THE VARIATION FORM
Monotony, as previously suggested, is more unendurable in music than
in any of the other arts. We should therefore expect to find musicians
inventing new devices to vary their thoughts so that the interest of
the hearer might be continually sustained and refreshed. Thus there
gradually grew up the form known as the Varied Air--a term meaning the
presentation of the same musical material under different aspects. As
far back as we can trace the development of instrumental structure,
there appears this instinct for varying a simple tune by
embellishments of a rhythmical and melodic nature. Examples abound in
the works of the early Italian masters, in the harpsichord pieces of
the English composers Byrd and Bull[80] and in the music of Couperin
and Rameau. But all these Variations, however interesting from a
historical point[81] of view, are very labored and lack any real
poetic growth. They are, moreover, often prolonged to an interminable
length--one example, as late as Handel, consisting of an Air with
sixty-two Variations; prolixity or "damnable iteration" being as bad a
blemish in music as in any of the other arts. In the early days of
instrumental composition, about all that composers could do was "to
put the theme through its paces." That is, there was no unfolding of
the poetic possibilities of the melody. The successive variations were
all in the same key; the harmonic basis was practically unchanged and
the treatment consisted of dressing up the theme with stereotyped
embellishment-figures and of systematic rhythmic animation--produced
by the addition of more and more notes to each time unit. A standard
illustration of this type of Variations is the so-called _Harmonious
Blacksmith_ of Handel from his _Suite in E Major_. This piece owes
whatever popularity it may have preserved to the sturdy swing of the
main theme and to the fact that it makes no demand on the attention of
the most untrained listener. In fairness we should state that on the
harpsichord--with its contrasting stops and key-boards--for which the
piece was composed, there is possible more variety of effect than on
the modern pianoforte.
[Footnote 80: We would cite the piece entitled _Les Buffons_ by Bull,
and Byrd's variations to the popular tune the _Carman's Whistle_,
which latter have considerable archaic charm and distinction; for Byrd
was a real genius. These are readily accessible in popular editions.]
[Footnote 81: Consult the comprehensive article on Variations in
Grove's Dictionary, Vol. V.]
Three collateral early forms deserve a passing mention because,
notwithstanding a certain rigidity of structure, they have been used
by the great masters for the expression of sublime thoughts. These are
the Ground Bass (or, as it is sometimes called, the Basso Ostinato),
the Chaconne and the Passacaglia[82] which, in modern literature, is
well represented by the magnificent "tour de force" that serves as the
Finale to Brahms's _Fourth Symphony_. By a Ground Bass is meant a
theme, continually repeated, in the lowest voice, each time with
varied upper parts. An excellent example (see Supplement No. 39) is
the Aria "When I am laid in earth" from Purcell's Opera _Dido and
Aeneas_. It is evident that the persistent iteration of a striking
phrase in the bass gives an effect of dramatic intensity, as may be
seen in the sublime "Crucifixion" of Bach's _Mass in B minor_.[83]
The Chaconne and Passacaglia are old dance forms (examples of the
former being found in Gluck's Ballet Music) and are closely related to
the Ground Bass; since, in the majority of cases, we find the same
procedure in the announcement of the theme and in its subsequent
treatment. Two examples of the Chaconne from standard literature are
the famous one of Bach in D minor for solo violin and Beethoven's
thirty-two Variations in C minor for Pianoforte. The Passacaglia is of
importance as shown by the striking example for organ in C minor by
Bach on the following theme:
[Music]
Whoever has heard this majestic theme, which seems to bear the sorrows
of the world on its shoulders, announced on the deep-sounding pedals
will gain a lasting impression of the grandeur of Bach's style.
[Footnote 82: For the derivation of the term consult the interesting
article in Grove's Dictionary, Vol. IV.]
[Footnote 83: A work before which Schumann said every musician should
prostrate himself in adoration.]
