Scott, Sir Walter, ii, 487
Scriptures, Arabic, ii, 22; Christian, i, 627, 634
Scythia (sith’ i _ă_) and the Scythians,
i, 247, 261, 291, 300-01, 319, 327-30,
377, 388, 396, 490, 507, 510, 532-33,
543-45, 558, ii, 66, 71, 113, 128, 367, 607
Sea, depth of, i, 5
Sea fights, ancient, i, 337-40
Sea power, ancient, i, 379-80, ii, 28
Sea trade, ii, 182
Seamanship, early, i, 209-11, 216-17, 218, 266, 272-73, ii, 185 _sqq._
Seas, primordial, i, 8, 10, 16, 21-24, 46
Sea-scorpion, i, 10, 21, 24
Seasons, the, i, 30-33, 127, 128-29
Seaweed, i, 23
Sebastiani Report, ii, 359
Secunderabad (sē kŭn d_ĕ_r _ă_ băd’), i, 389
Sedan, ii, 445, 531
Seek, i, 598
Seeley, Sir J. R., ii, 140
Seignobos (sen yō bō’), ii, 384
Seine, the, i, 137
Seleucia, i, 622
Seleucid (s_ĕ_ lū’ sid) dynasty, i, 395-97,
428, 432, 480, 523, 571-72, 616, ii, 608
Seleucus (s_ĕ_ lū’ kŭs) I, i, 395, 430
Selfishness, i, 423
Selim (sā lēm’), sultan, ii, 126, 618
Seljuks (sel jooks’), ii, 33, 71-72, 106, 114, 121, 615.
(_See also_ Turks)
Semites (and Semitic peoples), i, 148, 153-60, 188
_sqq._, 212, 218-19, 228, 232-233, 237, 242,
264-65, 300, ii, 1, 2, 21, 105, 122, 143, 168, 249
Semitic languages, i, 153-55, 164
Seneca (sen’ ē k_ă_), i, 491
Senegal river, i, 217
Sennacherib (sē năk’ er ib), i, 193-94, 200, 246, 291, ii, 606
Sepulchre, Holy, ii, 61, 64, 74, 78, 118
Sequoias (sē kwoi’ _ă_z), i, 51
Serapeum (ser _ă_ pē’ ŭm), i, 413, 414, ii, 149
Serapis (sē rā’ pis), i, 412-14, 428, 538, 590-91, 602, ii, 611
Serbia (and the Serbs), i, 528, 553, 606,
616, ii, 24, 122, 224, 382, 502, 508-11, 524
Serbian language, i, 168
Serfdom, i, 600
Sergius III, Pope, ii, 63
Serpent in religion, i, 130, 147, ii, 418
Servants, domestic, i, 265
Set, Egyptian god, i, 236
Seton-Karr, Sir H. W., i, 137
Seven Years War, ii, 332, 620
Severus (sē vēr’ ŭs), Septimus, i, 528
Seville, ii, 188
Sex, i, 131
Seyffert, i, 464, 490, 491
Shakespeare, W., i, 173
Shale, i, 7
Shalmaneser (shăl mă nē’ zũr), i, 193, 291
Shamanism, ii, 114, 128, 146
Shamash, i, 245
Shang dynasty, i, 196, 204
Shanghai (shăng hī’), ii, 470
Shang-tung, ii, 469
Sharifian emperors, i, 565
Sharpe, S., i, 249
Shaving the face, i, 391
Sheep in lake dwellings, i, 112
Shekel, i, 220, 265
Sheldonian Theatre, ii, 271
Shell Age, supposed, i, 68
Shellfish, i, 9, 10
Shells as implements, i, 68;
as ornaments, i, 88
Shem, i, 140
Shen-si, i, 632
Sherbro Island, i, 218
Sherman, General, ii, 443
Shi-Hwang-ti, emperor, i, 196, 205, 253, 542-43, 548, 642, ii, 211, 608
Shiites (shē’ īts), ii, 27, 30, 64, 70, 72, 80, 134, 256
Shiloh, i, 284
Shimei, i, 287
Shimonoseki (shē’ m_ŏ_ nō sāk’ _ĕ_), Straits of, ii, 467
Shipbuilding, ii, 66, 388-89
Ships, earliest, i, 209-11
Shishak (shī’ shăk), i, 200, 388
Shrines, i, 234, 313
Siam (and Siamese), i, 203, 640
Siamese language, i, 157
Siberia, i, 100-02, 156-59, 532, 546, 632, ii, 114, 132, 261
Siberian railway, ii, 469, 502
Sicilies, Two, ii, 200, 364
Sicily, i, 213, 217, 303, 308, 382, 447, 449,
451-54, 471, 480, 486, 498, 505, 566,
ii, 62, 64, 69, 78, 83, 86-88, 97, 182,
353, 380, 441, 615
Sickles, earthenware, i, 189
Siddhattha Gautama (sid hät’ t’h_ă_ gou’ t_ă_ m_ă_).
(_See_ Buddha)
Sidon, i, 196, 212, 216, 266, 279, 290, 331, 380
Sieyès (syā yes’), ii, 354
Sign-language, i, 150
Sikhs (sēks), ii, 257, 453
Silbury, i, 110, 135
Silesia, ii, 112, 251
Silk, i, 273, 530, ii, 238
Silver as standard of value, i, 220
Sin, idea of, ii, 190
Sinai, i, 259
Sind, ii, 453
Singan, i, 642, 644, 647, ii, 613
Singer, Dr., i, 403
Singing, i, 115
Sinope (sī nō’ pē), i, 621
Siris, i, 339
Sirius (sir’ i ŭs), a star, i, 238
Sirmium, i, 560
Sistrum, i, 413, 425
Siva, i, 437
Sivapithecus (si v_ă_ pi thē kŭs), i, 67
Siwalik Hills, i, 67
Skins, use of, as clothing, i, 80, 99, 114;
inflated, as boats, i, 209
Skrine, i, 541, ii, 30
Skull, shapes of, i, 100, 142-46
Slate, i, 7
Slavery (and slaves), i, 255-59, 305-09, 352, 363, 455,
489-92, 529, 589, 594, 631, ii, 15, 33, 130,
146, 193, 225, 276, 284-85, 293, 304-05 _sqq._;
American, ii, 342, 619
Slavic tribes, i, 527
Slavonian dialect, i, 168
Slavonic languages, ii, 69
Slavs, i, 616, ii, 24, 49, 57, 61, 69, 128
Sloth, i, 102, 207
Smelting, i, 106, 107
Smerdis, i, 326
Smilodon (smī’ lō don), i, 56
Smith, A. L., ii, 88
Smith, Elliot, i, 69, 84, 146, 147, 189, 207
Smith, Rt. Hon. F. E., ii, 424, 497-99
Smith, John, ii, 280
Smith, Worthington, i, 63, 79, ii, 310
Smithsonian Institution, ii, 392
Smyrna, ii, 79
Snails, i, 28
Sobiesky (sō byes’ ki), John (John III), ii, 249, 620
Social Contract, ii, 296, 310
Social Democrats, ii, 485
Social War, the, i, 503, ii, 609
Socialism, ii, 157, 310, 339-46, 403 _sqq._, 622
Society, beginning of human, i, 178
Socrates (sok’ r_ă_ tēz), i, 114, 350, 355-56, 364, 420, 436
Soddy, Prof., ii, 410
Soderini, ii, 195-96, 618
Soil, protection of, i, 37
Soissons, ii, 47, 48
Solar year, i, 129
Solent, the, i, 137
Solferino (sol fe rē’ nō), battle of, ii, 441, 623
Solis, ensign, ii, 231
Sollas, Prof., i, 63, 69, 84, 100
Solomon, King, i, 200, 287-94, 569, ii, 606
Solon, i, 221, 324-25
Solutré, i, 92, 96, 124
Solutrian Age, i, 96, 97, 317, ii, 189
Somaliland, i, 137, 160, 217
Somalis, language of, i, 154
Somersett, J., ii, 306
Somme, the, i, 137; battle of, ii, 338, 530
Sonnino, Baron, ii, 552
Sonoy, Governor, ii, 231
Soothsayers, i, 305
Sophists, Greek, i, 350
Sophocles (sof’ ō klēz), i, 351, 355
Soudan, tribes of, i, 118
Soul, the, i, 131
South Africa, i, 485, ii, 460, 471, 472, 489,
495, 623-24
South Kensington, Natural History Museum, i, 50
South Sea Islanders, i, 68, 353
Southampton, ii, 180
Soviets (sov’ yets), ii, 410, 526, 539
Sowing, and burial, i, 130;
and human sacrifice, i, 117, 134
Space, i, 3, 4, 15
Spain, i, 37, 93, 106, 108, 146, 161, 196,
213, 217, 299, 446-48, 589, 615, ii, 41, 100, 140, 159, 179, 246;
history (_Carthaginians in_), i, 472-79;
(_Romans in_), i, 480, 485-86, 499-502, 509, 522, 540, 569;
(_Vandals in_), i, 554, 556, ii, 611;
(_under the Goths_), i, 606, ii, 46, 66, 613;
(_Moors in_), i, 565, ii, 24-25, 31, 36-37, 57, 61, 64, 194, 242, 613;
