Et, rose, elle a vécu ce que vivent les roses--

the odes to Marie de' Medici and to Louis XIII., and a few other pieces

comprise all that is really worth remembering of him. His prose work is

much more abundant, not less remarkable for care as to style and

expression, and of greater positive value. It consists of some

translations of Livy and Seneca, and of a very large number of

interesting and admirably written letters, many of which are addressed

to Peiresc, the man of science of whom Gassendi has left a delightful

Latin life. It contains also a most curious commentary on Desportes, in

which Malherbe's minute and carping style of verbal criticism is

displayed on the great scale.

The chief authorities for the biography of Malherbe are the _Vie de

Malherbe_ by his friend and pupil Racan, and the long _Historiette_

which Tallemant des Réaux has devoted to him. The standard edition is

the admirable one of Ludovic Lalanne (5 vols., Paris, 1862-1869). Of

the poems only, there is an excellent and handsome little issue in the

_Nouvelle collection Jannet_ (Paris, 1874). Of modern works devoted to

him, _La Doctrine de Malherbe_, by G. Brunot (1891), is not only the

most important but a work altogether capital in regard to the study of

French language and literature. Others are A. Gasté, _La Jeunesse de

Malherbe_ (1890); V. Bourrienne, _Points obscurs dans la vie normande

de Malherbe_ (1895); and the duc de Broglie's "Malherbe" in _Les

Grands écrivains français_. On his position in French and general

critical history, G. Saintsbury's _History of Criticism_, vol. ii.,

may be consulted. (G. Sa.)

MALIBRAN, MARIE FÉLICITÉ (1808-1836), operatic singer, daughter of

Manoel Garcia, was born in Paris on the 24th of March 1808. Her father

was then a member of the company of the Théâtre des Italiens, and she

accompanied him to Italy and London. She possessed a soprano voice of

unusual beauty and phenomenal compass, which was carefully cultivated

by her father. She was only seventeen when, in consequence of an

indisposition of Madame Pasta, she was suddenly asked to take her place

in _The Barber of Seville_ at Covent Garden. She was forthwith engaged

for the remaining six weeks of the season, and then followed her father

to New York, where she appeared in _Othello_, _The Barber of Seville_,

_Don Juan_, _Romeo and Juliet_, _Tancred_. Her gifts as an actress were

on a par with her magnificent voice, and her gaiety made her

irresistible in light opera, although her great triumphs were obtained

chiefly in tragic parts. She married a French banker of New York, named

Malibran, who was much older than herself. The marriage was an unhappy

one, and Mme Malibran returned alone to Europe in 1828, when she began

the series of representations at the Théâtre des Italiens, which excited

an enthusiasm in Paris only exceeded by the reception she received in

the principal towns of Italy. She was formally divorced from Malibran in

1835, and married the Belgian violinist, Charles de Beriot; but she died

of fever on the 23rd of September 1836.

See _Memoirs of Mme Malibran by the comtesse de Merlin and other

intimate friends, with a selection from her correspondence_ (2 vols.,

1840); and M. Teneo, _La Malibran, d'après des documents inédits_, in

_Sammelbände der internationalen Musik-Gesellschaft_ (Leipzig, 1906).

MALIC ACID (HYDROXYETHYLENE SUCCINIC ACID), C4H6O5, an organic acid

found abundantly in the juices of many plants, particularly in

mountain-ash berries, in unripe apples and in grapes. The acid potassium

salt is also found in the leaves and stalks of rhubarb. Since the acid

contains an asymmetric carbon atom, it can exist in three forms, a

dextro-rotatory, a laevo-rotatory and an inactive form; the acid

obtained in the various synthetical processes is the inactive form. It

may be prepared by heating racemic acid (see TARTARIC ACID) with fuming

hydriodic acid; by heating fumaric acid (q.v.) with water at 150-200°

C.; by the action of nitrous acid on inactive aspartic acid; and by the

action of moist silver oxide on monobromsuccinic acid. It forms

deliquescent crystals, which are readily soluble in alcohol and melt at

100° C. When heated for some time at 130° C. it yields fumaric acid

(q.v.), and on rapid heating at 180° C. gives maleic anhydride and

fumaric acid. It yields coumarins when warmed with sulphuric acid and

phenols (H. v. Pechmann, _Ber._, 1884, 17, 929, 1649 et seq.). Potassium

bichromate oxidizes it to malonic acid; nitric acid oxidizes it to

oxalic acid; and hydriodic acid reduces it to succinic acid. The

inactive variety may be split into the component active forms by means

of its cinchonine salt (G. J. W. Bremer, _Ber._, 1880, 13, 352).

MALIGNANT (Lat. _malignus_, evil-disposed, from _maligenus_), wicked, of

a malicious or wilfully evil disposition. The word was early applied by

the Protestants to the Romanists, with an allusion to the "congregation

of evil doers" (Vulgate _Ecclesiam malignantium_) of Psalm xxvi. 5. In

English history, during the Great Rebellion, the name was given to the

Royalists by the Parliamentary party. In the Great Remonstrance of 1641

occur the words "the malignant partie, wherof the Archbishop (Laud) and

the earl of Strafford being heads." The name throughout the period had

special reference to the religious differences between the parties. In

medical science, the term "malignant" is applied to a particularly

virulent or dangerous form which a disease may take, or to a tumour or

growth of rapid growth, extension to the lymphatic glands, and

recurrence after operation.

MALIK IBN ANAS (c. 718-795), the founder of the Malikite school of canon

law, was born at Medina about A.D. 718: the precise date is not certain.

He studied and passed his life there, and came to be regarded as the

greatest local authority in theology and law. (For his legal system and

its history see MAHOMMEDAN LAW.) His life was one of extreme honour and

dignity, but uneventful, being given to study, lecturing on law and

acting as mufti and judge. Only two episodes stand out in his biography.

When Mahommed ibn 'Abdallah, the 'Alid, rose in A.D. 762 at Medina

against the 'Abbasids, Malik gave a _fatwa_, or legal opinion, that the

oath of allegiance to the 'Abbasids was invalid, as extorted by force.

For this independence he was severely scourged by the 'Abbasid governor,

who, apparently, did not dare to go beyond scourging with a man of his

standing with the people. The second episode gave equal proof of

independence. In 795 Harun al-Rashid made the pilgrimage, came with two

of his sons to Medina, and sat at the feet of Malik as he lectured in

the mosque. The story, legendary or historical, adds that Malik had

refused to go to the caliph, saying that it was for the student to come

to his teacher. Late in life he seems to have turned to asceticism and

contemplation. It is said that he retired from all active, public life

and even neglected plain, public duties, replying to reproaches, "Not

every one can speak in his own excuse" (Ibn Qutaiba, _Ma 'arif_, 250).

He is also entered among the early ascetic Sufis (cf. _Fihrist_, 183).

He died in Medina, A.D. 795.

For a description of his principal book, the _Muwatta'_, see

Goldziher's _Muhammedanische Studien_, ii. 213 sqq. He wrote also a

Koran commentary, now apparently lost, and a hortatory epistle to

Harun al-Rashid. See further, de Slane's trans. of Ibn Khallikan, ii.

545 sqq.; von Kremer, _Culturgeschichte_, i. 477 sqq.; Brockelmann,

_Gesch. der arab. Litt._, i. 175 sqq.; Macdonald, _Muslim Theology,

&c._, 99 sqq. and index; _Fihrist_, 198 seq.; Nawawi, 530 sqq.

(D. B. Ma.)

MALINES (Flemish, _Mechelen_, called in the middle ages by the Latin

name Mechlinia, whence the spelling Mechlin), an ancient and important

city of Belgium, and the seat since 1559 of the only archbishopric in

that country. Pop. (1904), 58,101. The name is supposed to be derived

from _maris linea_, and to indicate that originally the sea came up to

it. It is now situated on the Dyle, and is in the province of Antwerp,

lying about half-way between Antwerp and Brussels. The chief importance

of Malines is derived from the fact that it is in a sense the religious

capital of Belgium--the archbishop being the primate of the Catholic

Church in that country. The archbishop's palace is in a picturesque

situation, and dates from the creation of the dignity. The principal

building in the city is the exceedingly fine cathedral dedicated to St

Rombaut. This cathedral was begun in the 12th and finished early in the

14th century, and although modified in the 15th after a fire, it remains

one of the most remarkable specimens of Gothic architecture in Europe.