By the time of Haydn, the technical skill of composers had improved
sufficiently so that we find in his works some genuinely interesting
examples of the Variation form, _e.g._, the set on the well-known
Austrian hymn from the _Kaiser Quartet in C major_--in which each of
the five variations has a real individuality--and the _Variations in F
minor for Pianoforte_: remarkable as an early example of the varied
treatment of _two_ themes.
Most of Mozart's Variations are based upon popular themes and, in
general, may be considered as virtuoso pieces to show off the agility
of the performer. We find occasional examples, as in the Clarinet
Quintette and in the Sonata in D major, which are of more intrinsic
worth.
The genius of Beethoven first revealed the full possibilities of the
form. In fact, so remarkable was his work that such creative composers
as Cesar Franck and d'Indy consider the basic principles for our
modern development of music to be found in the Fugue of Bach and the
Varied Air of Beethoven. For, deadly dull as is the Variation form
when treated in a stereotyped manner, by very reason of its freedom
from arbitrary rules it may be a most elastic medium for the
expression of poetic genius. The composer has but to invent a striking
characteristic theme, rich in potential development, and then to let
it develop for as long as he can retain the interest of his hearers.
Likewise for a great orator the simple rule is to state a theme on
which something worth while may be said and then by presenting it in
new lights and with copious illustrations to drive the truth home. The
principal and significant changes which we owe to Beethoven are the
following: complete freedom in variety of key, so that at times (as in
his op. 34) each variation is in a new key; a frequent omission of the
rigid stops at the end of each variation, _e.g._, the Slow movement of
the _Fifth Symphony_ and the third movement of the _Trio_, op. 96, so
that a continuous flow of thought is preserved; the practice, so often
followed in modern literature, of founding variations on a double
theme--of which the Finale of the _Heroic Symphony_ is a striking
example. But the chief advance in Beethoven is the entirely new
conception of what variations should be; not, according to him, mere
mechanical manipulations of the subject matter, but vital products of
the imagination, as varied as the members of a human family having the
same mother. Beethoven's variations, in fact, often seem like a series
of character-pieces, each with its own individuality and yet retaining
an organic relationship to the main thought. His fondness for the form
and his mastery over it is seen by the frequency of its use in the
last Sonatas and String-Quartets. Every composer since Beethoven has
written one or more works in the Variation form; but we can mention
only the most beautiful examples and then pass on to the daring
conceptions of the modern school. The Variations by Schubert in his
String-Quartet in D minor on the Song, _Death and the Maiden_, will
amply repay study, and so will the _Variations Serieuses_, op. 54, for
the pianoforte by Mendelssohn. As for Schumann, he was very happy in
the use of this form, and his _Symphonic Etudes_, op. 13--in wealth of
fancy and freedom of treatment--are quite unparalleled. His Variations
for two pianofortes, op. 46, deserve also to be known. Among the
finest examples since Beethoven are the numerous sets by Brahms,
remarkable alike for emotional power, for free and yet logical
treatment of the material and for solidity of workmanship. They
include the _Variations on a theme from Handel_ for pianoforte, op.
24; the set for orchestra, op. 56a, on the _St. Anthony Choral_ of
Haydn; and the two sets, op. 35, on themes from Paganini--universally
conceded to be the most brilliant examples for the pianoforte in
recent literature.
To speak now particularly of the modern school, there are five
compositions in this form which, for their daring novelty and
sustained eloquence, should be familiar to every music-lover and heard
as often as possible. For they are elaborate works which must be
thoroughly known to be understood and loved. (1), There is the set in
Tchaikowsky's Pianoforte Trio in A minor, op. 50; noteworthy for
freedom of modulation and for the striking individuality given to the
different transformations of the theme--two of the changes being to a
Waltz and a Mazurka. (2), _The Symphonic Variations_ for Pianoforte
and Orchestra of Cesar Franck, based on two contrasting themes, one in
the minor mode and one with modulations to the major. The variations
are not numbered and there are no rigid stops; throughout the work
Franck's marvellous power of modulation and rich harmonic texture are
eloquently manifested. (3), The _Istar_ Variations for orchestra by
d'Indy is one of the most original works in the whole field; in that,
for dramatic reasons connected with the subject, the usual order is
_reversed_ and the variations come _first_, gradually becoming more
and more simple until we reach the theme itself, pure and unadorned.
