MOZART. THE PERFECTION OF CLASSIC STRUCTURE AND STYLE
Although Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeus[120] (1756-1791), was, in regard to
art problems, no more of a broad thinker than Haydn (Mozart and
Schubert being pre-eminently men whose whole nature centered in
music), yet on hearing his works we are aware that aspects of form and
content have certainly changed for the better. In the first place he
was more highly gifted than Haydn; he had from his infancy the
advantage of a broad cosmopolitan experience, and he was dimly
conscious of the expanding possibilities of musical expression. It is
a perfectly fair distinction to consider Haydn an able, even brilliant
prose-writer, and Mozart a poet. Haydn we can account for, but Mozart
is the genius "born, not made"--defying classification--and his
inspired works seem to fall straight from the blue of Heaven. Whereas
Haydn, Beethoven and Schubert were all of very lowly parentage[121]
(their mothers being cooks--a blessing on their heads!), Mozart's
father and mother were people of considerable general cultivation, and
in particular the father, Leopold Mozart, was an educated man and
somewhat of a composer himself, who since 1743 had been in the service
of the Archbishop of Salzburg, as director of his private orchestra.
An excellent violinist, he had written and published a treatise on
violin playing, which for many years was the standard work on the
subject. Both parents were noted for their good looks, were, moreover,
of strong character and highly respectable in every way. Among their
several children two early exhibited unusual precocity--Maria Anna,
born in 1751, and Wolfgang, still more highly gifted. The stories of
the boy's skill and general delicacy of perception may be exaggerated,
but we have sufficient valid evidence to convince us that he was a
phenomenon absolutely "sui generis." Thus, he began to improvise
between three and four, actually to compose little pieces (which we
have), when he was five, and to perform in public when he was six! In
that very year and continuing for nineteen years (until Mozart had
reached the age of twenty-five) began the memorable series of concert
tours--eleven in all--comprising Vienna, all the chief cities of Italy
and Germany, even Paris and London. These tours the father planned and
carried through with the utmost solicitude and self-sacrifice--not to
exploit the talented children, but to give them a comprehensive
education and artistic experience, and eventually to secure for his
son some distinguished post worthy his abilities. It is quite
impossible to rehearse all the details of these trips. For one who
wishes to investigate for himself they truly make fascinating reading.
A single incident, however, will show how clearly defined were the two
personalities which made up the complete Mozart; and of which one or
the other was in the ascendant throughout his life. As a man, Mozart
was light-hearted, witty--even volatile--fond of society, dancing, and
a good time generally; not of the strongest intellectual power,
judged by modern standards, but, as shown by his marvellous dramatic
insight, by no means the debonair light-weight he is often
represented. Yet whenever music was under consideration he was a
changed being; he became instantly serious, and would suffer no
disrespect to himself or to his art. During the last sad years of his
career in Vienna, when he was in actual want for the bare necessities
of life, a publisher once said to him, "Write in a more popular style,
or I will not print a note of your music or give you a kreutzer."
"Then, my good sir," replied Mozart, "I have only to resign myself and
die of hunger."
[Footnote 120: Amadeus (the beloved of God).]
[Footnote 121: We may appropriately state that in regard to ancestry
and environment all four of the so-called Viennese masters, Haydn,
Mozart, Beethoven and Schubert are distinct refutations of the claims
so persistently made by German scholars that everything good in music
we owe to the Teutons. Haydn was largely Croatian; Mozart was strongly
influenced by non-Teutonic folk-music (Tyrolese melodies frequently
peep out in his works); Schubert's forebears came from Moravia and
Silesia; and Beethoven was partly Dutch. If there be any _single_ race
to which the world owes the art of music it is the Italians, for they
invented most of the instruments and hinted at all the vocal and
instrumental forms. We may be grateful to the Germans for their
persevering appropriation of what others had begun; only let them not
claim _all_ the credit.]
In Mozart's works, in distinction from the unconscious, naive
folk-song type of Haydn, we find highly wrought instrumental melodies;
although such was his inborn spontaneity of expression that we are
never aware of the labor expended. His works are quite as clear as
those of Haydn, but they show a more conscious individuality of style.