The massive tower of over 300 ft., which is described as unfinished

because the original intention was to carry it to 500 ft., is its most

striking external feature. The people of Malines gained in the old

distich--"gaudet Mechlinia stultis"--the reputation of being "fools,"

because one of the citizens on seeing the moon through the dormer

windows of St Rombaut called out that the place was on fire, and his

fellow-citizens, following his example, endeavoured to put out the

conflagration until they realized the truth. The cathedral contains a

fine altar-piece by Van Dyck, and the pulpit is in carved oak of the

17th century. Another old palace is that of Margaret of Austria, regent

for Charles V., which has been carefully preserved and is now used as a

court of justice. In the church of Notre Dame (16th century) is Rubens'

masterpiece "the miraculous draught of fishes," and in that of St John

is a fine triptych by the same master. Malines, although no longer

famous for its lace, carries on a large trade in linen, needles,

furniture and oil, while as a junction for the line from Ghent to

Louvain and Liège, as well as for that from Antwerp to Brussels and the

south, its station is one of the busiest in Belgium, and this fact has

contributed to the general prosperity of the city.

The lordship of Malines was conferred as a separate fief by Pippin the

Short on his kinsman Count Adon in 754. In the 9th century Charles the

Bald bestowed the fief on the bishop of Liége, and after being shared

between Brabant and Flanders it passed into the hands of Philip the

Bold, founder of the house of Burgundy, in 1384. During the religious

troubles of the 16th century Malines suffered greatly, and in 1572 it

was sacked by Alva's troops during three days. In the wars of the 17th

and 18th centuries it was besieged many times and captured by the

French, Dutch and English on several occasions. The French finally

removed the fortifications in 1804, since which year it has been an open

town.

MALLANWAN, a town in Hardoi district, the United Provinces, India. Pop.

(1901), 11,158. Under native rule the town possessed considerable

political importance, and upon the British annexation of Oudh it was

selected as the headquarters of the district, but was abandoned in

favour of Hardoi after the Mutiny. Saltpetre and brass utensils are

manufactured.

MALLARMÉ, FRANÇOIS RENÉ AUGUSTE (1755-1835), French Revolutionist, the

son of a lawyer, was born at Nancy on the 25th of February 1755. He was

brought up in his father's profession, and was appointed

_procureur-syndic_ of the district of Pont-à-Mousson. During the

Revolution he was elected by the department of Meurthe deputy to the

Legislative Assembly and the Convention, where he attached himself to

the Mountain and voted for the death of Louis XVI. He was elected

president of the Convention on the 30th of May 1793, and by his weakness

during the crisis of the following day contributed much to the success

of the insurrection against the Girondists. He took an active part in

the _levée-en-masse_, and in November 1793 was given the task of

establishing the revolutionary government in the departments of Meuse

and Moselle, where he gained an unenviable notoriety by ordering the

execution of the sentence of death decreed by the revolutionary tribunal

on some young girls at Verdun who had offered flowers to the Prussians

when they entered the town. After the fall of Robespierre he joined the

group of "Thermidorians" and was sent on mission to the south of France,

where he closed the Jacobin club at Toulouse and set free a number of

imprisoned "suspects." On the 1st of June 1795 he was denounced and

arrested, but was soon set at liberty. In 1796 he was appointed by the

Directory commissioner for the organization of the departments of Dyle

and Mont-Tonnerre. Under the empire he was receiver of the _droits

réunis_ at Nancy, and lost his money in 1814 in raising a levy of

volunteers. Appointed sub-prefect of Avesnes during the Hundred Days, he

was imprisoned by the Prussians in revenge for the death of the maidens

of Verdun, and lived in exile during the Restoration. He returned to

France after the revolution of 1830, and died at Richemont

(Seine-Inférieure) on the 25th of July 1835.

MALLARMÉ, STÉPHANE (1842-1898), French poet and theorist, was born at

Paris, on the 18th of March 1842. His life was simple and without event.

His small income as professor of English in a French college was

sufficient for his needs, and, with his wife and daughter, he divided

the year between a fourth-floor flat in Paris and a cottage on the banks

of the Seine. His Tuesday evening receptions, which did so much to form

the thought of the more interesting of the younger French men of

letters, were almost as important a part of his career as the few

carefully elaborated books which he produced at long intervals.

_L'Après-midi d'un faune_ (1876) and other fragments of his verse and

prose had been known to a few people long before the publication of the

_Poésies complètes_ of 1887, in a facsimile of his clear and elegant

handwriting, and of the Pages of 1891 and the _Vers et prose_ of 1893.

His remarkable translation of poems of Poe appeared in 1888, "The Raven"

having been published as early as 1875, with illustrations by Manet.

_Divagations_, his own final edition of his prose, was published in

1897, and a more or less complete edition of the _Poésies_,

posthumously, in 1899. He died at Valvins, Fontainebleau, on the 9th of

September 1898. All his life Mallarmé was in search of a new aesthetics,

and his discoveries by the way were often admirable. But he was too

critical ever to create freely, and too limited ever to create

abundantly. His great achievement remains unfinished, and all that he

left towards it is not of equal value. There are a few poems and a few

pieces of imaginative prose which have the haunting quality of Gustave

Moreau's pictures, with the same jewelled magnificence, mysterious and

yet definite. His later work became more and more obscure, as he seemed

to himself to have abolished limit after limit which holds back speech

from the expression of the absolute. Finally, he abandoned punctuation

in verse, and invented a new punctuation, along with a new construction,

for prose. Patience in the study of so difficult an author has its

reward. No one in our time has vindicated with more pride the

self-sufficiency of the artist in his struggle with the material world.

To those who knew him only by his writings his conversation was

startling in its clearness; it was always, like all his work, at the

service of a few dignified and misunderstood ideas.

See also Paul Verlaine, _Les Poètes maudits_ (1884); J. Lemaître, _Les

Contemporains_ (5th series, 1891); Albert Moekel, _Stéphane Mallarmé,

un héros_ (1899); E. W. Gosse, _French Profiles_ (1905) and A. Symons,

_The Symbolist Movement in Literature_ (1900). A complete bibliography

is given in the _Poètes d'aujourd'hui_ (1880-1900, 11th ed., 1905) of

MM. A. van Bever and P. Léautaud. (A. Sy.)

MALLECO, a province of southern Chile, once a part of the Indian

territory of Araucania (q.v.), lying between the provinces of Bio-Bio on

the N. and E., Cautin on the S. and Arauco on the W. Area, 2973 sq. m.

Pop. (1895), 98,032. It belongs to the rainy, forested region of

southern Chile, and is thinly populated, a considerable part of its

population being Araucanian Indians, who occupy districts in the Andean

foothills. Gold placer mining has attracted some attention, but the

output is small. The principal industries are cattle and wheat raising

and timber-cutting. The capital is Angol (pop., 7056 in 1895; estimated

at 7638 in 1902), a small town in the northern part of the province, on

the Malleco river, and a station on the Traiguen branch of the state

railway. Traiguen (pop., 5732 in 1895; estimated at 7099 in 1902) in the

southern part of the province is the second town in importance, and

Victoria (pop., 6989 in 1895; estimated at 10,002 in 1902), about 20 m.

E. of the last-named town, was for a time the terminal station of the

main line of the railway.

MALLEMUCK, from the German rendering of the Dutch _Mallemugge_ (which

originally meant small flies or midges that madly whirl round a light),

a name given by the early Dutch Arctic voyagers to the Fulmar (q.v.), of

which the English form is nowadays most commonly applied by our sailors

to the smaller albatrosses, of about the size of a goose, met with in

the Southern Ocean--corrupted into "molly mawk," or "mollymauk." A

number of species have been identified. _Diomedea irrorata_ of West Peru

is sooty-brown with white mottlings and a white head; _D. migripes_ of

the North Pacific is similar in colour but with white only near the eye

and at the base of the tail and bill; _D. immutabilis_ of Japan is

darker but has a white head. _D. melanophrys_ of the southern oceans has

been found in summer both in California, in England, and as far north as

the Faeroes. According to J. Gould the latter is the commonest species

of albatross inhabiting the Southern Ocean, and its gregarious habits

and familiar disposition make it well known to every voyager to or from

Australia, for it is equally common in the Atlantic as well as the

Pacific. The back, wings and tail are of a blackish-grey, but all the

rest of the plumage is white, except a dusky superciliary streak, whence

its name of black-browed albatross, as also its scientific epithet, are

taken. The bill of the adult is of an ochreous-yellow, while that of the

young is dark. This species breeds on the Falkland Islands. _D. bulleri_

of the New Zealand seas is greyish-brown, with white underparts and rump

and ashy head. _Diomedea_ (or _Thalassogeron_) _culminata_ and

_chlororhyncha_ of the southern seas, _D._ (or _T._) _cauta_ of

Tasmania, _salvini_ of New Zealand and _layardi_ of the Cape resemble

_D. bulleri_, but have a strip of naked skin between the plates of the

maxilla towards its base. H. N. Moseley (_Notes of a Naturalist_, 130)

describes _D. culminata_ as making a cylindrical nest of grass, sedge

and clay, with a shallow basin atop and an overhanging rim--the whole

being about 14 in. in diameter and 10 in height. The bird lays a single

white egg, which is held in a sort of pouch, formed by the skin of the

abdomen, while she is incubating. The feet of _D. bulleri_ are red, of

_D. chlororhyncha_ flesh-coloured, of the others yellow. (A. N.)