(_15th-16th cent._), ii, 186, 188, 193-95, 197, 200-04;
(_17th-18th cent._), ii, 216, 218, 220, 225,
229, 233, 239, 242-43, 251-52, 279, 292;
(_19th cent._), ii, 362, 378, 445, 506;
overseas dominions, i, 208, ii, 187-94;
colonial expansion, ii, 251-54, 282, 286, 292, 306, 378, 451, 470
Spanish language, i, 151, 564, ii, 160, 190
Sparta, i, 303-07, 332-36, 343, 349-50, 369, 378, 460
Spartacus (spar’ t_ă_ kŭs), i, 505, ii, 609
Spearheads, bone, i, 96
Species, i, 17-22, 25, 29, 138-40
Speech, development of, i, 72, 79, 124-27, 129, 130, 150, 151, 162-63, 223-26
Spelling, need for reform of, i, 282-83
Spence, L., ii, 190
Sphinx, the, i, 238
Spices, Oriental, ii, 257
Spiders, early, i, 28
Spinden, i, 207
Spinnerets of spiders, i, 28
Spoleto (spō lā’ tō), i, 610
Spores, i, 24
Spurrell, H. G. F., i, 63, 98
Spy, i, 72
Stag, i, 94, 101
Stagira (st_ă_ jīr’ _ă_), i, 357
_Stalky and Co._, ii, 423
Stallybrass, Dr. C. O., ii, 154, 543
Stambul (stăm bool’), ii, 126
Stamp Acts, ii, 289
Stamps used for signatures, i, 408
Stars, i, 4; and early man, i, 127, 238, 240
State, the, i, 488 _sqq._, 519, ii, 142, 163, 197, 244, 415
States-General, the, ii, 234, 312, 621
Steam, use of, ii, 386, 392
Steamboat, introduction of the, ii, 387
Steam-engine, invention of, i, 540, ii, 275, 386
Steam-hammer, ii, 388
Steam-power, ii, 275
Steel, i, 273, ii, 388
“Steel Boys,” the, ii, 492
Stegosaurus (steg ō saw’ rŭs), i, 40
Stein, Freiherr von, ii, 364
Steno, ii, 419
Stephenson, G., ii, 386
Stern, Q. B., ii, 433
Stettin, ii, 180
Stilicho (stil’ i kō), i, 554, 561, ii, 611
Stockholm, ii, 526
Stockmar, Baron, ii, 438-39
Stoicism, i, 360, 363, 588
Stone, early use of, i, 171
Stone, Major-Gen., ii, 570
Stone Age, i, 60, 68, 75, 81, 96, 97, 104-13, b197, 213, 274
Stonehenge, i, 109-10, 147, 171, 196, 240, ii, 606
Stopes, Dr. Marie, i, 38
Story-telling, primitive, i, 129
Strabo (strā’ bō), i, 13
Strafford, Earl of, ii, 221-22, 491
Strata, geological, i, 7 _sqq._
Strikes in ancient Rome, i, 457-58, 496
Stuart dynasty, ii, 163, 225-26
Stubbs, Bishop, ii, 54
Sturdee, Admiral, ii, 520
Styria, ii, 200
Subiaco (soo bē ä’ kō), i, 611
Submarine warfare, ii, 520, 527
Subutai, ii, 112
Sudan, the, ii, 471
Sudras, i, 269, 270, 645
Suetonius (swē tō’ ni ŭs), i, 525, 598
Suevi (swē’ vī), i, 554, 606, ii, 46, 611
Suez, i, 156, 160, 195, 218
Suffering, cause of, i, 423
Suffrage, manhood, ii, 297
Sugar, ii, 38
Suleiman (soo lā măn’) the Magnificent, ii, 24, 28, 126, 200, 205, 613
Sulla, i, 503-04, 511, ii, 609
Sulphuric acid, ii, 38
Sulpicius (sŭl pish’ i ŭs), i, 504
Sultan, Turkish, i, 565
Sumatra, i, 635, ii, 120
Sumer (incl. Sumeria and Sumerians), i, 133, 188-96,
203, 208, 210, 212, 218,
227-28, 232, 234, 242-48, 254, 259, 274, 297, 307,
319, 370, 522, ii, 1, 105, 130, 189
Sumerian language and writing, i, 133, 162, 189, 198, 227, 229, 279, 408, 638
Sun, the, i, 3-4, 30, 34;
worship, i, 130, 147, 235-38, 412-13
Sunday, i, 575, 590, ii, 149;
schools, ii, 396
Sung dynasty, i, 634-35, 641, ii, 108, 112-13, 118, 614
Sunnites, ii, 27, 71, 80, 136
“Sunstone,” i, 147
Superior, Lake, i, 225
Surrey, ii, 275
Susa, i, 104, 189, 260, 318, 326-31, 337-38, 364, 385-87, 390
Sussex, i, 70, ii, 40, 275
Suy dynasty, i, 632
Swabians, ii, 47, 63
Swansea, Lord, i, 106
Swastika (swăs’ ti k_ă_, i, 147, 176
Sweden (and the Swedes), i, 102, 553, 605,
ii, 51, 53, 162, 206, 225, 234,
242, 244, 249, 257, 266, 283, 368, 380
Swedish language, i, 168
Swift, Dean, ii, 492, 493
Swift, Fletcher H., i, 297
Swimming-bladder, i, 25, 52, 55
Swine, keeping of, i, 112, ii, 180
Switzerland (including the Swiss), i, 106-09,
113, 115, 171, 186, 564, ii, 69, 198 _sq._,
204, 236, 280, 319, 328, 339, 347, 359, 380, 616, 617
Swords, bronze, i, 132
Sykes, Ella and Percy, i, 548
Sykes, Sir Mark, i, 619, ii, 5, 9, 29-30, 121-23
Syndicalism, ii, 409
Synœcism of gods, i, 483-84
Syracuse, i, 351, 449, 452, 468, 476, 497, 534
Syria (and Syrians), i, 102, 160, 192, 194, 200,
250, 265, 278, 290, 292, 326, 342, 380, 500,
569-70, 587, 598, 604, 617, 619-21,
ii, 1-2, 4, 7, 17-21, 71, 74, 79, 97, 106,
113, 130-32, 149, 359, 440, 500
Syrian language, i, 530, 627, ii, 35
Tabriz, ii, 120
Tabu, i, 113, 125-29
Tachov (tăk’ hov), ii, 152
Tacitus (tăs’ i tŭs), i, 491, ii, 144
Tadpoles, i, 26, 52
Taft, President, ii, 544, 551
Tagus valley, ii, 207
_Tain_, an Irish epic, i, 182
Tai-tsung, i, 634, 642, 647, ii, 106, 612
Talleyrand, ii, 370, 374
Tallien, ii, 336
Tallies, i, 128
Tammany, i, 495
Tancred, ii, 79
Tang dynasty, i, 630-33, 641, ii, 106, 612
Tangier, ii, 484
Tanks, ii, 515-16, 523, 530, 569, 571
Tannenberg, ii, 515, 518
Taoism (tou’ izm), i, 433, 438, 641
Tapir, i, 56
Tarentum, i, 452, 476
Tarim (tä rēm’) valley, i, 201-02, 387, 546, ii, 109, 609
Tarpeian Rock, i, 459
Tarquins, the, i, 450, 456
Tartar language, i, 156, ii, 119
Tartars (and Tartary), i, 388, 542,
545, 627, ii, 109, 112, 119, 129, 244, 260, 267
Tashkend, i, 643
Tasmania (and Tasmanians), i, 82, 84, 85, 138, 148, ii, 189, 451;
language, i, 162
Tattooing, i, 147
Taurus mountains, i, 395-97, ii, 21, 28, 34, 42, 122
Taxation, i, 255, 264, 310, ii, 217-18
Taxilla, i, 645
Tayf (tī’ if), ii, 7
Taylor, H. O., ii, 172
Tea, i, 630, ii, 289
Teeth, i, 44, 69-73, 86, 87
Telamon (tel’ _ă_ mon), battle of, i, 471, 475, ii, 608
Telegraph, electric, ii, 387
Tel-el-Amarna (tel el ä mär’ nă), i, 200, 220, 245, 250, 288
Telescope, invention of the, ii, 176
Tell, William, ii, 199
Tempe (tem’ pē), vale of, i, 335
Temples, i, 190, 234-41, 250, 304
Ten Thousand, Retreat of the, ii, 607
Ten Tribes, the, i, 193
Teneriffe, ii, 225
Tennyson, Lord, i, 175, 531, ii, 438
Tertullian (tũr tŭl’ y_ă_n), i, 403
Testament, Old, i, 114, 277, 292, 294;
New, i, 114
Tetrabelodon (tet r_ă_ bel’ ō don), i, 58
Teutonic Knights, ii, 266
Teutonic tribes, i, 299, 509, 527, 552, ii, 611
Texel, ii, 332
Textile fabrics, Arab, ii, 38
Thames, the, i, 59, 137, ii, 182, 226, 512
Thatcher, ii, 37, 51, 377
Thebes (thēbz) and Thebans, i, 252, 274, 303, 336, 343, 370-71, ii, 606