They are not so artless, and the phraseology is more elastic--less cut
and dried. There is a higher imaginative vitality; trite, mechanical
repetitions are in general avoided, climaxes are led up to in a more
subtle manner, and a great gain is made in real organic development.
For Mozart, as a master of polyphonic treatment, is second only to
Bach. The most striking single feature in his work is the ceaseless
flow of expressive melody, notably those wondrous tunes found in his
operas, such as "Voi che sapete," "Batti, batti" and numerous others.
He had travelled so widely, so keen was his power of assimilation that
his melodic style embodied and enhanced the best qualities of
contemporary Italian, French and German practice. And yet his innate
genius was of sufficient strength to achieve this result without
lapsing into formal eclecticism. Whatever suggestions he took he made
wholly his own; and his music is nothing if not individual in its
inimitable charm and freshness. Whereas Haydn's music often smacks too
prominently of the soil, with Mozart we have the fine flower of a
broad artistic culture. In his best symphonies and string quartets the
art of music made a distinct advance and began to be capable of
expressing the universal emotions and aspirations of mankind.
The reactive influence--each upon the other--of Haydn (1732-1809) and
Mozart (1756-1791) is a most interesting feature of the period.[122]
By the time Mozart was ripe for his best work Haydn had formulated and
exemplified the main lines of instrumental structure. From this
preparatory work Mozart reaped such an advantage that in his last
compositions there is a spontaneous flowering of genius--a union of
individual content with perfect clarity of style--which has kept them
alive to this day. Haydn's last symphonies, the two Salomon sets
composed for his London tours, show in their turn abundant signs of
the stimulating influence of the younger man. The perennial importance
of form and style cannot be better understood than by recognizing the
fact that both Tchaikowsky and Richard Strauss, two of the most
fearlessly independent of modern composers, have considered Mozart as
their ideal. But even if in Mozart's best works we are not beyond the
preponderating influence of form over substance, they must be judged
on their own intrinsic merits and not with reference to progress made
since--of which, nevertheless, they were an important foundation. His
technique was quite sufficient to express what he had to say. We
seldom feel that the contents are bursting through the form, that the
spirit is too great for the body. Purity of conception and
faultlessness of workmanship were still the desiderata of music. The
world had to wait for a Beethoven before the hearer should be shaken
out of himself by a spiritual power, of which the music at best was
often an inadequate expression. This statement is meant to contain no
disparagement. Because Beethoven was more elemental we must never
belittle the genius of his predecessor. Any familiarity with Mozart's
works will convince us of the gratitude we owe him for his original
harmonies, for the stimulating contrapuntal texture and for the
perfect finish and care for detail found therein. Could we be forever
content with "abstract music"--that which justifies itself by a
fulfilment of its own inherent laws--Mozart's music would remain the
acme of the art. His fame to-day rests upon his string quartets, his
three principal symphonies, and--above all--the operas, of which Don
Giovanni and the Marriage of Figaro are noted examples. For consummate
character-drawing (so that, as Rubinstein remarks, "Each acting
personage has become an immortal type"), for interest sustained by
unflagging musical vitality, for a combination of humor and
seriousness and for ingenious and characteristic handling of the
orchestral forces, these works were unequalled until the advent of
Wagner and even to-day in their own field remain unsurpassed. The real
charm of Mozart--that sunny radiance, at times shot through with a
haunting pathos--eludes verbal description. As well attempt to put
into words the fragrance and charm of a violet. Hazlitt's fine phrase,
apropos of performance, says much in a few words. "Mozart's music
seems to come from the air and should return to it," and the ecstatic
eulogy of Goethe, to whom genius meant Mozart, should be familiar to
all. "What else is genius than that productive power through which
deeds arise, worthy of standing in the presence of God and of Nature,
and which, for this reason, bear results and are lasting? All the
creations of Mozart are of this class; within them there is a
generative force which is transplanted from age to age, and is not
likely soon to be exhausted or devoured."