MALLESON, GEORGE BRUCE (1825-1898), Indian officer and author, was born

at Wimbledon, on the 8th of May 1825. Educated at Winchester, he

obtained a cadetship in the Bengal infantry in 1842, and served through

the second Burmese War. His subsequent appointments were in the civil

line, the last being that of guardian to the young maharaja of Mysore.

He retired with the rank of colonel in 1877, having been created C.S.I.

in 1872. He died at Kensington, on the 1st of March 1898. He was a

voluminous writer, his first work to attract attention being the famous

"Red Pamphlet," published at Calcutta in 1857, when the Mutiny was at

its height. He continued, and considerably rewrote the _History of the

Indian Mutiny_ (6 vols., 1878-1880), which was begun but left unfinished

by Sir John Kaye. Among his other books the most valuable are _History

of the French in India_ (2nd ed., 1893) and _The Decisive Battles of

India_ (3rd ed., 1888).

MALLET (or MALLOCH), DAVID (?1705-1765), Scottish poet and dramatist,

the son of a Perthshire farmer, was born in that county, probably in

1705. In 1717 he went to the high school at Edinburgh, and some three

years later to the university, where he made the friendship of James

Thomson, author of _The Seasons_. As early as 1720 he began to publish

short poems in the manner of the period, a number of which appeared

during the next few years in collections such as the _Edinburgh

Miscellany_ and Allan Ramsay's _Tea Table Miscellany_, in which his

ballad "William and Margaret" was published in 1724. For some years from

1723 he was private tutor to the duke of Montrose's sons, with whom he

travelled on the Continent in 1727. His real name was Malloch; but this

he changed to Mallet in 1724. In 1735 he took the M.A. degree at Oxford.

He had already made the friendship of Pope, whose vanity he flattered in

a poem on _Verbal Criticism_, in 1733; and through Pope he became

acquainted with Bolingbroke and other Tory politicians, especially those

attached to the party of the prince of Wales, who in 1742 appointed

Mallet to be his paid secretary. After Pope's death, in 1744, Mallet, at

the instigation of Bolingbroke and forgetful of past favours and

friendship, vilified the poet's memory, thereby incurring the resentment

of Pope's friends. For his services as a party pamphleteer, in which

character he published an attack on Admiral Byng, Mallet received from

Lord Bute a lucrative sinecure in 1760. He died on the 21st of April

1765. Mallet was a small man, in his younger days something of a dandy

and inordinately vain. He was twice married; by his first wife he had a

daughter, Dorothy, who married Pietro Paolo Celesia, a Genoese

gentleman, and was the author of several poems and plays, notably

_Almida_, produced by Garrick at Drury Lane in 1771.

Mallet's own works included several plays, some of which were produced

by Garrick, who was Mallet's personal friend. _Eurydice_, a tragedy,

with prologue and epilogue by Aaron Hill, was produced at Drury Lane in

1731; _Mustapha_, also a tragedy, had considerable success at the same

theatre in 1739; in 1740, in collaboration with Thomson, he produced the

masque _Alfred_, of which he published a new version in 1751, after

Thomson's death, claiming it to be almost entirely his own work. This

masque is notable as containing the well-known patriotic song, "Rule

Britannia," the authorship of which has been attributed to Mallet,

although he allowed it to appear without protest in his lifetime with

Thomson's name attached. His other writings include _Poems on Several

Occasions_ (1743); _Amyntor and Theodora, or the Hermit_ (1747); another

volume of _Poems_ (1762).

In 1759 a collected edition of Mallet's _Works_ was published in three

volumes; and in 1857 his _Ballads and Songs_ were edited by F.

Dinsdale with notes, and a biographical memoir of the author.

MALLET, PAUL HENRI (1730-1807), Swiss writer, was born on the 20th of

August 1730, in Geneva. After having been educated there, he became

tutor in the family of the count of Calenberg in Saxony. In 1752 he was

appointed professor of _belles lettres_ to the academy at Copenhagen. He

was naturally attracted to the study of the ancient literature and

history of his adopted country, and in 1755 he published the first

fruits of his researches, under the title _Introduction à l'histoire du

Danemarck où l'on traite de la religion, des moeurs, des lois, et des

usages des anciens Danois_. A second part, more particularly relating to

the ancient literature of the country, _Monuments de la mythologie et de

la poesie des Celtes, et particulièrement des anciens Scandinaves_, was

issued in 1756, and was also translated into Danish. A translation into

English, with notes and preface, by Bishop Percy, was issued in 1770

under the title of _Northern Antiquities_ (republished with additions in

1847). The book had a wide circulation, and attracted much attention on

account of its being the first (though a very defective) translation

into French of the _Edda_. The king of Denmark showed his appreciation

by choosing Mallet to be preceptor of the crown prince. In 1760 he

returned to Geneva, and became professor of history in his native city.

While there he was requested by the czarina to undertake the education

of the heir-apparent of Russia (afterwards the czar Paul I.), but

declined the honour. An invitation more congenial to his tastes led to

his accompanying Lord Mountstuart in his travels through Italy and

thence to England, where he was presented at court and commissioned to

write the history of the house of Brunswick. He had previously received

a similar commission from the landgrave of Hesse-Cassel for the

preparation of a history of the house of Hesse, and both works were

completed in 1785. The quietude of a literary life was rudely broken by

the shock of the Revolution, to which he was openly hostile. His

leanings to the unpopular side were so obnoxious to his fellow-citizens

that he was obliged to quit his native country in 1792, and remained in

exile till 1801. He died at Geneva, on the 8th of February 1807.

A memoir of his life and writings, by Sismondi, was published at

Geneva in 1807. Besides the _Introduction to the History of Denmark_,

his principal works are: _Histoire du Danemarck_ (3 vols., Copenhagen,

1758-1777); _Histoire de la maison de Hesse_ (4 vols., 1767-1785);

_Histoire de la maison de Brunswick_ (4 vols., 1767-1785); _Histoire

de la maison et des états du Mecklenbourg_ (1796); _Histoire des

Suisses ou Helvétiens_ (4 vols., Geneva, 1803) (mainly an abridgment

of J. von Müller's great history); _Histoire de la ligue hanséatique_

(1805).

MALLET, ROBERT (1810-1881), Irish engineer, physicist and geologist, was

born in Dublin, on the 3rd of June 1810. He was educated at Trinity

College in that city, and graduated B.A. in 1830. Trained as an

engineer, he was elected M.Inst.C.E. in 1842; he built in 1848-1849 the

Fastnet Rock lighthouse, south-west of Cape Clear, and was engaged in

other important works. Devoting much attention to pure science, he

became especially distinguished for his researches on earthquakes, and

from 1852-1858 he was engaged (with his son John William Mallet) in the

preparation of his great work, _The Earthquake Catalogue of the British

Association_ (1858). In 1862 he published two volumes, dealing with the

_Great Neapolitan Earthquake of 1857_ and _The First Principles of

Observational Seismology_. He then brought forward evidence to show that

the depth below the earth's surface, whence came the impulse of the

Neapolitan earthquake, was about 8 or 9 geographical miles. One of his

most important essays was that communicated to the Royal Society (_Phil.

Trans._ clxiii. 147; 1874), entitled _Volcanic Energy: an Attempt to

develop its True Origin and Cosmical Relations_. He sought to show that

volcanic heat may be attributed to the effects of crushing, contortion

and other disturbances in the crust of the earth; the disturbances

leading to the formation of lines of fracture, more or less vertical,

down which water would find its way, and if the temperature generated be

sufficient volcanic eruptions of steam or lava would follow. He was

elected F.R.S. in 1854, and he was awarded the Wollaston medal by the

Geological Society of London in 1877. He died at Clapham, London, on the

5th of November 1881.

MALLET DU PAN, JACQUES (1749-1800), French journalist, of an old

Huguenot family, was born near Geneva in 1749, the son of a Protestant

minister. He was educated at Geneva, and through the influence of

Voltaire obtained a professorship at Cassel. He soon, however, resigned

this post, and going to London joined H.S.N. Linguet in the production

of his _Annales politiques_ (1778-1780). During Linguet's imprisonment

in the Bastille Mallet du Pan continued the _Annales_ by himself

(1781-1783); but Linguet resented this on his release, and Mallet du Pan

changed the title of his own publication to _Mémoires historiques_

(1783). From 1783 he incorporated this work with the _Mercure de France_

in Paris, the political direction of which had been placed in his hands.

