to
recommend him particularly to the favor of the emperor. In fact, in
one instance it had the contrary effect. Caligula assigned to the
centurions of his guard, at one period, some duties connected with
the collection of taxes. Chaerea, instead of practicing the extortion
and cruelty common on such occasions, was merciful and considerate,
and governed himself strictly by the rules of law and of justice in
his collections. The consequence necessarily was that the amount of
money received was somewhat diminished, and the emperor was
displeased. The occasion was, however, not one of sufficient
importance to awaken in the monarch's mind any very serious anger,
and so, instead of inflicting any heavy punishment upon the
offender, he contented himself with attempting to tease and torment
him with sundry vexatious indignities and annoyances.
It is the custom sometimes, in camps, and at other military
stations, for the commander to give every evening, what is called
the _parole_ or password, which consists usually of some word or
phrase that is to be communicated to all the officers, and as
occasion may require to all the soldiers, whom for any reason it may
be necessary to send to and fro about the precincts of the camp
during the night. The sentinels, also, all have the password, and
accordingly, whenever any man approaches the post of a sentinel, he
is stopped and the parole is demanded. If the stranger gives it
correctly, it is presumed that all is right, and he is allowed to
pass on,--since an enemy or a spy would have no means of knowing it.
Now, whenever it came to Chaerea's turn to communicate the parole,
the emperor was accustomed to give him some ridiculous or indecent
phrase, intended not only to be offensive to the purity of Chaerea's
mind, but designed, also, to exhibit him in a ridiculous light to
the subordinate officers and soldiers to whom he would have to
communicate it. Sometimes the password thus given was some word or
phrase wholly unfit to be spoken, and sometimes it was the name of
some notorious and infamous woman; but whatever it was, Chaerea was
compelled by his duty as a soldier to deliver it to all the corps,
and patiently to submit to the laughter and derision which his
communication awakened among the vile and wicked soldiery.
If there was any dreadful punishment to be inflicted, or cruel deed
of any kind to be performed, Caligula took great pleasure in
assigning the duty to Chaerea, knowing how abhorrent to his nature it
must be. At one time a senator of great distinction named Propedius,
was accused of treason by one of his enemies. His treason consisted,
as the accuser alledged, of having spoken injurious words against
the emperor. Propedius denied that he had ever spoken such words.
The accuser, whose name was Timidius, cited a certain Quintilia, an
actress, as his witness. Propedius was accordingly brought to trial,
and Quintilia was called upon before the judges to give her
testimony. She denied that she had ever heard Propedius utter any
such sentiment as Timidius attributed to him. Timidius then said
that Quintilia was testifying falsely: he declared that she had
heard Propedius utter such words, and demanded that she should be
put to the torture to compel her to acknowledge it. The emperor
acceded to this demand, and commanded Chaerea to put the actress to
the torture.
It is, of course, always difficult to ascertain the precise truth in
respect to such transactions as those that are connected with plots
and conspiracies against tyrants, since every possible precaution
is, of course, taken by all concerned to conceal what is done. It is
probable, however, in this case, that Propedius had cherished some
hostile designs against Caligula, if he had not uttered injurious
words, and that Quintilia was in some measure in his confidence. It
is even possible that Chaerea may have been connected with them in
some secret design, for it is said that when he received the orders
of Caligula to put Quintilia to the torture he was greatly agitated
and alarmed. If he should apply the torture severely, he feared that
the unhappy sufferer might be induced to make confessions or
statements at least, which would bring destruction on the men whom
he most relied upon for the overthrow of Caligula. On the other
hand, if he should attempt to spare her, the effect would be only to
provoke the anger of Caligula against himself, without at all
shielding or saving her. As, however, he was proceeding to the place
of torture, in charge of his victim, with his mind in this state of
anxiety and indecision, his fears were somewhat relieved by a
private signal given to him by Quintilia, by which she intimated to
him that he need feel no concern,--that she would be faithful and
true, and would reveal nothing, whatever might be done to her.