Themistocles (thē mis’ tō klēz), i, 313, 337
Theocrasia, i, 412, 414, 538, 590, 626, ii, 149
Theodora, Empress, i, 615
Theodora, sister of Marozia, ii, 62
Theodore of Tarsus, ii, 50, 613
Theodoric (thē od’ ō rik) the Goth, i, 560, 606, ii, 37, 612
Theodosius (thē ō dō’ shi ŭs), the Great, i, 554, 602, 615, ii, 611
Theodosius II, i, 557-59
Theophrastus (thē ō frăs’ tŭs), i, 13
Theophylact, ii, 62
Theriodont (thē’ ri ō dont) reptiles, i, 54
Theriomorpha, i, 41, 47, 48
Thermopylæ (thũr mop’ i lē), i, 335, 336, 474, 536, ii, 607
Theseus (thē’ sūs), i, 216
Thespians, i, 336
Thessalus (thes’ ă lŭs), i, 375
Thessaly (and Thessalians), i, 335-40, 384, 453, 511
Thibet, i, 432, 628
Thien Shan, i, 546, 643
Thiers (tyâr), ii, 353
Thirty Tyrants, i, 351
Thirty Years’ War, ii, 235, 262, 292, 511
Thomas, Albert, ii, 439
Thompson, R. Campbell, i, 189
Thor, i, 233, ii, 49
Thoth-lunus (thoth’ lū’ nŭs), Egyptian
god, i, 239
Thothmes (thoth’ mēz), i, 199, 289, 317, 401, 445, ii, 605
Thought and research, i, 122-35, 352-53, 360-62, ii, 414
Thrace (thrās) and Thracians, i, 303, 328-31, 340, 372, 377, 395, ii, 20, 123
Three Teachings, the, i, 436
Throwing sticks, i, 90
Thucydides (thū sid’ i dēz), i, 344, 360, 399, 460
Thuringians, ii, 51
Tian Shan, i, 549
Tiber, river, i, 447, 448, 454, 458, ii, 41
Tiberius Cæsar, i, 523, 572, 584, ii, 609
Tibet, i, 206, 438, 545-47, 591, 640, ii, 113, 128, 262, 463, 624
Tibetan language, i, 157
Tides, i, 8
Tiger, sabre-toothed, i, 56, 64, 69, 70, 76
Tiglath Pileser (tig’ lăth pi lē’ z_ĕ_r), I, i, 192, 196;
III, i, 193, 200, 246, 290, 318, ii, 606
Tigris, i, 186, 192, 210, 238, 260, 616, ii, 2, 106
Tii, Queen, i, 250
Tille, Dr., ii, 180
Tilly, ii, 235
Tilsit, Treaty of, ii, 363, 622
Timbuktu, i, 565
Time, i, 13-15, 128-29, ii, 605
_Times_, the, ii, 405
Timon (tī’ mon), i, 515
Timurlane, ii, 132-33, 137, 154, 261, 617
Tin, i, 4, 106, 217, 273, ii, 389
Tinstone, i, 106
Tiryns (tī’ rinz), i, 303
Titanothere (tī’ tăn ō thēr), i, 53, 56
Titus, i, 526, 571, ii, 610
Tobacco, i, 170, 219, ii, 281, 284
Toe, great, i, 66
Tolstoy, ii, 367
Tonkin, ii, 467, 470
Torr, Cecil, i, 210, 259
Tortoises, i, 40, 46
Torture, use of, ii, 338
Tory Party, ii, 489
Totila (tot’ i lă), i, 611
Toulon, ii, 333, 349, 351
Tours, ii, 47, 180
Towers of Silence, i, 625
Town life, European, ii, 180 _sqq._
_Town Topics_, ii, 424
Townshend, General, ii, 522
Township, primitive, i, 256
Tracheal tubes, i, 25
Trachodon (trăk’ ō don), i, 42
Trade, early, i, 118, 208-22, 257, 264-65;
routes, ii, 76, 183; sea, ii, 184-85
Trade Unions, i, 487, 536, ii, 407
Tradition, i, 55, 124-29, 230
Trafalgar, battle of, ii, 362, 622
Trajan (trā’ jăn), i, 524, 526, 614, 623, ii, 2, 610
Transmigration of souls, i, 424, 427
Transport, ii, 386, 569
Transubstantiation, ii, 150-51, 171
Transvaal, ii, 424, 460, 623.
(_See also_ South Africa)
Transylvania, i, 526, ii, 112
Trasimene, Lake, i, 475
Travels, early, i, 221, ii, 386
Trebizond, ii, 120
Trees, i, 27, 37
Trench warfare, ii, 515
Trent, Council of, ii, 167, 618
Tresas, i, 336
Trevithick, ii, 386
Trianon, the, ii, 317
Tribal system, i, 177, ii, 128
Trilobites, i, 10, 21-24
Triceratops (trī ser’ ă tops), i, 42
Trieste, ii, 445
Trigonometry, ii, 37
Trinidad, ii, 471
Trinil, i, 68-69
Trinitarians, i, 592-93, 601-02
Trinity, doctrine of the, i, 575, 592, 602, 625-26, ii, 171
Trinity College, Dublin, ii, 492
Tripoli, i, 228, ii, 470, 500, 624;
Treaty of, ii, 294
Trireme, i, 469
Trojans, i, 216, 448, ii, 121
Tröltsch, i, 604
Trotsky, ii, 411
Troy, i, 216, 303, 318, 335, 446
Troyes (trwä), battle of, i, 559, ii, 611
Trumpet, bronze, i, 132
Tsar, title of, i, 565, ii, 129
Tshushima (tsoo shē’ mă), Straits of, ii, 469
Ts’i (dynasty and state), i, 205, 508
Ts’in (dynasty and state), i, 205, 253
Tuaregs, i, 154, 206
Tudor, ii, 287
Tuileries, ii, 319, 322, 328, 329
Tulip tree, i, 51
Tunis, i, 470, ii, 84, 470, 500
Turanian language. (_See_ Ural-Altaic languages)
Turanians, i, 158, 620, 627, ii, 29, 69, 122
Turkestan, i, 153, 159, 206, 273, 317,
386, 387, 388, 428, 433, 546, 548,
549, 603, 618, 620, 627-29, 644,
ii, 17, 24, 33, 71, 109, 113, 121,
127-28, 132, 261, 262, 608, 612
Turkey, ii, 208, 366, 382, 440, 446, 483, 484, 500, 502, 521-22, 531, 623, 624.
(_See also_ Turks)
Turkey, Great, ii, 114
Turkhan Pasha, ii, 554
Turkish fleet, ii, 140;
language and literature, i, 156, 627, ii, 122;
peoples, i, 541, 570, 627, ii, 28, 64, 66-72, 139-40, 261 (_see also_ Turks);
princes, ii, 106, 124
Turko-Finnic language, ii, 70
Turko-Finnish peoples, i, 560, 606
Turkomans, i, 551, ii, 132-33, 261, 471
Turks, i, 388, 545, 618, 627, 629, 644, ii, 24, 34-35, 61, 106, 121-22, 617;
and the Crusades, ii, 78 _sqq._;
Ottoman, i, 615, ii, 121 _sqq._,
138-40, 182-84, 193-94, 197, 200, 204-06, 233,
240, 249, 353, 447, 617, 620;
Seljuk, ii, 34, 39, 70, 114, 121, 615
Turtles, i, 40, 46
Tuscany, ii, 225, 236, 242
Tusculum, i, 473
Tushratta, King, i, 192, 200, 245
Twelve Tables, the, i, 458, 487
Tyler, Wat, ii, 156, 617
Tylor, E. B., i, 131
Tyndale, Bible of, i, 282
Typhon (tī’ fon), Egyptian god, i, 236
Tyrannosaurus (tī răn ō saw’ rŭs), i, 42
Tyrants, i, 308
Tyre, i, 196, 212, 216, 261, 264, 266,
279, 294, 331, 379, 380, 382-84, 401, 468,
569, 571, ii, 144, 244
Tyrol, ii, 283, 564
Uganda, i, 206, ii, 51, 460
Uhud, battle of, ii, 9
Uigurs (wē’ goorz), ii, 109
Uintathere (ū in’ tă thēr), i, 53, 56
Ukraine Cossacks, ii, 260
Ukrainia (and Ukrainians), ii, 128-29, 244
Ulm, ii, 362, 622
Ulster, i, 110, ii, 432, 489-98
Uncleanness, i, 126, 131
“Unionist” party, ii, 495
United Provinces.
(_See_ Holland)
United Service Institution, ii, 567, 571
United States, i, 37, 546, ii, 294, 297 _sqq._;
constitution, i, 225, 520, ii, 293 _sq._, 314, 378, 621;
political and social conditions, i, 268, 308,
493, ii, 292-96, 326, 338, 344, 386-87, 395, 551;
slavery in, ii, 193, 293;
Declaration of Independence, ii, 293, 621;
treaty with Britain, ii, 293-94, 621;
Civil War, ii, 443, 623;
unity of, ii, 476;
modern foreign policy of, ii, 503-07;
in Great War, ii, 527, 583, 560-62.