On the outbreak of the French Revolution he sided with the Royalists,

and was sent on a mission (1791-1792) by Louis XVI. to Frankfort to try

and secure the sympathy and intervention of the German princes. From

Germany he travelled to Switzerland and from Switzerland to Brussels in

the Royalist interest. He published a number of anti-revolutionary

pamphlets, and a violent attack on Bonaparte and the Directory resulted

in his being exiled in 1797 to Berne. In 1798 he came to London, where

he founded the _Mercure britannique_. He died at Richmond, Surrey, on

the 10th of May 1800, his widow being pensioned by the English

government. Mallet du Pan has a place in history as a pioneer of modern

political journalism. His son JOHN LEWIS MALLET (1775-1861) spent a

useful life in the English civil service, becoming secretary of the

Board of Audit; and J. L. Mallet's second son, SIR LOUIS MALLET

(1823-1890) also entered the civil service in the Board of Trade and

rose to be a distinguished economist and a member of the Council of

India.

Mallet du Pan's _Mémoires et correspondance_ was edited by A. Sayous

(Paris, 1851). See _Mallet du Pan and the French Revolution_ (1902),

by Bernard Mallet, son of Sir Louis Mallet, author also of a biography

of his father (1900).

MALLING, EAST and WEST, two populous villages in the Medway

parliamentary division of Kent, England, respectively 5 and 6 m. W. by

N. of Maidstone, with a station on the South-Eastern and Chatham

railway. Pop. (1901), East Malling, 2391; West Malling, 2312. They are

situated in a rich agricultural district on the western slope of the

valley of the Medway, and East Malling has large paper mills. At West

Malling are remains of Malling Abbey, a Benedictine nunnery founded in

1090 by Gundulf, bishop of Rochester. The remains, which are partly

incorporated in a modern building, include the Norman west front of the

church, the Early English cloisters, the chapter-house, gate-house (the

chapel of which is restored to use), and other portions. About Addington

near West Malling are considerable prehistoric remains, including

mounds, single stones, stone circles and pits in the chalk hills; while

at Leybourne are the gateway and other fragments of the castle held by

the Leybourne family from the 12th to the 14th century.

MALLOCK, WILLIAM HURRELL (1849- ), English author, was born at

Cockington Court, Devonshire. He was educated privately, and at Balliol

College, Oxford. He won the Newdigate prize in 1872, and took a second

class in the final classical schools in 1874. He attracted considerable

attention by his satirical story _The New Republic_ (2 vols., 1877), in

which he introduced characters easily recognized as prominent living

men, Mark Pattison, Matthew Arnold, W. K. Clifford and others. His keen

logic and gift for acute exposition and criticism were displayed in

later years both in fiction and in controversial works. In a series of

books dealing with religious questions he insisted on dogma as the basis

of religion and on the impossibility of founding religion on purely

scientific data. In _Is Life Worth Living?_ (1879) and _The New Paul and

Virginia_ (1878) he attacked Positivist theories, and in a volume on the

intellectual position of the Church of England, _Doctrine and Doctrinal

Disruption_ (1900), he advocated the necessity of a strictly defined

creed. Later volumes on similar topics were _Religion as a Credible

Doctrine_ (1903) and _The Reconstruction of Belief_ (1905). He published

several brilliant works on economics, directed against Radical and

Socialist theories: _Social Equality_ (1882), _Property and Progress_

(1884), _Labour and the Popular Welfare_ (1893), _Classes and Masses_

(1896) and _Aristocracy and Evolution_ (1898); and among his

anti-socialist works should be classed his novel, _The Old Order

Changes_ (1886). His other novels include _A Romance of the Nineteenth

Century_ (1881), _A Human Document_ (1892), _The Heart of Life_ (1895)

and _The Veil of the Temple_ (1904). He published a volume of _Poems_ in

1880, and in 1900 _Lucretius on Life and Death_ in verse.

MALLOW, a market town and watering place of Co. Cork, Ireland, on the

Blackwater, 144½ m. S.W. from Dublin, and 21 N. from Cork by the Great

Southern and Western railway. Pop. (1901), 4542. It is a junction for

lines westward to Killarney and Co. Kerry, and eastward to Lismore and

Co. Waterford. The town owes its prosperity to its beautiful situation

in a fine valley surrounded by mountains, and possesses a tepid mineral

spring, considered efficacious in cases of general debility and for

scorbutic and consumptive complaints. A spa-house with pump-room and

baths was erected in 1828. The parish church dates from 1818, but there

are remains of an earlier building adjoining it. There are manufactures

of mineral water and condensed milk, corn-mills and tanneries. Mallow

received a charter of incorporation from James I. Its name was

originally Magh Allo, that is, Plain of the Allo (the old name used by

Spenser for this part of the river), and the ford was defended by a

castle, built by the Desmonds, the ruins of which remain. A bridge

connects the town with the suburb of Ballydaheen. Mallow is a centre for

the fine salmon fishing on the Blackwater. The climate is very mild. The

town was a parliamentary borough till 1885. It is governed by an urban

district council.

MALLOW, botanically _Malva_, the typical genus of the natural order

Malvaceae, embracing about sixteen species of annual and perennial

herbaceous plants, widely distributed throughout the northern

hemisphere. The mallows possess the reniform one-celled anthers which

specially characterize the _Malvaceae_ (q.v.). The petals also are

united by their base to the tube formed by the coalesced filaments of

the stamens. The special characters which separate the genus _Malva_

from others most nearly allied to it are the involucre, consisting of a

row of three separate bracts attached to the lower part of the true

calyx, and the numerous single-seeded carpels disposed in a circle

around a central axis, from which they become detached when ripe. The

flowers are mostly white or pinkish, never yellow, the leaves

radiate-veined, and more or less lobed or cut. Three species are natives

of Britain. The musk mallow (_Malva moschata_) is a perennial herb with

five-partite, deeply-cut leaves, and large rose-coloured flowers

clustered together at the ends of the branched stems, and is found

growing along hedges and borders of fields, blossoming in July and

August. It owes its name to a slight musky odour diffused by the plant

in warm dry weather when it is kept in a confined situation. The

round-leaved dwarf mallow (_Malva rotundifolia_) is a creeping

perennial, growing in waste sandy places, with roundish serrate leaves

and small pinkish-white flowers produced in the axils of the leaves from

June to September. It is common throughout Europe and the north of

Africa, extending to western and northern Asia. The common mallow

(_Malva sylvestris_), the _mauve_ of the French, is an erect biennial or

perennial plant with long-stalked roundish-angular serrate leaves, and

conspicuous axillary reddish-purple flowers, blossoming from May to

September. Like most plants of the order it abounds in mucilage, and

hence forms a favourite domestic remedy for colds and sore throats. The

aniline dye called mauve derives its name from its resemblance to the

colour of this plant.

[Illustration: Mallow (_Malva sylvestris_), 1/3 nat. size.

1. Flower in section.

2. Stamens showing the union of the filaments into a common tube

(monadelphous).

3. Fruit with persistent calyx. 1, 2 and 5 enlarged.

4. Same seen from the back showing the 3-leaved epicalyx.

5. Seed.]

The marsh mallow (_Althaea officinalis_), the _guimauve_ of the

French, belongs to another genus having an involucre of numerous

bracts. It is a native of marshy ground near the sea or in the

neighbourhood of saline springs. It is an erect perennial herb, with

somewhat woody stems, velvety, ovate, acute, unequally serrate leaves,

and delicate pink showy flowers blooming from July to September. The

flowers are said to yield a good deal of honey to bees. The marsh

mallow is remarkable for containing asparagin, C4H8N2O3, H2O, which,

if the root be long kept in a damp place, disappears, butyric acid

being developed. The root also contains about 25% of starch and the

same quantity of mucilage, which differs from that of gum arabic in

containing one molecule less of water and in being precipitated by

neutral acetate of lead. It is used in _pâte de guimauve_ lozenges.

_Althaea rosea_ is the hollyhock (q.v.).

The mallow of Scripture, Job xxx. 4, has been sometimes identified

with Jew's mallow (_Corchorus olitorius_), a member of the closely

allied order Tiliaceae, but more plausibly (the word [Hebrew: maluah]

implying a saline plant) with _Atriplex Halimus_, or sea orache. In

Syria the _Halimus_ was still known by the name _Malluh_ in the time

of Ibn Beitar. See Bochart, _Hieroz._ iii. 16.

MALMEDY, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine Province, lying in a

wild and deep basin, on the Warche, 20 m. S. of Aix-la-Chapelle by rail

via Eupen. It contains two Roman Catholic churches, a modern town-hall

and a classical school. Its industries include tanning, dyeing and

paper-making. Pop. (1900), 4680. Malmedy was famous for its Benedictine

abbey, founded about 675, which was united with that of Stablo, the

abbot of the joint house being a prince of the empire. In 1802 the lands

of the abbey passed to France, and in 1815 they were divided between

Prussia and Netherlands.