[Footnote 122: For extended comment, see the _Oxford History of
Music_, Vol. V, p. 246, _seq._]
In studying Mozart's works the special points to be noticed are these:
the wider sweep and freer rhythmic variety of the melodic curve; the
more organic fusion of the different portions of a movement--Mozart's
lines of demarcation being perfectly clear but not so rigid as in
Haydn; the much greater richness of the whole musical fabric, due to
Mozart's marvellous skill in polyphony. The time had not yet come when
the composer could pique the fancy of the hearer by unexpected
structural devices or even lead him off on a false trail as was so
often done by Beethoven. Both Haydn and Mozart are homophonic
composers, _i.e._, the outpouring of individual melodies is the chief
factor in their works; but whereas in Haydn the tune is almost
invariably in the upper voice, in Mozart we find the melody appearing
in any one of the voices and often accompanied with fascinating
imitations. See, in corroboration, any of the first three movements of
the _G minor Symphony_ or the slow movement of the _E-flat major
Symphony_. In the structure of music Mozart made slight changes; the
forms were still fresh--having just been established by Haydn--and
Mozart with his genius filled them to overflowing. His one important
contribution to the development of instrumental form was the
Pianoforte Concerto; but, as a consideration of this would lead us too
far afield, the student is referred to the life of Mozart in Grove's
Dictionary and to the Oxford History, Vol. V. The literature[123]
about Mozart and his works is voluminous. Our chief attention
nevertheless should be centered on the works themselves rather than on
what anyone else writes about them. Certain of these criticisms,
however, are so suggestive and illuminating that the student should
become familiar with them.
[Footnote 123: We recommend especially the refreshing essay by Philip
Hale in _Famous Composers and Their Works_; the chapter on Mozart in
_Beethoven and His Forerunners_ by D.G. Mason; and, as throwing light
on aspects of his personality which are little known, "_Mozart
Revealed in his Own Words_" by Kerst-Krehbiel (see especially the
chapter on Mozart's religious nature, p. 142 and passim); the
fascinating _Reminiscences of Michael Kelly_, a personal friend of the
composer; and, above all, the monumental life of Mozart, unhappily as
yet incomplete, by Wyzewa and St. Foix. The third chapter of Vol. II
of _The Art of Music_ is also well worth reading; and in _Mozart's
Operas, a Critical Study_ by E.J. Dent are found valuable comments on
his dramatic style, so prominent a feature in many of his instrumental
works.]
As illustrations[124] for comment we select the _F major Sonata for
Pianoforte_, the _G minor Symphony_, the _Magic Flute Overture for
Orchestra_ and the little known but most characteristic _Adagio in B
minor for Pianoforte_. Here again, as in the case of Haydn, we must
regret that it is impracticable to give examples from the chamber
music: the String Quartets, the Quintet in G minor or from the
entrancing Clarinet Quintet. Any familiarity with Mozart's genius is
very incomplete which does not comprise the C major Quartet,
especially its heavenly Andante Cantabile; likewise the E-flat major
Quartet in the slow movement of which are the following poignant
dissonances--a striking anticipation of _Tristan and Isolde_.
[Music]
[Footnote 124: The first three compositions are not given in the
Supplement, because readily available in several standard editions.
The same recommendations, as given in connection with Haydn, apply to
the performance of the _G minor Symphony_.]
The F major Sonata is selected to illustrate Mozart's pianoforte style
because it bubbles over with typical Mozartian melody and because the
Sonata-form is the basis of all three movements; in the first and last
strictly employed and in the slow movement somewhat modified. The
structure, while just as clear and easy to follow as that of Haydn,
represents an advance in the sustained interest of the transitional
passages and in the organic treatment of the Development--this being
particularly true of the Finale--the middle portion of the first
movement being not so significant. The Sonata, without prelude, begins
with a soaring, lyric melody in which the customary eight measure
formation is expanded to twelve measures. This expansion is brought
about by an imitative treatment of the fifth measure and is a
convincing example of the flexible phraseology so prominent a feature
in Mozart's style. A balancing sentence of eight measures, with an
extended cadence, brings us to the transition which is to introduce
the second theme. Observe the increasing animation of the rhythm and
how the fresh entry of the second theme (in C major) is enhanced by
the insistence on the contrasting tonality of C minor. In measure 41
there begins the second theme, a graceful melody that is repeated with
heightened fervour and then expanded by means of various modulatory
and rhythmic devices--the interest, for a number of measures, being in
the bass. In measure 71 we have a piquant closing theme which ends in
the "good old way" with some rather formal groups of cadential chords.