(4), The Symphonic Poem, _Don Quixote_, of R. Strauss, a complex set
of Variations on _three_ themes which typify respectively the
characters of Cervantes' story; the Knight, his attendant, Sancho
Panza and Dulcinea. The variations are not confined to a merely
abstract or formal treatment of the material but set before us a
picture of the attributes of the characters and a description of some
of their spectacular adventures. (5), Lastly the _Enigma Variations_
for orchestra by Elgar, so-called because the identity of the basic
theme is not revealed. The variations are character-pieces which for
individuality and charm are a lasting glory to the genius of the
composer.[84]
[Footnote 84: For a detailed account see the third volume of D.G.
Mason's _Appreciation of Music_ series.]
We shall now analyze, with suggestive comments, two[85] of the
well-known sets of Beethoven: the first movement of the Sonata, op.
26, and the _Six Variations on an original theme_, op. 34. The
variations from the Sonata are an early work; but, although definitely
sectionalized and with only one change of tonality, they clearly
reveal Beethoven's freedom of conception and his aversion to
stereotyped treatment. The theme itself is a suave, appealing melody,
already cited as an example of a sixteen-measure sentence, and
admirably suited for variation purposes, since it arouses at once the
expectation of the listener.[86] The first variation is a kind of
shadowy, mysterious outline of the theme just presented, as if the
composer were musing upon the latent possibilities of his material.
There is a quickening of interest in the second variation which, with
the theme in the bass, may be likened to a 'cello solo of a mildly
bravura nature. (Note the fantastic accents on weak beats in measures
18, 22, 23, and 24.) In the third variation comes a complete contrast
in mood; the key is changed to A-flat minor and the theme is
transformed into an elegy, all its joy crushed out. The movement
abounds in impassioned dissonances, always emphasized by _sf_ marks,
and the throbbing pulsations of the bass--in the second phrase--give a
tragic intensity of feeling. With the fourth variation there enters
that spirit of playfulness so characteristic of Beethoven--the
movement being, in fact, a miniature Scherzo. The fifth and last
variation is an idyllic revery in which the composer reviews and
amplifies the many beautiful fancies which his imagination has
conceived, and closes with a coda, based on the motive of the main
theme, of tranquillity and satisfaction.
[Footnote 85: These compositions are not printed in the Supplement, as
it may be assumed that the student can readily procure them. They are
published in a number of editions.]
[Footnote 86: For some illuminating comments on the whole Sonata see
Baxter Perry's _Descriptive Analysis of Pianoforte Works_. (The
Theodore Presser Co.)]
The set in F major, op. 34, is a striking illustration of Beethoven's
fondness for mediant relationship, since no two variations are in the
same key; the tonic of each being a _third_ below that of the
preceding. The Key-scheme is F, D, B-flat, G, E-flat, C minor; and
then, through the descent of a fifth, back to the home-key, or in
actual notes:
[Music]
The first variation is a highly embellished treatment of the opening
theme; the melodic outline being merely hinted at in unimportant parts
of the phraseology, _e.g._
[Music: original theme]
[Music: 1st Variation]
Written in the old ornate style, it is of interest chiefly for the
pianistic effect. In the second Variation we have a change both of
time and key; the impression being that of a distant march for men's
voices or for soft trombones. The third Variation, again with change
of time and key, illustrates Beethoven's fondness for a subtle
outlining of the theme. In the fourth Variation the theme is
transformed into a Minuet of graceful swing; and in the next Variation
a strong contrast is afforded by the Funeral March, the minor mode
being used for the first time. The last Variation--in the
home-key--gives a brilliant summing up of the characteristic features
of the theme. Note especially the reminiscent effect of the closing
measures.