OUR NUCLEAR FUTURE ...
_FACTS DANGERS AND OPPORTUNITIES_
BY Edward Teller AND Albert L. Latter
CRITERION BOOKS • NEW YORK
Copyright © 1958, by Criterion Books, Inc.
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 58-8783
_Designed by Sidney Feinberg_
MANUFACTURED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
BY AMERICAN BOOK-STRATFORD PRESS, INC., NEW YORK
Preface
This book has been written for the layman who has no knowledge about
atoms, bombs and radioactivity. He knows that the world is made of
atoms, that bombs might destroy it and that radioactivity could make it
a place much less agreeable to live in.
We should like to give some advice about the use of the book: Each
chapter can be read by itself. The chapters need not be taken in the
order in which they are printed. To read them all will give a more
complete understanding—and if you have time it is best to read them in
the order they are arranged. Some of the earlier chapters perhaps
overflow with facts. In some later chapters we wish that more facts were
available. These latter the reader will probably understand and remember
quite easily. He may not agree with all of their contents. On the other
hand the more scientific chapters (II to VIII) will not be questioned
but may be harder to read and to remember. It will be a help to keep
this in mind: No chapter _follows_ from another but most chapters are
related and support some other part of the book.
Our knowledge about fallout is increasing rapidly. Some questions which
are raised in the book may already have been answered. With this added
knowledge we might have been more quantitative in some of our
statements. But we believe the main conclusions would not be altered.
This book was completed before the Sputniks. In their present form these
have little to do with the subject of nuclear energy. However, to our
mind, the urgency has become greater for the non-scientist to understand
those parts of science and technology which may affect his safety and
well-being, and the safety and well-being of his country. We hope that
this book will contribute in some measure to such understanding.
Contents
Preface 5
I. The Need to Know 13
II. Atoms 18
III. Nuclei 26
IV. The Law of Radioactive Decay 37
V. Breakup of the Nucleus 41
VI. Reactions Between Nuclei 49
VII. Fission and the Chain Reaction 58
VIII. Action of Radiation on Matter 68
IX. The Test 80
X. The Radioactive Cloud 87
XI. From the Soil to Man 104
XII. Danger to the Individual 116
XIII. Danger to the Race 127
XIV. The Cobalt Bomb 134
XV. What About Future Tests? 137
XVI. Has Something Happened to the Weather? 146
XVII. Safety of Nuclear Reactors 152
XVIII. By-products of Nuclear Reactors 160
XIX. The Nuclear Age 168
Glossary 175
List of Illustrations
A section of photographs will be found between pages 96 and 97.
1. A shallow underground explosion.
2. An atomic test tower.
3. A tower shot.
4. An air shot.
5. Leg bone of a rabbit after injection of Sr⁸⁹.
6. Leg bone of a woman dead of radium poisoning.
7. Capsules of cobalt⁶⁰.
8. Cobalt irradiation.
9. Smoke-ring cloud from the air-defense atomic weapon.
10. Wilful exposure—an experiment.
11. Condensation trails produced in a Wilson Cloud Chamber.
12. Closely-spaced tracks form a cloud.
13. Cutaway section of a nuclear reactor.
OUR NUCLEAR FUTURE
CHAPTER I
The Need to Know
Our world is changing, and the change is becoming more rapid. The moving
force behind this change is scientific discovery. All of us are deeply
affected by the consequences of science. At the same time, very few
understand the highly technical foundations of our civilization. In this
situation it is natural that scientific and technical progress should
create uneasiness and alarm.
Fear of what we do not know or do not understand has been with us in all
ages. Man, knowing that his life will end, has often been prey to an
even more terrible nightmare—the end of his whole world. In a scientific
age most of the past terrors have turned out to be senseless chimeras.
But one menace remains. It is the great and permanent unknown: what will
we humans do to each other and to ourselves?
The worry about our own actions will continue. It may grow as our power
over nature increases. Against this worry there exist two weapons:
understanding and courage. Of the two, courage is more important but
understanding must come first.
We are frequently alarmed by imaginary dangers, while disregarding risks
which are much more real. There should exist a close interaction between
public opinion on the one hand and technical progress on the other. For
this end an understanding of modern scientific developments is required.
There is an increasingly urgent need to know. Little is done to satisfy
this need. The opinion has gained ground that this need can in fact not
be satisfied.
At the same time, more and more people believe that the scientists and
technical people themselves are responsible for the changes which their
ideas and inventions have brought about. The scientist is put in the
position where his voice is heard, not only in the highly specialized
fields in which he is an expert, but also in the much more general
matters which are affected by his discoveries. The real source of
important decisions in our country is the people. We believe that this
is rightly so, and we believe that it is not proper if scientists take
over any essential part of these decisions.
The responsibility of a technical man certainly includes two important
functions. One is to explore nature and to find out the possible limits
of our power over nature. The other is to explain what he has found in
clear, simple, and straightforward terms, so that essential decisions
can be made by all the people of our country—to whom the power of
decision properly belongs, and whom the consequences of these decisions
will ultimately affect.