This assurance, while it allayed in some degree Chaerea's anxieties
and fears, must have greatly increased the mental distress which he
endured at the idea of leading such a woman to the awful suffering
which awaited her. He could not, however, do otherwise than to
proceed. Having arrived at the place of execution, the wretched
Quintilia was put to the rack. She bore the agony which she endured
while her limbs were stretched on the torturing engine, and her
bones broken, with patient submission, to the end. She was then
carried, fainting, helpless, and almost dead, to Caligula, who
seemed now satisfied. He ordered the unhappy victim of the torture
to be taken away, and directed that Propedius should be acquitted
and discharged.
Of course while passing through this scene the mind of Chaerea was in
a tumult of agitation and excitement,--the anguish of mind which he
must have felt in his compassion for the sufferer, mingling and
contending with the desperate indignation which burned in his bosom
against the author of all these miseries. He was wrought up, in
fact, to such a state of frenzy by this transaction, that as soon as
it was over he determined immediately to take measures to put
Caligula to death. This was a very bold and desperate resolution.
Caligula was the greatest and most powerful potentate on earth.
Chaerea was only a captain of his guard, without any political
influence or power, and with no means whatever of screening himself
from the terrible consequences which might be expected to follow
from his attempt, whether it should succeed or fail.
So thoroughly, however, was he now aroused, that he determined to
brave every danger in the attainment of his end. He immediately
began to seek out among the officers of the army such men as he
supposed would be most likely to join him,--men of courage,
resolution, and faithfulness, and those who, from their general
character or from the wrongs which they had individually endured
from the government, were to be supposed specially hostile to
Caligula's dominion. From among these men he selected a few, and to
them he cautiously unfolded his designs. All approved of them. Some,
it is true, declined taking any active part in the conspiracy, but
they assured Chaerea of their good wishes, and promised solemnly not
to betray him.
The number of the conspirators daily increased. There was, however,
at their meetings for consultation, some difference of opinion in
respect to the course to be pursued. Some were in favor of acting
promptly and at once. The greatest danger which was to be
apprehended, they thought, was in delay. As the conspiracy became
extended, some one would at length come to the knowledge of it, they
said, who would betray them. Others, on the other hand, were for
proceeding cautiously and slowly. What they most feared was rash and
inconsiderate action. It would be ruinous to the enterprise, as they
maintained, for them to attempt to act before their plans were fully
matured.
Chaerea was of the former opinion. He was very impatient to have the
deed performed. He was ready himself, he said, to perform it, at any
time; his personal duties as an officer of the guard, gave him
frequent occasions of access to the emperor, and he was ready to
avail himself of any of them to kill the monster. The emperor went
often, he said, to the capitol, to offer sacrifices, and he could
easily kill him there. Or, if they thought that that was too public
an occasion, he could have an opportunity in the palace, at certain
religious ceremonies which the emperor was accustomed to perform
there, and at which Chaerea himself was usually present. Or, he was
ready to throw him down from a tower where he was accustomed to go
sometimes for the purpose of scattering money among the populace
below. Chaerea said that he could easily come up behind him on such
an occasion, and hurl him suddenly over the parapet down to the
pavement below. All these plans, however, seemed to the conspirators
too uncertain and dangerous, and Chaerea's proposals were accordingly
not agreed to.
At length, the time drew near when Caligula was to leave Rome to
proceed to Alexandria in Egypt, and the conspirators perceived that
they must prepare to act, or else abandon their design altogether.
It had been arranged that there was to be a grand celebration at
Rome previous to the emperor's departure. This celebration, which
was to consist of games, and sports, and dramatic performances of
various kinds, was to continue for three days, and the conspirators
determined, after much consultation and debate, that Caligula should
be assassinated on one of those days.