See Kellen, _Malmedy und die preussische Wallonie_ (Essen, 1897).

MALMESBURY, JAMES HARRIS, 1ST EARL OF (1746-1820), English diplomatist,

was born at Salisbury on the 21st of April 1746, being the son of James

Harris (q.v.), the author of _Hermes_. Educated at Winchester, Oxford

and Leiden, young Harris became secretary in 1768 to the British embassy

at Madrid, and was left as _chargé d'affaires_ at that court on the

departure of Sir James Grey until the arrival of George Pitt, afterwards

Lord Rivers. This interval gave him his opportunity; he discovered the

intention of Spain to attack the Falkland Islands, and was instrumental

in thwarting it by putting on a bold countenance. As a reward he was

appointed minister _ad interim_ at Madrid, and in January 1772 minister

plenipotentiary to the court of Prussia. His success was marked, and in

1777 he was transferred to the court of Russia. At St Petersburg he made

his reputation, for he managed to get on with Catherine in spite of her

predilections for France, and steered adroitly through the accumulated

difficulties of the first Armed Neutrality. He was made a knight of the

Bath at the end of 1778, but in 1782 he returned home owing to

ill-health, and was appointed by his friend Fox to be minister at the

Hague, an appointment confirmed after some delay by Pitt (1784). He did

very great service in furthering Pitt's policy of maintaining England's

influence on the Continent by the arms of her allies, and held the

threads of the diplomacy which ended in the king of Prussia's

overthrowing the republican party in Holland, which was inclined to

France, and re-establishing the prince of Orange. In recognition of his

services he was created Baron Malmesbury of Malmesbury (Sept. 1788), and

permitted by the king of Prussia to bear the Prussian eagle on his arms,

and by the prince of Orange to use his motto "Je maintiendrai." He

returned to England, and took an anxious interest in politics, which

ended in his seceding from the Whig party with the duke of Portland in

1793; and in that year he was sent by Pitt, but in vain, to try to keep

Prussia true to the first coalition against France. In 1794 he was sent

to Brunswick to solicit the hand of the unfortunate Princess Caroline

for the prince of Wales, to marry her as proxy, and conduct her to her

husband in England. In 1796 and 1797 he was at Paris and Lille vainly

negotiating with the French Directory. After 1797 he became partially

deaf, and quitted diplomacy altogether; but for his long and eminent

services he was in 1800 created earl of Malmesbury, and Viscount

Fitzharris, of Heron Court in the county of Hants. He now became a sort

of political Nestor, consulted on foreign policy by successive foreign

ministers, trusted by men of the most different ideas in political

crises, and above all the confidant, and for a short time after Pitt's

death almost the political director, of Canning. Younger men were also

wont to go to him for advice, and Lord Palmerston particularly, who was

his ward, was tenderly attached to him, and owed many of his ideas on

foreign policy directly to his teaching. His later years were free from

politics, and till his death on the 21st of November 1820 he lived very

quietly and almost forgotten. As a statesman, Malmesbury had an

influence among his contemporaries which is scarcely to be understood

from his writings, but which must have owed much to personal charm of

manner and persuasiveness of tongue; as a diplomatist, he seems to have

deserved his reputation, and shares with Macartney, Auckland and

Whitworth the credit of raising diplomacy from a profession in which

only great nobles won the prizes to a career opening the path of honour

to ability. He was succeeded as 2nd earl by his son James Edward

(1778-1841), under-secretary for foreign affairs under Canning; from

whom the title passed to James Howard, 3rd earl of Malmesbury (q.v.).

Malmesbury did not publish anything himself, except an account of the

Dutch revolution, and an edition of his father's works, but his

important _Diaries_ (1844) and _Letters_ (1870) were edited by his

grandson.

MALMESBURY, JAMES HOWARD HARRIS, 3RD EARL OF (1807-1889), English

statesman, son of the 2nd earl, was born on the 25th of March 1807, and

educated at Eton and Oriel College, Oxford. He led a life of travel for

several years, making acquaintance with famous people; and in 1841 he

had only just been elected to the House of Commons as a Conservative,

when his father died and he succeeded to the peerage. His political

career, though not one which made any permanent impression on history,

attracted a good deal of contemporary attention, partly from his being

foreign secretary in 1852 and again in 1858-1859 (he was also lord privy

seal in 1866-1868 and in 1874-1876), and partly from his influential

position as an active Tory of the old school in the House of Lords at a

time when Lord Derby and Mr Disraeli were, in their different ways,

moulding the Conservatism of the period. Moreover his long life--he

survived till the 17th of May 1889--and the publication of his _Memoirs

of an Ex-Minister_ in 1884, contributed to the reputation he enjoyed.

These _Memoirs_, charmingly written, full of anecdote, and containing

much interesting material for the history of the time, remain his chief

title to remembrance. Lord Malmesbury also edited his grandfather's

_Diaries and Correspondence_ (1844), and in 1870 published _The First

Lord Malmesbury and His Friends: Letters from 1745 to 1820_. He was

succeeded as 4th earl by his nephew, Edward James (1842-1899), whose

son, James Edward (b. 1872) became the 5th earl in 1899.

MALMESBURY, a market town and municipal borough in the Chippenham

parliamentary division of Wiltshire, England, 94½ m. W. of London by the

Great Western railway. Pop. (1901), 2854. It lies on a ridge surrounded

on all sides except the north-west by the river Avon and a small

tributary. The church of St Mary and St Aldhelm, standing high, is a

majestic fragment consisting of the greater part of the nave (with

aisles) of a Benedictine abbey church. The ruined skeleton of the great

tower arches now terminates the building eastward. The nave is

transitional Norman, with a Decorated superstructure including the

clerestory. The south porch is one of the finest Norman examples extant,

both the outer and the inner doorways (especially the first) exhibiting

the typical ornament of the period in remarkable exuberance. With the

exception of a crypt, the monastic buildings have disappeared. In the

market square stands a fine market cross of the 16th century, borne upon

an octagonal battlemented basement. Early English fragments of a

hospital of St John of Jerusalem appear in the corporation almshouse.

Malmesbury has an agricultural trade, with breweries, tanneries and

manufactures of silk and pillow lace. It is governed by a mayor, 4

aldermen and 12 councillors. Area, 178 acres.

Maildulphus, a Scottish or Irish monk, who came into England about 635,

built a hermitage near the site of the modern Malmesbury

(_Maildulphi-urbs_, _Maldelmesburh_, _Malmesbiri_) and gathered

disciples round him, thus forming the nucleus of the later abbey of

which Aldhelm his pupil became the first abbot. Æthelstan, who was

buried here (though his tomb in the church only dates from the 16th

century), rebuilt and endowed the monastery. Round the abbey the town of

Malmesbury grew up, and by the time of the Domesday Survey it had become

one of the only two Wiltshire boroughs. The first charter, said to be a

forgery, purports to have been given by Æthelstan. It granted to the

burgesses all privileges and free customs such as they held in the time

of Edward the Elder, with many additional exemptions, in return for help

rendered against the Danes. The castle built at Malmesbury during the

reign of Henry I. gave a further impetus to the growth of the town

during the 12th and 13th centuries. It was not incorporated, however,

until 1645, when it was made a free borough under the title of "aldermen

and burgesses of the borough of Malmesbury, County Wilts." By this

charter it was governed until 1885. The borough returned two members to

parliament from 1295 to 1832 when the number was reduced to one. Finally

in 1885 its representation was merged in that of the county. A grant of

a yearly fair on the 31st of March, the feast of St Aldhelm, was

obtained from William II., and another for three days from the 25th of

July from John. In 1792 fairs were held on the 28th of March, the 28th

of April and the 29th of June, but in 1891 they had ceased entirely.

John also granted a weekly market on Thursday. In the 16th and 18th

centuries it was held on Saturday, and in 1891 on the third Wednesday in

each month. In the middle ages Malmesbury possessed a considerable cloth

manufacture, and at the Dissolution the abbey was bought by a rich

clothier and fitted with looms for weaving. The trade in wool still

flourished in 1751.

See _Victoria County History: Wiltshire_; and _Registrum

malmesburiense_ (1879-1880).