The Development is short and, save for the dynamic contrasts in the
middle part, not of particular import. But though a bit naive it is
neither labored nor dull. The Recapitulation with the necessary
adjustments of key (both themes appearing in F major) corresponds
exactly to the Exposition. In the opening melody of the Slow
movement--a dreamy, sustained Adagio--we see the beautiful use Mozart
made of the "turn," _e.g._,
[Music]
employing it not as meaningless embroidery or to cover up deficiencies
in the instrument but as an integral factor in the melodic line, thus
anticipating Chopin and Wagner with his "essential turn." The movement
is in abridged[125] Sonata-form, _i.e._, there is a regular Exposition
with two themes in the tonic and dominant and a corresponding
Recapitulation, but the Development is entirely omitted and in its
place we find merely two modulatory measures which take us back to the
third part. Such a form arose from the feeling that the Slow Movement
should be one of direct melodic and emotional appeal and should not
concern itself with protracted discussion of the material. The two
closing measures are of a wondrous serenity, peculiar to Mozart. The
Finale, Allegro assai, in complete and elaborate Sonata-form, is one
of superb vigor and dash, the happiest example possible of Mozart's
"joie de vivre." It begins with a brilliant running theme in free
phraseology, and then, after a cadence in measure 14, is at once
followed by an out and out Waltz tune of a very seductive swing.[126]
This is developed to a brilliant climax and then closes _pp_ in a
delicate, wistful manner. The transition, with some canonic imitations
and stimulating sequences, leads us to the second theme at measure 50.
This--one of Mozart's loveliest melodies--is rather exceptionally in
the dominant minor (_i.e._, C minor) and with its mood of pathetic
revery affords a wonderful contrast to the headlong dash of the first
theme. This melody alone would prove that Mozart had his moments of
deep emotion. In measure 65 begins a long closing portion which
resumes the exuberant mood characteristic of the Exposition as a
whole. The Development at first is based upon modulatory changes in
the first theme; and then, towards the middle, occurs a passage which
seems to be a counterpart of the second theme, save that it is in the
major mode. We are now carried onward through a series of passages,
with pungent dissonances and imitative phrases, to a fortissimo
dominant chord; thence through a descending cadenza-like passage we
are whirled back to the Recapitulation. In material and treatment this
corresponds exactly to the Exposition and has the same pianissimo
ending. Such an effect was a touch of genuine originality and was a
delightful contrast to the conventional flourish of trumpets with
which the Finale of the period was expected to end. Music is often
most impressive when most subdued.
[Footnote 125: This modification became a favorite with Beethoven,
notable examples being the Slow movement of the Fifth Sonata, where
the Development is represented by a single chord; the Slow movement of
the D minor Sonata, op. 31; and, above all, the Allegretto Scherzando
of the Eighth Symphony, where a series of contrasted accents keeps the
interest alive and leads most deftly to the Recapitulation.]
[Footnote 126: In measures 20 and 21 may be found some striking
syncopations--an anticipation of what now-a-days is known as
"rag-time."]
The G minor Symphony is universally acknowledged to be the highest
achievement of 18th century instrumental music and is also premonitory
of that subjective spirit peculiar to the 19th century. It will remain
immortal so long as human beings are capable of being touched by a
sincere revelation of emotion combined with a perfection of utterance
which seems fairly Divine. This delicate treatment and this exquisite
finish are two prominent characteristics of Mozart's style. Truly the
Symphony is the quintessence of Mozart in terms of sound and rhythm,
and we need but to listen to his message and receive it with grateful
appreciation. The work contains the four customary movements, all of
them (save the three-part Minuet and Trio) in complete Sonata-form.
The first movement begins at once with a gracefully poised theme sung
by the violins, a theme which may be likened in its outlines to the
purity of a Greek statue. The entrancing effect of this melody cannot
be realized except on the orchestra, for it seems to float on the
gently pulsating chords of the violas like a beautiful flower.