After coming to this conclusion, however, in general, their hearts
seemed to fail them in fixing the precise time for the perpetration
of the deed, and two of the three days passed away accordingly
without any attempt being made. At length, on the morning of the
third day, Chaerea called the chief conspirators together, and urged
them very earnestly not to let the present opportunity pass away. He
represented to them how greatly they increased the danger of their
attempts by such delays, and he seemed himself so full of
determination and courage, and addressed them with so much eloquence
and power, that he inspired them with his own resolution, and they
decided unanimously to proceed.
The emperor came to the theater that day at an unusually early hour,
and seemed to be in excellent spirits and in an excellent humor. He
was very complaisant to all around him, and very lively, affable,
and gay. After performing certain ceremonies, by which it devolved
upon him to open the festivities of the day, he proceeded to his
place, with his friends and favorites about him, and Chaerea, with
the other officers that day on guard, at a little distance behind
him.
The performances were commenced, and every thing went on as usual
until toward noon. The conspirators kept their plans profoundly
secret, except that one of them, when he had taken his seat by the
side of a distinguished senator, asked him whether he had heard any
thing new. The senator replied that he had not. "I can then tell you
something," said he, "which perhaps you have not heard, and that is,
that in the piece which is to be acted to-day, there is to be
represented the death of a tyrant." "Hush!" said the senator, and he
quoted a verse from Homer, which meant, "Be silent, lest some Greek
should overhear."
It had been the usual custom of the emperor, at such entertainments,
to take a little recess about noon, for rest and refreshments. It
devolved upon Chaerea to wait upon him at this time, and to conduct
him from his place in the theater to an adjoining apartment in his
palace which was connected with the theater, where there was
provided a bath and various refreshments. When the time arrived,
and Chaerea perceived, as he thought, that the emperor was about to
go, he himself went out, and stationed himself in a passage-way
leading to the bath, intending to intercept and assassinate the
emperor when he should come along. The emperor, however, delayed his
departure, having fallen into conversation with his courtiers and
friends, and finally he said that, on the whole, as it was the last
day of the festival, he would not go out to the bath, but would
remain in the theater; and then ordering refreshments to be brought
to him there, he proceeded to distribute them with great urbanity to
the officers around him.
In the mean time, Chaerea was patiently waiting in the passage-way,
with his sword by his side, all ready for striking the blow the
moment that his victim should appear. Of course the conspirators who
remained behind were in a state of great suspense and anxiety, and
one of them, named Minucianus, determined to go out and inform
Chaerea of the change in Caligula's plans. He accordingly attempted
to rise, but Caligula put his hand upon his robe, saying, "Sit
still, my friend. You shall go with me presently." Minucianus
accordingly dissembled his anxiety and agitation of mind still a
little longer, but presently, watching an opportunity when the
emperor's attention was otherwise engaged, he rose, and, assuming an
unconcerned and careless air, he walked out of the theater.
He found Chaerea in his ambuscade in the passage-way, and he
immediately informed him that the emperor had concluded not to come
out. Chaerea and Minucianus were then greatly at a loss what to do.
Some of the other conspirators, who had followed Minucianus out, now
joined them, and a brief but very earnest and solemn consultation
ensued. After a moment's hesitation, Chaerea declared that they must
now go through with their work at all hazards, and he professed
himself ready, if his comrades would sustain him in it, to go back
to the theater, and stab the tyrant there in his seat, in the midst
of his friends. Minucianus and the others concurred in this design,
and it was resolved immediately to execute it.
The execution of the plan, however, in the precise form in which it
had been resolved upon was prevented by a new turn which affairs
had taken in the theater. For while Minucianus and the two or three
conspirators who had accompanied him were debating in the
passage-way, the others who remained, knowing that Chaerea was
expecting Caligula to go out, conceived the idea of attempting to
persuade him to go, and thus to lead him into the snare which had
been set for him. They accordingly gathered around, and without any
appearance of concert or of eagerness, began to recommend him to go
and take his bath as usual. He seemed at length disposed to yield to
these persuasions, and rose from his seat; and then, the whole
company attending and following him, he proceeded toward the doors
which conducted to the palace. The conspirators went before him, and
under pretense of clearing the way for him they contrived to remove
to a little distance all whom they thought would be most disposed to
render him any assistance. The consultations of Chaerea and those who
were with him in the inner passage-way were interrupted by the
coming of this company.