MALMÖ, a seaport of Sweden, chief town of the district (_län_) of

Malmöhus, on a small bay of the Sound, 384 m. S.S.W. of Stockholm by

rail. Pop. (1800), 38,054; (1900), 60,857. It is connected with

Copenhagen, 17¼ m. W. by N., by steam-ferry, the Sound being kept open

in winter by an ice-breaker. It is also the first important station in

Sweden on the Berlin-Stockholm route, which crosses the sea between

Sassnitz in Rügen and Trelleborg, 20 m. S.E. of Malmö. The town, which

stands upon a level plain, formerly had strong fortifications, of which

only the citadel (Malmöhus) remains; in it the earl of Bothwell was

imprisoned by Frederick II. of Denmark for some time after his departure

from Scotland in 1567. The town-hall (1546, largely restored in 1864)

contains a handsome chamber, the Knutssal, formerly used by the council

of the gild of Canute. The hall fronts the central square (_Stortorg_)

which is planted with trees and contains a colossal statue of Charles X.

by Johan Helenus Börjeson (b. 1835) erected in 1896. The most notable

church is that of St. Peter (_Peterkyrka_), dating in part from 1319.

Malmö is second to Stockholm as an industrial centre. There are

breweries and large works for the manufacture of machinery, among which

may be mentioned the Kockum mechanical works, with yards for the

construction of vessels of war, and others; of cotton and woollen goods,

gloves, chocolate, sweetmeats and tobacco. A large export trade is

carried on in butter and other agricultural produce, and matches. Coal

is the chief import. The harborage includes an outer harbour of 22 ft.

depth, and two inner basins admitting vessels of 21 ft. draught, with

dry dock and patent slip. Malmö returns four members to the second

chamber of the Riksdag (parliament).

Malmö (Malmhauge, Malmey, Malmöye, Malmoughe), sometimes called _Ancona

Scanorum_ or _Ellenbogen_, first appears in history about the middle of

the 13th century. During the Hanseatic period it was the most important

commercial town on the Sound, but in the 16th and 17th centuries greatly

lost ground owing to the decay of its herring fisheries and the rise of

its rival, Copenhagen. Its modern prosperity is largely due to the

enterprise of Frans Snell, one of its merchants in the second half of

the 18th century, who first constructed the harbour.

MALMSEY, a strong sweet wine, originally made at Monemvasia (Gr. [Greek:

Monembasia]), Napoli di Malvasia, in the Morea, Greece. The name of the

place was corrupted in Med. Lat. into _malmasia_, whence the English

form of the word. The corruption malvasia gives the O. Fr. _malvesie_,

from which comes the alternative English form "malvoisie." The wine is

now made not only in Greece but also in Spain, Madeira and the Azores.

MALOCELLO, LANCILOTO ("LANZAROTE, the 'Lancelot Maloisiel' of the

French"), leader of the first of modern European oceanic enterprises.

This was a Genoese expedition, which about 1270 seems to have sailed

into the Atlantic, re-discovered the "Fortunate Islands" or Canaries,

and made something of a conquest and settlement in one of the most

northerly isles of this archipelago, still known (after the Italian

captain) as Lanzarote. According to a Spanish authority of about 1345,

the anonymous Franciscan's _Conosçimiento de todos los reinos_,

"Lancarote" was killed by the Canarian natives; but the castle built by

him was standing in 1402-1404, when it was utilized for the storage of

grain by the French conquerors under Gadifer de la Salle. To Malocello's

enterprise, moreover, it is probable that Petrarch (born 1304) alludes

when he tells how, within the memory of his parents, an armed fleet of

Genoese penetrated to the "Fortunatae"; this passage some would refer,

without sufficient authority, to the expedition of 1291. Malocello's

name and nationality are certainly preserved by those early _Portolani_

or scientific charts (such as the "Dulcert" of 1339 and the "Laurentian

Portolano" of 1351), in which the African islands appear, for the first

time in history, in clear and recognizable form. Thus Dulcert reads

_Insula de Lanzarotus_ and _Marocelus_, the Laurentian map _I. de

Lanzarote_, against Lanzarote Island, which is well depicted on both

designs, and marked with the cross of Genoa. The _Conosçimiento_ (as

noticed above) explicitly derives the island-name from the Genoese

commander who perished here. Malocello's enterprise not only marks the

beginning of the oversea expansion of western Europe in exploration,

conquest and colonization (after the age of Scandinavian world-roving

had passed); it is also probably not unconnected with the great Genoese

venture of 1291 (in search of a waterway to India, which soon follows),

with which this attempt at Canarian discovery and dominion has been by

some unjustifiably identified.

See the _Conosçimiento_, p. 100, as edited by Marcos Jimenez de la

Espada in the _Boletin de la sociedad geográfica de Madrid_, (February

1877); _Le Canarien_ in P. Margry, _Conquête des ... Canaries_, p.

177; M. A. P. d'Avezac in vol. vi., part ii., of _L'Univers_, pp. 1-41

(_Îles africaines de l'océan atlantique_); C. R. Beazley, _Dawn of

Modern Geography_, iii. 411-413, 449, 451.

MALOLOS, a town and the capital of the province of Bulacán, island of

Luzon, Philippine Islands, on a branch of the Pampanga Grande river.

Pop. (1903), after the annexation of Barasoain and Santa Isabel, 27,025.

There are thirty-eight villages, or barrios, of which eight had, in

1903, 1000 inhabitants or more. The principal language is Tagalog, but

Spanish is spoken to some extent. Malolos is served by the Manila &

Dagupan railway, and is a trade centre of considerable importance. The

cultivation of rice is an important industry. In 1898-99, during the

Filipino revolt, Malolos was the seat of the rebel government, but it

was captured and reduced to desolation in March 1899. In 1904 a new

municipal school building, a municipal market and a provincial building

were erected.

MALONE, EDMOND (1741-1812), Irish Shakespearian scholar and editor, was

born in Dublin, on the 4th of October 1741, the son of a barrister and a

member of the Irish House of Commons. He was educated at Trinity

College, Dublin, and was called to the Irish bar in 1767. The death of

his father in 1774 assured him a competency, and he went to London,

where he frequented literary and artistic circles. He frequently visited

Dr Johnson and was of great assistance to Boswell in revising and

proofreading his _Life_, four of the later editions of which he

annotated. He was intimate with Sir Joshua Reynolds, to whom he sat for

a portrait now in the National Portrait Gallery. He was one of Reynolds'

executors, and published a posthumous collection of his works (1798)

with a memoir. Horace Walpole, Burke, Canning, Lord Charlemont, and, at

first, George Steevens, were among Malone's friends. Encouraged by the

two last he devoted himself to the study of Shakespearian chronology,

and the results of his "Attempt to ascertain the Order in which the

Plays of Shakespeare were written" (1778) are still largely accepted.

This was followed in 1780 by two supplementary volumes to Steevens's

version of Dr Johnson's _Shakespeare_, partly consisting of observations

on the history of the Elizabethan stage, and of the text of doubtful

plays; and this again, in 1783, by an appendix volume. His refusal to

alter some of his notes to Isaac Reed's edition of 1785, which disagreed

with Steevens's, resulted in a quarrel with the latter. The next seven

years were devoted to Malone's own edition of Shakespeare in eleven

volumes, of which his essays on the history of the stage, his biography

of Shakespeare, and his attack on the genuineness of the three parts of

Henry VI., were especially valuable. His editorial work was lauded by

Burke, criticized by Walpole and damned by Joseph Ritson. It certainly

showed indefatigable research and proper respect for the text of the

earlier editions. Malone published a denial of the claim to antiquity of

the Rowley poems (see CHATTERTON), and in this (1782) as in his branding

(1796) of the Ireland MSS. (see IRELAND, WILLIAM HENRY) as forgeries, he

was among the first to guess and state the truth. His elaborate edition

of Dryden's works (1800), with a memoir, was another monument to his

industry, accuracy and scholarly care. In 1801 the university of Dublin

made him an LL.D. At the time of his death, on the 25th of April 1812,

Malone was at work on a new octavo edition of Shakespeare, and he left

his material to James Boswell the younger; the result was the edition of

1821--generally known as the Third Variorum edition--in twenty-one

volumes. Lord Sunderlin (1738-1816), his elder brother and executor,

presented the larger part of Malone's splendid collection of books,

including dramatic varieties, to the Bodleian Library, which afterwards

bought many of his MS. notes and his literary correspondence. The

British Museum also owns some of his letters and his annotated copy of

Johnson's _Dictionary_.

A memoir of Malone by James Boswell is included in the _Prolegomena_

to the edition of 1821. See also Sir J. Prior's _Life of Edmond

Malone_ (1860).

MALONE, a village and the county-seat of Franklin county, in the

township of Malone, in the N.E. part of New York, U.S.A., about 60 m.