Everyone who hears the work is at once arrested by this highly
original treatment, _e.g._
[Music]
The transition is short but leads us in a happy state of expectancy
through a change of rhythm from the graceful outlines of the first
theme to the vigorous phrase
[Music]
and by a bold run, thrice repeated, to the entrance of the second
theme in measure 43. This theme, in the customary relative major
(B-flat), illustrates Mozart's fondness for the chromatic element
which gives to many of his melodies such a haunting appeal. The
closing portion, beginning at measure 71, is an example of Mozart's
spontaneous skill in polyphonic writing. It is based entirely on the
motive of the main theme in delightful imitations tossed about by
different sections of the orchestra. The second part is a genuine
Development, since the musical life never flags in its contrapuntal
vitality; the theme appears in all parts of the texture--upper, inner
and lower voices--and we are carried vigorously onward by the daring
modulations. Just at the close of the Development we see Mozart's
constructive skill in the fusion of this part with the subsequent
Recapitulation. A series of drifting chromatic chords in the flutes
and oboes, like light fleecy clouds, keeps us in a state of suspended
wonder when quietly there emerges the first theme and the return home
has begun. It is one of the truly poetic touches in musical literature
and has been often imitated--especially by Tchaikowsky in his _Fifth_
and _Sixth Symphonies_.[127] The Recapitulation corresponds exactly
with the Exposition, but an added pathos is given to the second theme
by its appearance in the tonic key of G minor. Observe the impassioned
intensity of the climax in measures 13-19 (counting back from the
end). The mood of dreamy contemplation with which the Slow Movement
begins cannot be translated into words; why attempt it? We have the
music which, coming from the divinely gifted imagination of the
composer, reveals in its own language a message of pathetic longing
and ideal aspiration. The movement is very concise but in complete
Sonata-form, and with an orchestration felicitous in the treatment of
the horns and the wood-wind instruments. The Minuet, noteworthy for
the three-measure rhythm of the opening phrase,
[Music]
shows clearly the new life which Mozart infused into the old form by
his remarkable polyphonic skill. Note at the outset of the second part
the vigorous effect of the theme in the bass and the frequency of
biting dissonances. The charming grace and simplicity of the Trio are
indescribable; here again we find an eloquent use of the wood-wind
group. The Finale, in complete Sonata-form, begins with a perfectly
balanced periodic theme, presented in Two-part form, _i.e._, two
sentences of eight measures, each repeated. If from our present
standpoint we feel that the tone of this movement is a bit light to
follow the serious thoughts of the preceding movements, let us
remember that it was composed when the Finale was meant merely to "top
off" a work; and that, if it radiated a general atmosphere of sunshine
and satisfaction, its purpose was fulfilled. For the Finale, which,
like the glorious splendor of an autumn day, is the crowning objective
towards which the other movements have been striving, we must wait for
Beethoven and his modern successors. In fact we may express the
general trend of a Haydn or a Mozart Symphony by a decrescendo, thus
[decrescendo symbol] _i.e._, the real genius of the composer is shown
in the first three movements; whereas, beginning with Beethoven, we
find an organic climactic effect[128] from the first movement to the
last, thus [crescendo symbol]. But to carry such criticisms too far is
ungracious and unjust. Mozart's themes, both the first and the second
(beginning in measure 55), with their tripping contredance rhythms,
fill our hearts with life and carry us irresistibly onward. And the
Development has some surprises in store, for now the dramatic genius
of Mozart asserts itself. Note the bold leaps and daring modulations
of the opening measures. Nothing trite or formal here! The strong
polyphonic treatment of the first theme, beginning in measure 120 and
sustained with unflagging energy for seventy measures, makes this one
of the most stimulating developments in symphonic literature, not
excepting Beethoven himself. The Recapitulation, in subject matter, is
an exact duplication of the Exposition and allows us to recover
gradually from our excitement and to return to the ordinary world of
men and events. The presentation of the second theme, however, shows
Mozart's mastery of melodic variation. The substance is the same, but
the import of the melody is intensified, _e.g._
[Music: Exposition]
[Music: Recapitulation]
[Footnote 127: See the Waltz movement of the _Fifth Symphony_ and the
second movement of the _Sixth_.]