(_See also_ America)
_Universal History_, the, ii, 418, 419
Universal law, ii, 215
Universals, ii, 174
Universe, ii, 418
Universities, i, 613, ii, 37, 88, 168, 270, 390, 427
University Commission, ii, 437
Unterwalden (oon’ ter val den), ii, 199
Ur, i, 195
Ural mountains, i, 153, 549
Ural-Altaic languages, i, 155, 156, 160, 164, 174, 299, 560;
people, i, 203
Uranus (ūr’ ă nŭs), i, 4
Urban II (pope), ii, 72, 74, 84, 97, 167, 615
Urban VI (pope), ii, 100, 617
Urfa, i, 621
Uri, ii, 199
Urns, i, 115
Uruk, i, 195
Urumiya (ū rū mē’ yă), lake, i, 318
Ussher, Bishop, ii, 418
Usury, i, 265
Utica (ū’ ti k_ă_), i, 212
Utopias, i, 358, ii, 211
Utrecht, ii, 229
Vaisyas (vīs’ yăz), i, 269, 270
Valais, i, 564
Valenciennes, ii, 531
Valens, Emperor, i, 554
Valerian, Emperor, i, 528, 617, ii, 610
Valladolid, ii, 207-09
Valmy, battle of, ii, 330, 621
Valona, ii, 524
Value, i, 219, 220
Van, i, 318
Vandals, i, 540, 553, 556, 564, 606, 615, ii, 22, 611
Varangians (vă răn’ ji ănz), ii, 67
Varennes (vă ren’), ii, 323-25, 621
Varro, i, 476
Vasa (vä’ să), Gustava, ii, 234
Vases, i, 213
Vassalage, ii, 44
Vatican, ii, 57, 84, 100
Vaughan, ii, 310
Vedas (vā’ dăz), i, 173, 182, 417, ii, 257
Vegetarians, i, 182, 416
Vegetation, i, 37, 38
Veii (vē’ yī), i, 450, 459, 483, 485
Vendée, ii, 333, 351
Venetia, ii, 441, 445, 529
Venezuela, ii, 505
Venice (and the Venetians), ii, 76, 80, 81, 97,
117, 120, 126, 139, 180, 182, 184,
257, 351, 380, 529, 616, 621
Venizelos (ven i zē’ los), ii, 522
Venus, goddess, ii, 49
Venus, planet, i, 4, 5
Vera Cruz, ii, 444
Verbal tradition, i, 230
Verde, Cape, ii, 617
Verde, Cape, Islands, ii, 188
Verdun, ii, 329, 330, 509
Verona, ii, 180, 332
Versailles, ii, 238, 242, 248, 312-22, 446, 477, 556;
Peace of, ii, 560 _sqq._, 624
Verulam, Lord.
(_See_ Bacon, Sir Francis)
Vespasian (ves pā’ zhi ăn), i, 526, 535, 571, ii, 609
Vessels of stone, i, 213
Vesuvius, i, 505
Via Flaminia, i, 471
Victims, human, i, 588
Victor Emmanuel, ii, 441, 623
Victoria, Queen of Great Britain, i, 175, 531,
ii, 228, 437, 438, 455, 482, 487, 622, 623
_Victory_, flagship, ii, 362
Vienna, ii, 126, 140, 205, 249, 371, 483, 568, 618, 620;
Congress of, ii, 370, 378, 379, 431, 436, 440, 453, 557, 622
Vigilius, i, 558, 559
Vikings (vik’ ingz), ii, 53, 67
Village, the, i, 109, 256
Vilna, ii, 386, 519
Vimiero (vē mā’ ē roo), ii, 364
Vinci (vin’ chē), Leonardo da, i, 13, 534, ii, 175, 183, 419, 523, 618
Vindhya (vind’ yă) mountains, i, 420
Vinland, ii, 185
Virgil, i, 407, 448, 531
Virginia, ii, 280, 283, 290, 292, 296, 300, 305, 306, 443
Virtue, i, 351
Visé, ii, 512
Vishnu, i, 180, 437
Visigoths, i, 550, 553, 559, 606, ii, 66, 611
Vistula, ii, 112
Vitellus, i, 526, ii, 609
_Vittoria_, ship, ii, 188
Viviparous animals, i, 54-55
Vivisection, i, 403, 404, 490
Vocabulary of man, i, 151
Volga, i, 153, 159, 432, 560, 606, ii, 267
Volscians, i, 458
Volta, ii, 387
Voltaire, F. M. A. de, ii, 238, 240, 264, 421, 620
Votes, ii, 147
Vowels, i, 304
Voyages, i, 217-18, ii, 191
Vulgate, the, i, 307
Wages, i, 258, ii, 156
Wagons, i, 170
Waldenses, ii, 92, 94
Waldo, ii, 92, 94
Wales, i, 209, 605, ii, 40, 178
Waley, Arthur, i, 157
Walid (wa lēd’) I, ii, 28, 613
Walid II, ii, 28, 613
Wallace, William, ii, 178
Wallenstein, ii, 235
Walpole, Sir Robert, ii, 227
Wang Yang Ming, i, 642
War, Great.
(_See_ Great War)
War and warfare, i, 171, 254, 256, 306,
370-72, ii, 234, 424, 475-76, 481, 513 _sqq._, 567-70
War of American Independence, ii, 291 _sqq._
Warsaw, ii, 382
Warwick, Lord, ii, 222
Washington, i, 520, ii, 279, 301, 357, 392, 443
Washington, George, ii, 292, 301, 303, 307, 353
Water, i, 23, ii, 275
Waterloo, ii, 371, 624
Watt, James, ii, 275, 386, 392
Watters, i, 541, 642, 645
Wealden Valley, i, 73
Weale, Putnam, ii, 461
Weapons, i, 78, 108, 114, 196, 205
Weaving, i, 105
Wedmore, Treaty of, ii, 52, 54
Wei dynasty, later, i, 633
Wei-hai-wei (wā hī wā’), ii, 462, 469
Wellesley, Marquis.
(_See_ Mornington, Lord)
Wellesley, Sir Arthur.
(_See_ Wellington, Duke of)
Wellington, Duke of, ii, 364, 371
Wells, J., i, 458, 467, 470
Welsh, the, ii, 244
Welsh language, i, 168
Wends, the, ii, 80
Were-wolf, i, 124
Wessex, ii, 40, 51, 614
Western civilization, i, 636
Westminster, i, 463, 489, ii, 159, 182, 222, 225, 228
Westphalia, Peace of, ii, 232, 236, 280
Weyl, ii, 543
Whales, i, 41
Wheat, i, 113, 184, 186
Wheeler, B. I., i, 359, 362, 367
Whigs, ii, 288-89, 332
Whistles, i, 115
White Man’s Burthen, ii, 462
Whitehall, ii, 222, 224, 568
Wilberforce, Bishop, ii, 420
Wilhelm I, German Emperor, ii, 482
Wilhelm II, German Emperor, ii, 59, 60, 482-86, 623
Wilhelm, Crown Prince of Germany, ii, 486
Will and obedience, ii, 142-48
William I, etc., Emperors of Germany.
(_See_ Wilhelm)
William the Conqueror, i, 408, ii, 54, 66, 150, 615
William III, Prince of Orange, ii, 226, 491-92, 620
William IV, King of England, ii, 228
William the Silent, ii, 229
Williams, Harold, ii, 71
Williams, S. Wells, i, 541
Wilson, W., President of U. S. A., ii, 221, 284, 543-46, 550-57, 564-67
Wiltshire, i, 110, 135
Winckler, H., i, 192, 195, 246, 342
Windsor, ii, 222
Wine, ii, 281
Wiriath, ii, 311, 326
Wisby, ii, 180
Witchcraft, i, 126, 374
Withington, E. T., i, 403
Wittenberg, ii, 156, 203, 618
Woden, ii, 144
Wolfe, General, ii, 254, 620
Wolsey, Cardinal, ii, 202
Wolves, i, 69, 448
Women, i, 95, 99, 181, 232, 251, 309, ii, 13, 297
Wood, i, 76
Wood Age, i, 68
Wood blocks, for printing, ii, 159
Woodruff, Prof. L. L., i, 7
Woodward, G. M., i, 50
Woodward, Smith, i, 72
Woolf, L. S., ii, 377, 543
Woollen industry, ii, 275
Workmen, ii, 404-407
World (geographical), i, 341, 405, 406, ii, 187, 188, 191, 605;
(political), i, 397, 399, 400, ii, 278, 381, 385, 431, 449
World, Old, nursery of mankind, i, 103
World dominion (and unity), i, 374, 397,
399, ii, 72, 90, 211, 243, 246, 252,
261-262
Worms, town, ii, 60
Worms, Diet of, ii, 203, 618
Worship, i, 130
Wörth (vũrt), ii, 445
Wright, W. B., i, 30, 63, 78, 96, 100, 101, 120
Writing, i, 174, 176, 189, 197, 198, 207-208,
214, 223-31, 296, 421, 639, ii, 59
Written word, i, 293
Wu Ti, i, 548, ii, 609
Wu Wang, i, 204
Württemberg, i, 102, ii, 445
Wycliffe, John, and his followers, ii, 96,
100, 150-53, 160, 171, 174, 202, 270, 272, 617
Xavier (zā’ vi ũr), Francis, ii, 465
Xenophanes (ze nof’ _ă_ nēz), i, 13
Xenophon, i, 342, 351, 357, 363, 399
Xerxes (zũrk’ sēz), i, 334-42, 362, 385, 542, ii, 122, 607
Yanbu, i, 634
Yang-chow, ii, 119
Yang-tse valley, i, 205, 542
Yang-tse-kiang (yäng tsē kyäng’), i, 201, 641
Yarkand, i, 628, 643, ii, 610
Yarmuk, ii, 18, 613
Year, Moslem, ii, 8; solar, i, 129
Yeast, i, 172
Yedo bay, ii, 466
Yeliu Chutsai, ii, 110
Yemen, i, 618, 624, ii, 3-4
York, i, 529, ii, 221
Yorkshire, ii, 154
Yorktown, ii, 292
Ypres (ē’ pr), ii, 229, 515, 516
Yuan Chwang, i, 541, 642 _sqq._, ii, 22, 34, 106, 118, 612-13
Yuan dynasty, ii, 114, 117, 127, 617
Yucatan, i, 308, ii, 190
Yueh-Chi, i, 548, 628, 643, ii, 618
Yugo-Slavia (and Yugo-Slavs), i, 616, ii, 122, 380 _sq._, 484, 564, 566
Yule, i, 541
Yuste (yoos’ tā), ii, 207-09
Zadok, i, 287
Zaid (zā’ id), ii, 12
Zainib, ii, 12
Zama (zā’ m_ă_), i, 476-80, 482, ii, 608
Zanzibar, ii, 187
Zara, ii, 81
Zarathustra (zā ră thoos’ tr_ă_).