To explain scientific and technical matters is not easy, and to become
familiar with all science might actually be impossible. In the
specialized field of physics there have been revolutionary developments
in the twentieth century like the theory of relativity discovered by
Einstein and the theory of the atom originated by Niels Bohr. These new
discoveries are not easy to understand, and every good physicist has
spent years of his life trying to get thoroughly acquainted with their
meaning. All of us who have done so feel that we are well rewarded by
the better understanding of nature which we have acquired. But it is not
necessary to talk of these matters here.
What we have to discuss in this book is connected with parts of atomic
and nuclear physics which are much more elementary. The facts which we
shall present in a simple fashion are sufficient to give the reader an
orientation in the seemingly bewildering fields of nuclear energy and
atomic explosions.
We shall have to start by describing atoms and nuclei. These are rather
small objects, but this circumstance need not particularly bother us;
and it is not necessary to frighten ourselves with the idea that we are
talking about “unimaginably” small objects. Our minds adapt themselves
quite readily to new dimensions; and while we are talking about nuclei,
we can temporarily forget that any bigger objects exist. Real
difficulties arise only when science discovers laws which seem to
contradict common sense. This does not happen frequently, and we shall
not need to dwell upon such subjects.
The difficulties of explaining science are increased by the fact that
scientists have developed a language of their own which they practice
and perfect by talking to each other. One sometimes has the impression
that they talk to each other exclusively. The authors feel that their
own “native tongue” is this scientific language; this book is an effort
at a translation.
A further difficulty is connected with the special subject:
radioactivity. The great practical importance of this subject has dawned
upon the public in connection with the explosion at Hiroshima. This was
a frightening occasion, and the subsequent developments and prospects
are no less frightening. It is not necessary that everything connected
with nuclear explosions should be equally frightening; and it is
important that we should approach the subject with an open mind and with
as few emotions as is humanly possible. The emotions have their
necessary place when we get to the stage in which we want to decide our
actions. We suggest to the reader that he should delay this stage until
the time when he has finished reading the book.
The greatest difficulty in discussing the radiation hazards arises
because the working of living organisms is involved. Basically, we are
in the dark about the question how such an organism works. We are
equally in the dark about the question how such an organism is affected
by radiation. It would therefore seem that we must remain in doubt
whether or not radioactivity is dangerous, except for those cases where
obvious damage has been done. Since the immediate effects of
radioactivity are not perceived by our senses, we are faced with the
thought of an invisible menace of unknown extent. Some of the harmful
consequences may show up years later, and therefore even the absence of
any observed damage will not reassure people.
Fortunately, our practical knowledge is by no means as deficient as
these statements would suggest. Radioactivity, and processes similar to
radioactivity, surround us and have surrounded our ancestors for as long
as life has existed on earth. We do not know what life is, and we do not
know in what detailed manner life is affected by radioactivity; but we
have broadly based and certain knowledge that artificial radioactivity
will produce similar effects to those produced by the natural background
of radioactivity. This background, therefore, provides us with a
yardstick to which all man-made contaminations can be compared.
There is a final obstacle to the explanation of matters connected with
radioactivity. This is the secrecy which has been associated with the
development of nuclear energy, and in particular with the military
applications of nuclear energy. The arguments for keeping information
concerning weapons secret are strong, proper, and generally understood.
There is, however, no such strong argument, and in fact no possibility
for secrecy connected with the widely dispersed radioactivity which
originates from the weapons. In recognition of this fact, secrecy has
been completely and properly removed from this field. It is not
surprising that it took some time to do so. Administrative decisions
have been involved, and these are never taken in a very great hurry.
Even though world-wide radioactive contamination has been since 1955
open to general scientific discussion, the time does not seem to have
been sufficient to insure a wide dissemination and explanation of the
results. There may also remain some lingering doubts whether all
relevant information has been made available. In actual fact, the
scientific information on this important topic is completely and freely
available at the present time.
Information concerning the peaceful applications of nuclear energy is
also completely and freely available. Even in the field of military
applications, much of the essential information has been published.
We are therefore in a position to put before the reader the most
important facts about the peaceful and military applications of nuclear
energy—of the possible dangers and of the eventual benefits. If we do
not succeed, we cannot blame either secrecy or the difficulty of the
subject. It is true that the subject is involved, but only in the same
way as are those subjects of everyday experience with which all of us
have to struggle once in a while. No greater intellectual effort is
needed than is involved in the understanding of the income tax form or
the racing form, to mention two analogies of rather diverse emotional
content. Many of the ideas will be unfamiliar, but they are not complex.
Furthermore, their bearing on our safety, well-being, and the possible
improvement of our lives is great. Therefore we hope that the reader
will give as much of his attention to this matter as he is accustomed to
devote to other subjects which are connected with his necessities or his
amusement.