E.N.E. of Ogdensburg. Pop. (1890), 4986; (1900), 5935 (910

foreign-born); (1905, state census), 6478; (1910), 6467. It is served by

the New York Central & Hudson River and the Rutland (N.Y. Central Lines)

railways. The village has a Memorial Park, Arsenal Green, on the site of

an arsenal and parade-ground sold by the state in 1850, a state armoury,

the Northern New York Institute for Deaf Mutes, Franklin Academy, St

Joseph's Ursuline Academy, and a detention-house for Chinamen entering

the state from Canada. From Malone tourists visit the Great North Woods,

in the Adirondack foothills, about 15 m. distant. Iron ore and Potsdam

sandstone are found near Malone. In the surrounding region hops,

potatoes, &c., are grown, and there are dairying and livestock

interests. The village is a centre for the collection of hides and

pelts. It manufactures woollen goods, paper and pulp, &c., and has

foundry and machine shops and car repair shops. Malone, being on the

line of communication between lakes Champlain and Ontario, was of

strategic importance in the war of 1812, and later was twice the

rendezvous of Fenians for attacks on Canada. The township of Malone was

settled and erected from Chateaugay in 1805. The village was first known

as Harison, was named Ezraville, in honour of Ezra L'Hommedieu, in 1808,

received its present name in 1812, and was incorporated in 1853.

MALONIC ACID, C3H4O4 or CH2(COOH)2, occurs in the form of its calcium

salt in the sugar beet. It was first prepared in 1858 by V. Dessaignes,

who obtained it by oxidizing malic acid (_Ann._, 1858, 107, p. 251). It

may also be obtained by oxidizing allylene and propylene with cold

potassium permanganate solution, by the hydrolysis of barbituric acid

(malonyl urea) with alkalis (A. Baeyer, _Ann._, 1864, 130, p. 143); by

the hydrolysis of cyanacetic acid (H. Kolbe, _Ann._, 1864, 131, p. 349;

H. Muller, _Ann._, 1864, 131, p. 352), and by the action of silver oxide

on [beta]-di-chloracrylic ester at 125° C. (O. Wallach, _Ann._, 1878,

193, P. 25)

CCl2:CH·COOC2H5 + Ag2O + H2O =

2AgCl + HOOC·CH2·COOC2H5.

It crystallizes in monoclinic tables, and is readily soluble in water,

alcohol and ether. The acid melts at 132° C., and at a higher

temperature it rapidly decomposes into acetic acid and carbon dioxide.

When heated with bromine and water to 100° C. it forms tribromacetic

acid, some bromoform being produced at the same time. Malonic acid, as

well as its esters, is characterized by the large number of condensation

products it can form. In the presence of a dehydrating agent (such as

acetic anhydride), it combines with aldehydes to form compounds of the

type R·CH:C(COOH)2, or their decomposition products (formed by loss of

CO2) R·CH:CH·COOH.

Many salts of the acid are known and, with the exception of those of

the alkali metals, they are difficultly soluble in water. Many esters

of malonic acid have been prepared, the most important being the

_diethyl ester_ (_malonic ester_), CH2(COOC2H5)2, which is obtained by

dissolving monochloracetic acid in water, neutralizing the solution

with potassium carbonate, and then adding potassium cyanide and

warming the mixture until the reaction begins. When the reaction has

finished, the whole is evaporated and heated to about 130°-140° C. and

then allowed to cool. The mass is then covered with two-thirds of its

weight of alcohol, and saturated with hydrochloric acid gas. The whole

is then poured into ice-cold water, extracted by ether and the

ethereal solution distilled (L. Claisen, _Ann._, 1883, 218, p. 131).

It is a colourless liquid boiling at 197°.7-198°.2 C. (W. H. Perkin).

It is a most important synthetic reagent; with sodium or sodium

ethylate it forms sodio-malonic ester, which reacts readily with alkyl

halides, forming alkyl malonic esters, which are again capable of

forming sodium derivatives, that by further treatment with alkyl

halides yield the di-alkyl malonic esters. These esters are readily

hydrolysed and yield the mono- and di-alkyl malonic acids which, on

heating, are readily decomposed, with evolution of carbon dioxide and

the formation of mono- and di-alkyl acetic acids. The scheme of

reactions is shown thus:

R´I

CH2(COOR)2 --> CHN_a (COOR)2 --> CHR´(COOR)2

| NaOH

\/

CO2 + CH2R´·COOH <-- CHR´(COOH)2

R´´I

[CHR´(COOH)2NaOH --> CNaR´(COOR)2 --> CR´R´´(COOR)2

|

\/ NaOH

CO2 + CHR´R´·COOH <-- CR´R´´(COOH)2

When sodio-malonic ester is heated to 145° C., it undergoes

condensation, with elimination of alcohol and formation of the benzene

derivative, _phloroglucin tricarboxylic ester_. The addition of urea

to an alcoholic solution of sodio-malonic ester results in the

formation of barbituric acid (A. Michael, _Jour. pr. Chem._, 1887 [2],

35, p. 456) The half nitrile of malonic acid is _cyanacetic acid_,

CN·CH·2 COOH, which, in the form of its ester, may be obtained by the

action of a solution of potassium cyanide on monochloracetic acid. The

solution obtained is neutralized, concentrated on the water-bath,

acidified by sulphuric acid and extracted with ether. It is then

converted into the lead salt, which is decomposed by sulphuretted

hydrogen and the solution is carefully concentrated (Th. Meves,

_Ann._, 1867, 143, p. 201). It melts at 70° C. and at higher

temperatures decomposes, with evolution of carbon dioxide and

formation of aceto-nitrile, CH3·CN. The true nitrile of malonic acid

is _methylene cyanide_, CH2(CN)2, which is obtained by distilling a

mixture of cyanacetamide and phosphorus pentoxide. It is a crystalline

solid, which melts at 29°-30° C. and boils at 218°-219° C., and is

readily soluble in alcohol and ether.

MALORY, SIR THOMAS, translator and compiler of the famous English

classic, the _Morte d'Arthur_. Previous to the publication of Professor

Kittredge's monograph, _Who was Sir Thomas Malory?_ the identity of this

writer remained an unsolved problem. Mr. Sidney Lee, in the _Dictionary

of National Biography_, was compelled to admit that he could find no one

of that name fulfilling the necessary conditions. Of direct evidence we

have very little; in the concluding passage of the book the author asks

the prayers of the reader for "Syr Thomas Maleore knyght," and states

that the book was ended "the ix. yere of the reygne of Kyng Edward the

fourth." Caxton, in his preface, says that he printed the book "after a

copye unto me delivered whyche copye Syr Thomas Malorye dyd take oute of

certeyn bookes of frensshe and reduced it in to Englysshe"; in his

colophon he repeats this statement, adding that he himself is

responsible for the division of the work into books and chapters, and

that it was printed in 1485. It will be noted that Caxton does not say

that he received the book from Malory, only that he had received a copy

made by Malory; from this Professor Kittredge draws the conclusion that

the compiler was no longer living. The problem then is to find a Thomas

Malory who was (a) a knight, (b) alive in the ninth year of King Edward

IV. (Mar. 4, 1469-Mar. 3, 1470), and (c) who was no longer living in

July (or June) 1485.

All these conditions Professor Kittredge finds fulfilled in the life of

Sir Thomas Malory, knight, of Newbold Revell (or Fenny Newbold), M.P.

for Warwickshire in 1445. The date of Sir Thomas's birth is uncertain,

but he succeeded his father, Sir John, in 1433 or 1434. Previously to

this he had served in France, in the retinue of the earl of Warwick,

most probably during the time that that nobleman held the office of

captain of Calais. It seems probable that he is also to be identified

with a "Thomas Malorie, miles," who in 1468 was, on account of the part

played by him in the Wars of the Roses, excluded with several others

from the operation of a pardon issued by Edward IV. As, however, on the

death of Sir Thomas on the 14th of March 1470, there was no difficulty

as to inheritance, his estates passing to his grandson, he must, if this

identification be correct, have come under the general amnesty of 1469.

It will be seen, therefore, that so far as it is in our power to state

the question this Sir Thomas Malory fulfils all the necessary

conditions.

It is interesting to note that the career of the earl of Warwick in

France was marked by certain picturesque and chivalric features which

might well impress the imagination of a young retainer. John Rous, in

his _Life of Richard Earl of Warwick_, tells us that at a certain

tourney held near Calais at Christmastide, Earl Richard appeared three

days running in different armour, overthrowing his adversary on each

occasion--an exploit obviously imitated from the chivalric romances of

the period.

The work with which Malory's name is connected is an abridged

compilation of the great body of Arthurian romance in its latest form.