(_See_ Zoroaster)
Zebedee, i, 580
Zeid (zīd), a slave, ii, 6
Zend Avesta, i, 624
Zenobia, i, 535, 617, ii, 610
Zeppelin raids, ii, 519
Zeus (zūs), i, 396, 412
Zeuxis (zūk’ sis), i, 369
Zimbabwe (zēm băb’ wā), ii, 459
Zimmern, i, 305, 310, 343
Zinc, i, 106
Ziska, ii, 152
Zodiac, i, 240
Zollverein (tsol’ fer īn), ii, 488
Zoroaster (zō rō ăs’ tũr) and Zoroastrianism,
i, 533, 538, 617, 618, 624, 625,
626, 627, ii, 4, 14, 16, 29, 137
Zoroastrian language, i, 626
Zosimus (zōs’ i mŭs), i, 599
Zulus, i, 219, 370
Zyp, the, ii, 230
Printed in the United States of America.
* * * * *
FOOTNOTES:
[1] See upon this an excellent pamphlet by F. J. Gould, _History, the
Supreme in the Instruction of the Young_ (Watts & Co.).
[2] A compact and inspiring book to be noted here is Fairgrieve’s
_Geography and World Power_. Another very suggestive book is Andrew Reid
Cowan’s _Master Clues in World History_.
[3] For a convenient recent discussion of the origin of the earth and
its early history before the seas were precipitated and sedimentation
began, the student should consult Professor Burrell’s contribution to
the Yale lectures, _The Evolution of the Earth and Its Inhabitants_
(1918), edited by President Lull.
[4] Here in this history of life we are doing our best to give only
known and established facts in the broadest way, and to reduce to a
minimum the speculative element that must necessarily enter into our
account. The reader who is curious upon this question of life’s
beginning will find a very good summary of current suggestions done by
Professor L. L. Woodruff in President Lull’s excellent compilation _The
Evolution of the Earth_ (Yale University Press). Professor H. F.
Osborn’s _Origin and Evolution of Life_ is also a very vigorous and
suggestive book upon this subject, but it demands a fair knowledge of
physics and chemistry. Two very stimulating essays _for the student_ are
A. H. Church’s _Botanical Memoirs_. No 183, Ox. Univ. Press.
[5] Theophrastus, quoting Xenophanes.
[6] There is a discussion of fossils in the Holkham Hall Leonardo MS.
[7] An admirable recent book, short and written in a style intelligible
to the general reader, is Arthur Holmes, _The Age of the Earth_. He
gives a good summary of this most interesting discussion, and sustains
the maximum estimate of 1600 million years.
[8] It might be called with more exactness the _Survival of the Fitter_.
[9] See Evans, The Sudden Appearance of the Cambrian Fauna. (_Proc. of
XIe Congrès Geolog. Inst., 1910_) for a discussion of this.
[10] Phanerogams.
[11] Deciduous trees.
[12] This, says Mr. R. I. Pocock, has to be qualified. There were
Carboniferous spiders with spinnerets, though they may have used the
silk only for egg cases. And he thinks that the Carboniferous myriapods
point to _ground_ beneath the trees.
[13] See Sir R. Ball’s _Causes of the Great Ice Age_, and Dr. Croll’s
_Climate and Time_. These are sound books to read still, but the reader
will find many of their conclusions modified in Wright’s _The Quaternary
Ice Age_, which is a quarter of a century more recent.
[14] Dr. Marie Stopes, _Monograph on the Constitution of Coal_.
[15] See article “Cephalopoda” in the _Encyclopædia Britannica_ for its
anatomy.
[16] And here the genius of a great humorous artist (E. T. Reed) obliges
us to add a footnote to clear away a common misconception. He was the
creator of a series of fantastic pictures, _Prehistoric Peeps_, which
have had a deserved and immense vogue, and it was his whim to represent
primitive men as engaged in an unending wild struggle with great
Plesiosaurs and the like. His fantasy has become a common belief. As we
shall see, millions of years elapsed between the vanishing of the last
great Mesozoic reptile and the first appearance of man upon this earth.
Early man had as contemporaries some monstrous animals, as we shall
note, but not these extreme monsters.
In these opening six chapters we have been much indebted, in addition to
the books already named in the text or in footnotes, to Ray Lankester’s
_Extinct Animals_, Osborne’s _Age of Mammals_, Jukes Browne’s, Lyell’s
and Pirsson and Schuchert’s textbooks of geology, and the collections
and catalogues of the Natural History Museum at South Kensington. H. R.
Knipe’s _From Nebula to Man_ and his _Evolution in the Past_ have also
been very useful and suggestive. These two books are full of admirable
illustrations of extinct monsters by Miss G. M. Woodward and Mr.
Bucknall. There are good figures also in _Extinct Monsters_ and
_Creatures of Other Days_ by H. N. Hutchinson.
[17] They secrete a nutritive fluid on which the young feeds from glands
scattered over the skin. But the glands are not gathered together into
mammæ with nipples for suckling. The stuff oozes out, the mother lies on
her back, and the young browse upon her moist skin.
[18] _Die Alpen in Eiszeitalters_, vol. iii.
[19] “Graphic Projection of the Pleistocene,” “Climatic Oscillations,”
in _Bulletin of Geological Soc. Am._, vol. xxvi.
[20] In this and the next chapters the writer has used Osborn’s _Men of
the Stone Age_, Sollas’ _Ancient Hunters_, Dr. Keith’s _Antiquity of
Man_, W. B. Wright’s _The Quaternary Ice Age_, Worthington Smith’s _Man,
the Primeval Savage_, F. Wood Jones’ _Arboreal Man_, H. G. F. Spurrell’s
_Modern Man and his Forerunners_, O. T. Mason’s _Origins of Invention_,
Parkyn’s _History of Prehistoric Art_, Salomon Reinach’s _Repertoire de
l’Art Quaternaire_, and various of the papers in Ray Lankester’s
_Science from an Easy Chair_.
[21] Darwin’s _Descent of Man_.
[22] In _Conquest_ for February, 1920, Mr. R. I. Pocock published a very
useful criticism of this section as it stood in the first version of the
_Outline_. It has been carefully modified in accordance with his views.
In addition, we take the liberty of quoting the following:
“It was formerly held, I believe, that, so far as habits are concerned,
the transitional steps in man’s descent were to be traced from an active
arboreal monkey to the equally active arboreal gibbon, and thence to the
less active, but still mainly arboreal, orang-utang; from the latter to
the half arboreal, half terrestrial chimpanzee, thence, through the
mainly terrestrial gorilla, to wholly terrestrial man. In other words,
the stages of man’s evolution were a series of structural modifications
resulting from the gradual dropping of the ancestral habit of living in
trees in favour of life on the ground. But such a conception leaves
unexplained the great differences between monkeys and gibbons in
arboreal and terrestrial activity. Were it correct, we should expect the
gibbons to show a transition between monkeys and other apes in their
method of moving through trees and on the ground. They show no such
transition. It is necessary, therefore, to formulate another theory.
“Since all the active climbing monkeys have well-developed tails, and
since the tail tends to shorten or disappear in species of less active
habits which live, like the monkey of Gibraltar, on rocky hillsides, the
absence of the tail in apes suggests very forcibly that their ancestor
had to a great extent given up living in trees. Moreover, the short
broad foot of the apes, their ability to stand and walk erect, their
peculiar way of climbing, all point to the conclusion that they are
descended, not from a truly arboreal ape, but from an ape which had
already taken to terrestrial life, with partly bipedal, partly
quadrupedal progression; an ape which, while still retaining the power
to ascend trees for purposes of feeding and escaping from carnivorous
foes, was, at best, probably a slow, inactive climber, certainly not an
arboreal leaper like a monkey. A large ape of that mode of life, with
hands and feet not very different from those of a chimpanzee or gorilla,
but with stronger legs and shorter arms, is my conception of the
ancestor of existing apes and of man. And the progenitor of that
hypothetical ancestor was probably a big ground monkey.”