[Footnote 128: This expanding of interest is distinctly felt in
Beethoven's Fifth Symphony, in Brahms's First, in Tchaikowsky's Fifth
and in that by Cesar Franck.]
The Overtures to Mozart's three operas: The _Marriage of Figaro_, _Don
Giovanni_ and the _Magic Flute_ are of particular interest, not only
for the beauty of their contents but because they are our earliest
examples of the Overture fashioned in complete Sonata form. Originally
the Overture had been a prelude to the opening of a play, a prelude of
the lightest and most meagre nature. Examples, beginning with
Monteverde, abound in all the early Italian opera composers.[129]
Lully of the French school and Alessandro Scarlatti of the Italian
were the first to amplify these beginnings and to establish a definite
standard of structure. In both schools this standard represented an
application of the Three-part form principle; the French arranging
their contrasts, slow, fast, slow (the so-called French overture--of
which we have an example in Handel's Messiah) and the Italians, fast,
slow, fast (the so-called Italian Overture). Although Gluck
(1714-1787) did much to establish a more dramatic connection between
the overture and the play, even the best of his Overtures, Iphigenia
in Aulis, is a rather loosely expanded tripartite structure with a
good many meaningless passages. But Mozart, coming after Haydn's
definite establishment of the Sonata-form and with the growing
interest of the public in instrumental music for its own sake as an
incentive, could take advantage of these circumstances to display his
genius and to delight his hearers with a piece of genuine music. This
he did and his operatic overtures are of such distinct import and
self-sufficiency that they are often detached from the opera itself
and played as concert numbers. The Magic Flute Overture is also
noteworthy because of the polyphonic treatment of the first theme
which is a definite fugal presentation in four voices. The second
theme, beginning in measure 64, and soon repeated, is light and
winning, meant to supplement rather than to contrast strongly with the
first theme, which indeed keeps up at the same time, in the inner
voices, its rhythmic impetuosity. The Exposition ends with a graceful
closing phrase, _e.g._,
[Music]
and the usual cadence in the dominant key. It is considered that the
Adagio chords for the trombones, interpolated between the Exposition
and the Development, are suggestive of the religious element in the
play that is to follow. The Development is remarkable for the spirited
imitative treatment of the first theme, for the bold way in which the
voices cut into each other and for the fusion of its closing measures
with the Recapitulation. The chief feature in this brilliant passage
is a piling up of the theme in stretto form (see measures 148-153).
The Recapitulation is somewhat shortened and the melodic outline of
the second theme is slightly changed; otherwise it corresponds with
the Exposition. After the closing phrase we have some pungent
dissonances, _e.g._
[Music]
Rossini, it is said, was never tired of eulogizing this Overture and
certainly for spontaneity and vigor it is unrivalled.[130]
[Footnote 129: For a complete account of this development see Grove's
Dict. Vol. III under _Overture_ and the Oxford History, Vol. IV, page
286, _seq._]
[Footnote 130: Its companion in modern literature is the Overture to
the _Bartered Bride_ (by the Bohemian composer Smetana), which also
begins with a brilliant fugal treatment of the theme.]
The last illustration from Mozart is his _Adagio in B minor_ (see
Supplement No. 43) an independent piece, far too little known, in
complete Sonata-form. The haunting pathos in the theme, the exquisite
loveliness in the whole fabric instantly reach the hearer's heart.
Analytical comment seems quite unnecessary; a child can "follow" the
music, but only he with a ripe knowledge of human life can begin to
fathom its deep mystery.[131] When we see such modern passages as the
following, _e.g._
[Music]
[Footnote 131: For some illuminating comments on this subtle character
of Mozart's creations see the Stanford-Forsyth History of Music, p.
254.]
Tchaikowsky's love for Mozart's music is readily understood. Indeed,
we cannot refrain from urging everyone to cultivate such a love
himself; for in the works of Mozart are found a purity, a sanity and a
delight in creation which keep them alive and make them in very truth
"things of beauty and a joy forever."