Among those who walked with the emperor at this time were his uncle
Claudius and other distinguished relatives. Caligula advanced along
the passage, walking in company with these friends, and wholly
unconscious of the fate that awaited him, but instead of going
immediately toward the bath he turned aside first into a gallery or
corridor which led into another apartment, where there were
assembled a company of boys and girls, that had been sent to him
from Asia to act and dance upon the stage, and who had just arrived.
The emperor took great interest in looking at these performers, and
seemed desirous of having them go immediately into the theater and
let him see them perform. While talking on this subject Chaerea and
the other conspirators came into the apartment, determined now to
strike the blow.
Chaerea advanced to the emperor, and asked him in the usual manner
what should be the parole for that night. The emperor gave him in
reply such an one as he had often chosen before, to insult and
degrade him. Chaerea instead of receiving the insult meekly and
patiently in his usual manner, uttered words of anger and defiance
in reply; and drawing his sword at the same instant he struck the
emperor across the neck and felled him to the floor. Caligula filled
the apartment with his cries of pain and terror; the other
conspirators rushed in and attacked him on all sides; his
friends,--so far as the adherents of such a man can be called
friends,--fled in dismay. As for Caligula's uncle Claudius, it was
not to have been expected that he would have rendered his nephew any
aid, for he was a man of such extraordinary mental imbecility that
he was usually considered as not possessed even of common sense; and
all the others who might have been expected to defend him, either
fled from the scene, or stood by in consternation and amazement,
leaving the conspirators to wreak their vengeance on their wretched
victim, to the full.
In fact though while a despot lives and retains his power, thousands
are ready to defend him and to execute his will, however much in
heart they may hate and detest him, yet when he is dead, or when it
is once certain that he is about to die, an instantaneous change
takes place and every one turns against him. The multitudes in and
around the theater and the palace who had an hour before trembled
before this mighty potentate, and seemed to live only to do his
bidding, were filled with joy to see him brought to the dust. The
conspirators, when the success of their plans and the death of their
oppressor was once certain, abandoned themselves to the most
extravagant joy. They cut and stabbed the fallen body again and
again, as if they could never enough wreak their vengeance upon it.
They cut off pieces of the body and bit them with their teeth in
their savage exultation and triumph. At length they left the body
where it lay, and went forth into the city where all was now of
course tumult and confusion.
The body remained where it had fallen until late at night. Then some
attendants of the palace came and conveyed it away. They were sent,
it was said, by Caesonia, the wife of the murdered man. Caesonia had
an infant daughter at this time, and she remained herself with the
child, in a retired apartment of the palace while these things were
transpiring. Distracted with grief and terror at the tidings that
she heard, she clung to her babe, and made the arrangements for the
interment of the body of her husband without leaving its cradle. She
imagined perhaps that there was no reason for supposing that she or
the child were in any immediate danger, and accordingly she took no
measures toward effecting an escape. If so, she did not understand
the terrible frenzy to which the conspirators had been aroused, and
for which the long series of cruelties and indignities which they
had endured from her husband had prepared them. For at midnight one
of them broke into her apartment, stabbed the mother in her chair,
and taking the innocent infant from its cradle, killed it by beating
its head against the wall.
[Illustration: CAESONIA.]
Atrocious as this deed may seem, it was not altogether wanton and
malignant cruelty which prompted it. The conspirators intended by
the assassination of Caligula not merely to wreak their vengeance on
a single man, but to bring to an end a hated race of tyrants; and
they justified the murder of the wife and child by the plea that
stern political necessity required them to exterminate the line, in
order that no successor might subsequently arise to re-establish the
power and renew the tyranny which they had brought to an end. The
history of monarchies is continually presenting us with instances of
innocent and helpless children sacrificed to such a supposed
necessity as this.