[23] Among the earlier pioneers of the latter view was Mr. Harrison, a
grocer of Ightham in Kent, one of those modest and devoted observers to
whom British geology owes so much. At first his “Eoliths” were flouted
and derided by archæologists, but to-day he has the scientific world
with him in the recognition of the quasi-human origin of many of his
specimens. With him we must honour Mr. W. J. Lewis Abbott, a jeweller of
St. Leonards, whose intimate knowledge of stone structure has been of
the utmost value in these discussions. See “Occ. Papers,” No. 4, of the
Royal Anthropl. Inst., for a description by Sir E. R. Lankester of one
of the better formed of these early implements.
[24] Some writers suppose that a Wood and Shell age preceded the
earliest Stone Age. South Sea Islanders, Negroes, and Bushmen still make
use of wood and the sharp-edged shells of land and water molluscs as
implements.
[25] For some interesting suggestions on the origin of flint implements
see Elliot Smith’s presidential address to the Anthropl. Sect. of the
Brit. Assn., 1912.
[26] Sollas’ _Ancient Hunters_, p. 40.
[27] We follow Penck.
[28] For sixpence and postage the reader can get from the British
Museum, South Kensington, a very fully illustrated pamphlet _A Guide to
the Fossil Remains of Man_, showing the Piltdown material in great
detail.
[29] Three phases of human history before the knowledge and use of
metals are often distinguished. First there is the so-called Eolithic
Age (dawn of stone implements), then the Palæolithic Age (old stone
implements), and finally an age in which the implements are skilfully
made and frequently well finished and polished (Neolithic Age). The
Palæolithic period is further divided into an earlier (sub-human) and a
later (fully human) period. We shall comment on these divisions later.
[30] From Chelles and Le Moustier in France.
[31] Osmond Fisher, quoted in Wright’s _Quaternary Ice Age_.
[32] _Social Origins_, by Andrew Lang, and _Primal Law_, by J. J.
Atkinson. (Longmans, 1903.)
[33] This first origin of fire was suggested by Sir John Lubbock
(_Prehistoric Times_), and Ludwig Hopf, in _The Human Species_, says
that “Flints and pieces of pyrites are found in close proximity in
palæolithic settlements near the remains of mammoths.”
[34] But compare Sollas’ _Ancient Hunters_. Elliot Smith (_Primitive
Man_, Proceedings Brit. Acad., vol. vii) says they approach the
Neanderthal type.
[35] What is known of the Tasmanian Old Stone men is to be found in Roth
and Butler’s _Aborigines of Tasmania_. See also footnote on the
Tasmanian language to Chapter XIII.
[36] The opinion that the Neanderthal race (_Homo Neanderthalensis_) is
an extinct species which did not interbreed with the true men (_Homo
sapiens_) is held by Professor Osborn, and it is the view to which the
writer inclines and to which he has pointed in the treatment of this
section; but it is only fair to the reader to note that many writers do
not share this view. They write and speak of living “Neanderthalers” in
contemporary populations. One observer has written in the past of such
types in the west of Ireland; another has observed them in Greece. These
so-called “living Neanderthalers” have neither the peculiarities of
neck, thumb, nor teeth that distinguish the Neanderthal race of pro-men.
The cheek teeth of true men, for instance, have what we call fangs, long
fangs; the Neanderthaler’s cheek tooth is a _more complicated and
specialized_ cheek tooth, a long tooth with short fangs, and his canine
teeth were _less_ marked, _less_ like dog-teeth, than ours. Nothing
could show more clearly that he was on a different line of development.
We must remember that so far only western Europe has been properly
explored for Palæolithic remains, and that practically all we know of
the Neanderthal species comes from that area (see Map, p. 89). No doubt
the ancestor of _Homo sapiens_ (which species includes the Tasmanians)
was a very similar and parallel creature to _Homo Neanderthalensis_. And
we are not so far from that ancestor as to have eliminated not indeed
“Neanderthal,” but “Neanderthaloid” types. The existence of such types
no more proves that the Neanderthal species, the makers of the Chellean
and Mousterian implements, interbred with _Homo sapiens_ in the European
area than do monkey-faced people testify to an interbreeding with
monkeys; or people with faces like horses, that there is an equine
strain in our population.
[37] R. I. Pocock.
[38] See Osborn in his _Men of the Old Stone Age_. But see Wright’s
_Quaternary Ice Age_ for a different view of the Magdalenian Age.
[39] See, for example, H. G. F. Spurrell, _Modern Man and His
Forerunners_, end of Chapter III.
[40] Upon this question W. J. Sollas’ _Ancient Hunters_ is very full and
suggestive.
[41] From the cave of Mas d’Azil.
[42] But our domestic cattle are derived from some form of
aurochs--probably from some lesser Central Asiatic variety.--H. H. J.
[43] “The various finds of human remains in North America for which the
geological antiquity has been claimed have been thus briefly passed
under review. In every instance where enough of the bones is preserved
for comparison, the evidence bears witness against the geological
antiquity of the remains and for their close affinity to or identity
with the modern Indians.” (Smithsonian Institute, Bureau of American
Ethnology, Bulletin 33. Dr. Hrdlicka.)
But J. Deniker quotes evidence to show that eoliths and early palæoliths
have been found in America. See his compact but full summary of the
evidence and views for and against in his _Races of Man_, pp. 510, 511.
[44] “Questioned by some authorities,” says J. Deniker in _The Races of
Man_.
[45] A good account of Palæolithic and Neolithic man is to be found in
Rice Holmes’ _Ancient Britain_, 1907. Otis T. Mason’s _Origins of
Invention_ also illuminates this period.
[46] The deposits at Susa show neolithic remains perhaps more than
20,000 years old. See Montelius _Congrès Internat. d’Anthrop. Prehist._,
1906, p. 32. Sir Arthur Evans says the neolithic age began in Crete more
than 14,000 years ago.--G. Wh.
[47] See Peisker, _Cambridge Medieval History_, Vol. I, for some
interesting views upon domestication.--E. B.
[48] Native copper is still found to-day in Italy, Hungary, Cornwall,
and many other places.
[49] This view of the origin of bronze is that of Dr. Gowland, _The
Metals Antiquity_ (Huxley Lecture, 1912). But Lord Avebury quotes the
verbal opinion of the late Lord Swansea against this view, and sets it
aside without further argument.
[50] Ridgeway (_Early Age of Greece_) says a lump of tin has been found
in the Swiss pile-dwelling deposits.
[51] Tin was known as a foreign import in Egypt under the XVIIIth
Dynasty; there is (rare) Mycenæan tin, and there are (probably later,
but not clearly dated) tin objects in the Caucasus. But it is very
difficult to distinguish tin from antimony. There is a good deal of
Cyprus bronze which contains antimony; a good deal which seems to be tin
is antimony--the ancients trying to get tin, but actually getting
antimony and thinking it was tin.--J. L. M.
[52] In connection with iron, note the distinction of ornamental and
useful iron. Ornamental iron, a rarity, perhaps meteoric, as jewellery
or magical stuff, occurs in east Europe sporadically in the time of the
XVIIIth Dynasty. This must be distinguished from the copious useful iron
which appears in Greece much later from the North.--J. L. M.
[53] People were probably healthier and longer lived in the Bronze than
in the Neolithic age. The disparity of stature between male and female
was much less.--G. Wh.
[54] Lord Avebury. For a good account of Avebury, Stonehenge, and the
traces of a well-developed social system in England before the coming of
the Keltic peoples, see Hippesley Cox, _The Green Roads of England_.
[55] Caesar _de Bello Gallico_ says the Britons tabooed hare, fowl and
goose.--G. Wh.
[56] All Old World peoples who had entered upon the Neolithic stage grew
and ate wheat, but the American Indians must have developed agriculture
independently in America after their separation from the Old World
populations. They never had wheat. Their cultivation was maize, Indian
corn, a new-world grain.
[57] Poultry and hens’ eggs were late additions to the human cuisine, in
spite of the large part they now play in our dietary. The hen is not
mentioned in the Old Testament (but note the allusion to an egg, Job vi,
6) nor by Homer. Up to about 1300 B.C. the only fowls in the world were
jungle denizens in India and Burmah. The crowing of jungle cocks is
noted by Glasfurd in his admirable accounts of tiger shooting as the
invariable preliminary of dawn in the Indian jungle. Probably poultry
were first domesticated in Burmah. They got to China, according to the
records, only about 1100 B.C. They reached Greece via Persia before the
time of Socrates. In the New Testament the crowing of the cock
reproaches Peter for his desertion of the Master.
[58] Later Palæolithic bone whistles are known. One may guess that reed
pipes were an early invention.
[59] In addition to authorities already cited, we have used for this and
the following chapters Lord Avebury’s _Prehistoric Times_, Schrader and
Jevons’ _Prehistoric Antiquities of the Aryan Peoples_, and A. H.
Keane’s _Man Past and Present_.
[60] Among other books we have used Jukes Browne’s _Building of the
British Isles_.
[61] _The Quaternary Ice Age._
[62] Our treatment of this chapter is written for the general reader and
is broad and general. But the student who wishes to go more thoroughly
into the development of the civilized mentality out of the elements of
the primitive human mind should read and study very carefully that very
illuminating book, Jung’s _Psychology of the Unconscious_ (English
translation by Beatrice M. Hinckle), and especially the opening two
chapters. That book is a most important contribution to the mental
history of mankind.
[63] J. J. Atkinson’s _Primal Law_.
[64] See Sir J. G. Frazer, _Belief in Immortality_.
[65] Glasfurd’s _Rifle and Romance in the Indian Jungle_, 1915.
[66] For some interesting suggestions here see Sigismund Freud, _Totem
and Taboo, Resemblances between the Psychic Life of Savages and
Neurotics_.
[67] Ludwig Hopf, in _The Human Species_, calls the later Palæolithic
art “masculine” and the Neolithic “feminine.” The pottery was made by
women, he says, and that accounts for it. But the arrowheads were made
by men, and there was nothing to prevent Neolithic men from taking
scraps of bone or slabs of rock and carving them--had they dared. We
suggest they did not dare to do so.
[68] But Cicero says relegere, “_to read over_,” and the “binding” by
those who accept _religare_ is often written of as being merely the
binding of a vow.
[69] Bateman, _Ten Years’ Digging in Celtic and Saxon Gravehills_,
quoted by Lord Avebury in _Prehistoric Times_, p. 176.
[70] Cabot in _Labrador_, by Grenfell and others. Macmillan, New York.
[71] Quoted in _Ency. Brit._, vol. ix, p. 850.
[72] This is not a good name, and may perhaps drop out of use later.
Blumenbach chose a particular skull as the “type” of this race and it
happened to be a skull from the Caucasus.--G. S.
[73] The skull shape of the Lombards, says Flinders Petrie, changed from
dolichocephalic to brachycephalic in a few hundred years. See his Huxley
Lecture for 1906, _Migrations_, published by the _Anthropological
Institute_. Ripley is the great authority on the other side.
[74] _My Diaries_, under date of July 25, 1894.
[75] “Sunstone” culture because of the sun worship and the megaliths.
This is not a very happily chosen term. It suggests a division
equivalent to palæolithic (old stone) and neolithic (new stone), whereas
it is a development of the Neolithic culture.
[76] Megalithic monuments have been made quite recently by primitive
Indian peoples.
[77] For some interesting suggestions in this matter, see W. H. R.
Rivers, “_Sun Cult and Megaliths in Oceana_” (_American Anthropologist_
(N.S.), vol. xvii). Hose and MacDougall, _The Pagan Tribes of Borneo_,
contains some very interesting parallelisms between the culture of
modern Borneo and the prehistoric culture of southern Europe. See also
Dr. W. Warde Fowler’s “Ancient Italy and Modern Borneo” in the _Journal
of Roman Studies_ (1916).
[78] Sir Arthur Evans suggests that in America sign-language arose
before speech, because the sign-language is common to all Indians in
North America, whereas the languages are different. See his
_Anthropology and the Classics_.--G. M.
Samuel Butler (_Note Books_) suggests that language was “originally
confined to a few scholars.”--G. Wh.
[79] See article “Grammar” in the _Encyclopædia Britannica_.
[80] Sir H. H. Johnston gives this estimate in his _Comparative Study of
the Bantu and Semi-Bantu Languages_.
[81] Greek--ox-ford.
[82] Ratsel (quoted in the _Ency. Brit._, art. “Caspian”).
[83] _Encyclopædia Britannica_, article “Japan.”
[84] The four characters indicating “Affairs, query, imperative, old,”
placed in that order, for example, represent “Why walk in the ancient
ways?” The Chinaman gives the bare cores of his meaning; the Englishman
gets to it by a bold metaphor. He may be talking of conservatism in
cooking or in bookbinding, but he will say: “Why walk in the ancient
ways?” Mr. Arthur Waley, in the interesting essay on Chinese thought and
poetry which precedes his book, _170 Chinese Poems_ (Constable, 1918),
makes it clear how in these fields Chinese thought is kept practical and
restricted by the limitations upon metaphor the linguistic structure of
Chinese imposes. See also Hirst, _Ancient History of China_, ch. vii.
[85] See Farrand, _The American Nation_, and E. S. Payne, _History of
the New World called America_, and note footnote to § 1 of this chapter.
[86] These are discussed compactly, but with very special knowledge, by
Sir Harry Johnston in his little book on _The Opening up of Africa_, in
the Home University Library. The student who finds this subject of
philological history interesting, should read the introduction to the
same writer’s _Comparative Study of the Bantu and Semi-Bantu Languages_.
[87] The Polynesians appear to be a later eastward extension of the dark
whites or brown peoples. See again § 4 of chap. xiii.
[88] “The Keltic group of languages, of which it has been said that they
combined an Aryan vocabulary with a Berber (or Iberian) grammar.” Sir
Harry Johnston. See also Sir John Rhys, The Welsh People, Mac Neilh’s
_Phases in Irish History_, and various articles by Prof. Stewart
Macalister in the _Irish Monthly_ (1917-1919).
[89] See Schrader (translated by Jevons), _Prehistoric Antiquities of
the Aryan Peoples_, p. 404. But though the word Aryan was undoubtedly in
its original application the name only of the Indo-Iranian people, it
has been used in modern discussion for more than half a century in the
wider sense. A word was badly wanted for that purpose, and “Aryan” was
taken; failing “Aryan” we should be obliged to fall back on
“Indo-Germanic” or “Indo-European,” terms equally open to objection and
ugly and clumsy to employ.
[90] But these may have been an originally Semitic people who learnt an
Aryan speech.
[91] On this point see Perry, _An Ethnological Study of Warfare_, vol.
lxi., Mem. Manchester Lit. and Phil. Soc., and also published separately
1917.--G. Wh.
[92] Fools, I think, were not wits, but deformed idiots, whom the
company teased and laughed at. Certainly so in Roman and mediæval times.
They do not occur in the Hellenic Age, except at courts in Asia Minor;
but they must have been present in pre-Hellenic kingdoms; cf. end of
_Iliad I._, where the gods laugh consumedly not at Hephaestus’ wit, but
at his lameness. The idealized Fool of Shakespeare is, like the
idealized Hermit of the romances, the invention of later days.--G. M
[93] The Aryans developed their languages and their ballads and epics
between 10,000 B.C. and the historical period. Very much later in time,
probably within the last 3,000 years, the nomadic Mongolian peoples of
Asia began to develop their Ural-Altaic speech, under similar
conditions, by similar poetic uses. Later we shall note the presence of
bards at the court of Attila the Hun.
[94] It is suggested in the text that blind men became bards: Myres says
that bards were (artificially) blinded to stop them from going
elsewhere--the tribe wanted to keep them. The poetic touch is that “the
Muses” blind the poet. Not a bit of it. (Homer, being a blind bard,
describes things by sound--the twanging arrow, the far-thundering sea,
the noise of the chariot going through the gate. He is audile, not
visual.)--E. B.
But in this matter note the adjectives in the passage quoted here from
the _Iliad_; they are all visual.--G. H. M.
Mr. L. Lloyd, of the experimental station at Cheshunt, tells me he has
seen in Rhodesia the musician and singer of a troupe of native dancers
who had been blinded by his chief to prevent him leaving the
village.--H. G. W.
[95] G.M.
[96] The _Iliad_ describes what Chadwick calls a Heroic Age: _i.e._ a
time when the barbarians or nomads are breaking up an old civilization.
Men are led by chiefs who live by plunder and conquest and make
themselves kingdoms. The tribe is broken up; instead comes the comitatus
of casual men who attach themselves to a particular chief, as Phœnix or
Patroclus to Achilles. Religion is broken up, being by origin local.
Hence there is almost no religion in the _Iliad_ or the
_Nibelungenlied_. Almost no magic. No family life. Tremendous booty, and
_la carrière ouverte aux talents_ with a vengeance.--G. M.
[97] _Some Aspects of Hindu Life in India._ Paper read to the Royal
Society of Arts, Nov. 28, 1918.
[98] No Greek heroes, in Homer or the heroic tradition, ever get drunk.
In the comic tradition they do, and of course centaurs and barbarians
do.--G. M.
[99] Babylonian expedition of the University of Pennsylvania.
[100] H. R. Hall, _Ancient History of the Near East_, says it has been
found in Palestine.--S. H.
The late Mr. Aaron Aaronson found a real wild wheat upon the slopes of
Mt. Hermon. See Bulletin 274, Plant Indus. Bureau, U. S. Dept. of
Agriculture; and Stapf in Suppl. to the _Jour. of the Board of Agri.,
Lond._, vol. xvii, No. 3.--E. J. R.
[101] We shall use “Mesopotamia” here loosely for the Euphrates-Tigris
country generally. Strictly, of course, as its name indicates,
Mesopotamia (mid rivers) means only the country _between_ those two
great rivers. That country in the fork was probably very marshy and
unhealthy in early times (Sayce), until it was drained by man, and the
early cities grew up west of the Euphrates and east of the Tigris.
Probably these rivers then flowed separately into the Persian Gulf.
[102] My friend Colonel Lawrence tells me that the movement among the
Arabs is somewhat as follows: (1) the sessile village cultivators are
pushed out by over-population into the desert--very reluctantly; (2)
they wander in the desert for a thousand years or so--as a stick pushed
into the water gets carried about for a long way; (3) they are pushed
again out of the desert, back again into sessile life by
starvation--very reluctantly (they have learned to love the desert); and
when they come back into sessile life they are on the other side--_i.e._
having started in west Arabia, they land in Mesopotamia. Thus they
wander a thousand years or so, and end up thousands of miles from where
they started.--E. B.
[103] Sir H. H. Johnston is inclined to believe that a common late
Neolithic and early bronze culture spread widely in this primitive
world. He links the Dravidian languages of India--some of which group
are to be found in Beluchistan and the eastern fringe of Persia--with
certain languages in the Caucasian Mountains, and these again with
Basque. He would bring the Sumerians, the early Cretans, and the early
peoples of Asia Minor into this early “brown” or dark white culture
before the Aryans, Semites, or Hamites developed their language cultures
and thrust across this band of primordial civilization. He connects
these “class and prefix” languages with the creation of the African
Bantu, but that is a speculation beyond the scope of this present work.
A series of articles on this subject by the Rev. W. Crabtree will be
found in the _Journal of the African Society_. The connection of
Sumerian and Bantu was first suggested by Sir Richard Burton in 1885.
These views are in complete accordance with Elliot Smith’s suggestion of
a widespread heliolithic culture already dealt with in chap. xiii, § 4,
p. 146
[104] Excavations conducted at Eridu by Capt. R. Campbell Thompson
during the recent war have revealed an early Neolithic agricultural
stage, before the invention of writing or the use of bronze, beneath the
earliest Sumerian foundations. The crops were cut by sickles of
earthenware. Capt. Thompson thinks that these pre-Sumerian people were
not of Sumerian race, but proto-Elamites. Entirely similar Neolithic
remains have been found at Susa, once the chief city of Elam.
[105] Sayce, in _Babylonian and Assyrian Life_, estimates that in 6500
B.C. Eridu was on the seacoast.
[106] Authorities vary upon this date. Some put back Sargon I to 3750
B.C. This latter was his traditional date based on Babylonian records.
[107] Of unknown language and race, “neither Sumerians nor Semites,”
says Sayce. Their central city was Susa. Their archæology is still
largely an unworked mine. They are believed by some, says Sir H. H.
Johnston, to have been negroid in type. There is a strong negroid strain
in the modern people of Elam.
[108] For most of these dates here Winckler in _Helmolt’s World History_
has been followed.
[109] II. Kings xv. 29, and xvi. 7 _et seq._
[110] II. Kings xvii. 3.
[111] To be murdered by his sons.
[112] Winckler (Craig), _History of Babylonia and Assyria_.
[113] “The original home or centre of development of this ‘Dynastic’
Egyptian type seems to have been in southern or south-western Arabia.
This region of south-western and southern Arabia, ten to fifteen
thousand years ago, was probably an even better favoured province than
it is at the present day, when it still bears the Roman designation of
Arabia Felix--so much of the rest of this gaunt, lava-covered,
sand-strewn peninsula being decidedly ‘infelix.’ It has high
mountains--a certain degree of rainfall on them, and was anciently
clothed in rich forests before the camels, goats, and sheep of Neolithic
and Bronze Age man nibbled away much of this verdure. Above all there
grew trees oozing with delicious-scented resins or gums. These, when
civilization dawned on the world, became very precious and an offering
of sweet savour to the civilized man’s gods, because so grateful to his
own nostrils.” _Africa_, by Sir H. H. Johnston.
[114] 3733 B.C., Wallis Budge.
[115] But compare the citation of _Beowulf_ in Chap. XV, § 2.--R. L. C.
[116] The great pyramid is 450 feet high and its side 700 feet long. It
is calculated (says Wallis Budge) to weigh 4,883,000 tons. All this
stone was lugged into place chiefly by human muscle.
[117] There are variants to these names, and to most Egyptian names, for
few self-respecting Egyptologists will tolerate the spelling of their
colleagues. One may find, for instance, Thethmosis, Thoutmosis,
Tahutmes, Thutmose, or Thethmosis; Amunothph, Amenhotep or Amenothes. A
pleasing variation is to break up the name, as, for instance, Amen
Hetep. This particular little constellation of variants is given here
not only because it is amusing, but because it is desirable that the
reader should know such variations exist. For most names the rule of
this book has been to follow whatever usage has established itself in
English literature, regardless of the possible contemporary
pronunciation. Amenophis, for example, has been so written in English
books for two centuries. It came into the language by indirect routes,
but it is now as fairly established as is Damascus as the English name
of a Syrian town. Nevertheless, there are limits to this classicism. The
writer, after some vacillation, has abandoned Oliver Goldsmith and Dr.
Johnson in the case of “Peisistratus” and “Keltic,” which were formerly
spelt “Pisistratus” and “Celtic.”
[118] _China and the League of Nations_, a pamphlet by Mr.
Liang-Chi-Chao. (_Pekin Leader_ Office.)
[119] Here we touch on highly controversial matters. The reader
interested in the question of the separate origin of the American
civilization should consult _Nature_, Jan. 27, 1916, Spinden and Elliot
Smith in discussion.
[120] F. Ratzel, _History of Mankind_.
[121] Sayce.
[122] Mosso, _The Dawn of Mediterranean Civilization_.--R. L. G.
[123] Cecil Torr, _Ancient Ships_.
[124] See Evans’ _Prehistoric Tombs of Cnossos_.
[125] This is, I think, too dogmatic about Helen. True, raids on women
were a real cause of war, but they were also a very favourite _ficelle_
of fiction. A war with Troy might easily arise by the carrying off of a
woman. But why was Troy destroyed six several times? It looks to me as
if there was some strong motive for building just there, and an equally
strong motive for great confederacies destroying the city when
built.--G. M.
Walter Leaf in his _Homer and History_ is in agreement with G. M. on
this point.--G. Wh.
[126] There were no domesticated camels in Africa until after the
Persian conquest of Egypt. This must have greatly restricted the desert
routes. (See Bunbury, _History of Ancient Geography_, note to Chap.
VIII.) But the Sahara desert of 3000 or 2000 years ago was less parched
and sterile than it is to-day. From rock engravings we may deduce the
theory that the desert was crossed from oasis to oasis by riding oxen
and by ox-carts: perhaps, also, on horses and asses. The camel as a
beast of transport was seemingly not introduced into North Africa till
the Arab invasions of the seventh century A.D. The fossil remains of
camels are found in Algeria, and wild camels may have lingered in the
wastes of the Sahara and Somaliland till the domesticated camel was
introduced. The Nubian wild ass also seems to have extended its range to
the Sahara.--H. H. J.
[127] There was Sumerian trade organized round the temples before the
Semites got into Babylonia. See Hall and King, _Archæological
Discoveries in Western Asia_.--E. B.
[128] Iron bars of fixed weight were used for coin in Britain. Cæsar,
_De Bello Gallico_.--G. Wh.
[129] The earliest coinage of the west coast of Asia Minor was in
electrum, a mixture of gold and silver, and there is an interesting
controversy as to whether the first issues were stamped by cities,
temples, or private bankers.--P. G.
[130] Small change was in existence before the time of Alexander. The
Athenians had a range of exceedingly small silver coins running almost
down to the size of a pinhead, which were generally carried in the
mouth; a character in Aristophanes was suddenly assaulted, and swallowed
his change in consequence.--P. G.
[131] There is an inn-keeper in Aristophanes, but it may be inferred
from the circumstance that she is represented as letting lodgings in
hell that the early inn left much to be desired.--P. G.
[132] See the _Encyclopædia Brit._, Article _China_, p. 218.
[133] The writer’s friend, Mr. L. Y. Chen, thinks that this is only
partially true. He thinks that the emperors insisted upon a minute and
rigorous study of the set classics in order to check intellectual
innovation. This was especially the case with the Ming emperors, the
first of whom, when reorganizing the examination system on a narrower
basis, said definitely, “This will bring all the intellectuals of the
world into my trap.” The Five Classics and the Four Books have
imprisoned the mind of China.
[134] The Libyan alphabet survived in North Africa until a century ago,
and was still used then for correspondence. It was supposed to be
extinct, but in 1897 Sir Arthur Evans and Mr. J. L. Myres saw what
looked like ancient Cretan lettering on some dyed skins from the Sahara
in the bazaar at Tripoli. It was the ancient alphabet still in use for
commercial signs.--E. B.
[135] The Sumerians allowed much more freedom and authority to women
than the Semites. They had priestess-queens, and one of their great
divinities was a goddess, Ishtar.
[136] See Johnson’s _Byeways of British Archæology_.
[137] Many Christian churches, almost all, indeed, built between the
fifth century and the Renaissance, are oriented to the east. St. Peter’s
at Rome is oriented east and west.
[138] In his _Dawn of Astronomy_.
[139] Legrain’s _Le Temps des Rois d’Ur_ (Bibliothèque de l’Ecole des
Hautes Etudes) was useful here.
[140] Cp. Moses and the Egyptian Magicians.
[141] According to Winckler, Sargon II, unlike his son, was pro-priest,
and his usurpation of the throne was the result of an intrigue of the
Babylonian priests against the feudal Assyrian military system of
Tiglath Pileser III.
[142] See the last two verses of the Second Book of Chronicles, and
Ezra, ch. i.
[143] A book of the utmost interest and value here is Breasted’s
_Religion and Thought in Ancient Egypt_.
[144] See S. Sharpe’s _Egyptian Mythology and Egyptian Christianity_.
[145] Akhnaton lost some or all his father’s Syrian conquests.--G. W. B.