The _Merlin_ (Vulgate and Suite), _Tristan_, _Lancelot_, _Queste_ and

_Mort Artus_ are all represented, the only branch omitted is that

dealing with the "early history" of the Grail, the _Joseph of Arimathea_

and _Grand S. Graal_. Thanks mainly to the labours of Dr Oskar Sommer,

we can now assign the majority of the books to their separate sources,

although certain stories, such as the adventures of Sir Gareth under the

pseudonym of Beaumains, the handling of Sir Urre of Hungary, and the

details of the abduction of Guenevere by Meleagaunt, still remain

unidentified. But we do not yet know whether Malory himself was

responsible for this selection, or whether he found it ready to hand in

a MS., the "Frensshe Booke" to which he often refers. To make such a

compilation at first hand, considering the extent of the ground covered,

would involve an enormous amount of study and selection, and the access

to a very large library--conditions which scarcely seem to fit in with

the social position and activities of Sir Thomas. On the other hand it

is undeniable that the medieval copyists, at the instance of their

patrons, did make compilations from the various romances within their

reach, such as e.g. the enormous codex 112 (_fonds Franç._) of the

Bibliothèque Nationale, which includes large sections of the _Tristan_,

the _Lancelot_, and the _Merlin_ Suite. Taking into consideration alike

what Malory retains and what he omits, it seems most probable that he

was in possession, not of complete copies of the romances, but of one or

more volumes of compilations from these sources.

From the point of view of matter it must be admitted that the _Morte d'

Arthur_ does not represent the Arthurian cycle at its best, but rather

in the period of its decadence; nor does Malory in any way endeavour to

overcome the difficulties caused by the juxtaposition of a number of

independent (and often contradictory) versions. This is especially

noticeable in his treatment of Gawain; in the section derived from the

_Lancelot_ and _Mort Artus_ he is a good and valiant knight, "a ful

noble knyghte as ever was borne," in those derived from the _Tristan_

and the _Queste_, he is treacherous, dissolute, and a murderer of good

knights.

The great charm of Malory's work lies in his style; stately, earnest and

dignified, it has lent to the relations between Lancelot and Guenevere a

character of truth and vitality in which the French original is wholly

lacking. Malory achieved a remarkable feat--he took the Arthurian story

in its worst and weakest form and he imparted to it a moral force and

elevation which the cycle, even in its earlier and finer stage, had,

save in the unique case of Von Eschenbach's _Parzival_, never possessed.

While genuine lovers of the Arthurian cycle must regret that the

romances should only be known to the great majority of English readers

through the versions of Malory and Tennyson, it is impossible to

withhold from the _Morte d' Arthur_ the admiration due to an

imperishable monument of English language and literature.

See _Who was Sir Thomas Malory?_ G. L. Kittredge (_Harvard Studies and

Notes_, vol. v., 1896); _Morte d' Arthur_, ed. by Dr Oskar Sommer (an

exact reproduction of the original text in 2 vols.)--vol. iii. a study

on "_The Sources of Malory._" The sections on _Lancelot_ and _Queste_

are unfortunately very inadequate; for these cf. _The Legend of Sir

Lancelot_, Grimm Library, vol. xii. (J. L. W.)

MALOT, HECTOR HENRI (1830-1907), French novelist and man of letters, the

son of a notary, was born at La Bouille (Seine Inférieure) on the 20th

of May 1830. He studied law at Rouen and Paris, but literature early

absorbed his attention. He collaborated in the _Biographie générale_ of

Didot, became literary critic of _L'Opinion Nationale_, and dramatic

critic of the _Lloyd français_. He is the author of a long series of

popular novels dealing with contemporary life, including: a trilogy of

domestic novels entitled _Victimes d'amour_ (1859, 1865, 1866); _Un Beau

frère_ (1869); _Madame Obernin_ (1870); _Le Docteur Claude_ (1879);

_Justice_ (1889). _Les Aventures de Romain Kalbris_ (1869) and _Sans

famille_ (1888) are excellent stories for children. A complete edition

of Hector Malot's works appeared in 1894-1897. He died at Vincennes in

July 1907.

MALOU, JULES ÉDOUARD XAVIER (1810-1886), Belgian statesman, one of the

leaders of the clerical party, was born at Ypres on the 19th of October

1810. He was a civil servant in the department of justice when he was

elected to the Chamber of Deputies by his native constituency in 1841,

and was for some time governor of the province of Antwerp. He was

minister of finance in the coalition ministry of J. B. Nothomb in 1844,

and formed with B. T. de Theux a Catholic cabinet in 1846, which was

overthrown in the Liberal victory of 1847. Malou then became a member

of the senate, and his party only regained ascendancy in 1870. The

extreme clerical ministry of Baron d'Anethan retired in December 1871

after serious rioting in Brussels, and Malou was the real, though not

the nominal, head of the more moderate clerical administrations of de

Theux and Aspremont-Lynden (1870-1878). He was wise enough to disavow

the noisy sympathy of Belgian Ultramontane politicians with the German

victims of the _Kulturkampf_, and, retaining in his own hands the

portfolio of finance, he subordinated his clerical policy to a useful

administration in commercial matters, including a development of the

railway system. It was only after the fall of the ministry in 1878 that

he adopted a frankly clerical policy, and when he became chief of a new

government in June 1884 he proceeded to undo the educational compromise

of his predecessors in the Frère-Orban ministry. His legislation in

favour of the Catholic schools caused rioting in Brussels, and in

October the king demanded the retirement of MM. Jacobs and Woeste, the

members of the cabinet against whom popular indignation was chiefly

directed. Malou followed them into retirement, and died at Woluwe Saint

Lambert, in Brabant, on the 11th of July 1886. He was a financier of

great knowledge and experience, and his works (of which a long list is

given in Koninck's _Bibliographie nationale de Belgique_) include three

series (1874-1880) of memoirs on financial questions, edited by him for

the Chamber of Deputies, besides pamphlets on railroad proposals, mining

and other practical questions. His brother Jean Baptiste Malou

(1809-1864) was a well-known divine.

MALOUET, PIERRE VICTOR, BARON (1740-1814), French publicist and

politician, was born at Riom (Puy-de-Dôme) on the 11th of February 1740,

the son of a lawyer. He entered the civil service and was employed

successively at the French embassy in Lisbon, in the administrative

department of the duc de Broglie's army, as commissary in San Domingo

from 1767-1774, and, after his return to France, as commissary-general

of the marine. In 1776 he was entrusted to carry out plans of

colonization in French Guiana, but was superseded in 1779. On his return

to France he was well received at court, and the execution of his plans

in Guiana was assured. He became intendant of the port of Toulon, and in

1789 was returned to the states-general, where he soon became well known

as a defender of the monarchical principle. He emigrated to England in

September, 1792, but shortly afterwards sought in vain permission to

return to assist in the defence of Louis XVI. His name was erased from

the list of emigrants in 1801 by Napoleon, who restored him to his

position in the service and sent him to Antwerp as commissioner-general

and maritime prefect to superintend the erection of defence works, and

the creation of a fleet. He entered the council of state in 1810, but,

having offended the emperor by his plainness of speech, he was disgraced

in 1812. At the Restoration, Louis XVIII. made him minister of marine;

and he died on the 7th of September 1814.

The most important documents for his domestic and colonial policy are

a _Collection de ses opinions à l'Assemblée Nationale_ (3 vols.,

1791-1792); and _Collection de mémoires et correspondances officielles

sur l'administration des colonies et notamment sur la Guiane française

et hollandaise_ (5 vols., 1802).

MALPIGHI, MARCELLO (1628-1694), Italian physiologist, was born at

Crevalcuore near Bologna, on the 10th of March 1628. At the age of

seventeen he began the study of philosophy; it appears that he was also

in the habit of amusing himself with the microscope. In 1649 he started

to study medicine; after four years at Bologna he graduated there as

doctor. He at once applied to be admitted to lecture in the university,

but it was not till after three years (1656) that his request was

granted. A few months later he was appointed to the chair of theoretical

medicine at Pisa, where he enjoyed the friendship and countenance of G.

A. Borelli. At the end of four years he left Pisa, on the ground of

ill-health, and returned to Bologna. A call to be professor primarius at

Messina (procured for him through Borelli, who had in the meantime

become professor there) induced him to leave Bologna in 1662. His

engagement at Messina was for a term of four years, at an annual

stipend of 1000 scudi. An attempt was made to retain him at Messina

beyond that period, but his services were secured for his native

university, and he spent the next twenty-five years there. In 1691,

being then in his sixty-fourth year, and in failing health, he removed

to Rome to become private physician to Pope Innocent XII., and he died

there of apoplexy three years later, on the 30th of November 1694.

Shortly before his death, he drew up a long account of his academical

and scientific labours, correspondence and controversies, and committed

it to the charge of the Royal Society of London, a body with which he

had been in intimate relations for more than twenty years. The

autobiography, along with some other posthumous writings, was published

in London in 1696, at the cost of the Society. The personal details left

by Malpighi are few and dry. His narrative is mainly occupied with a

summary of his scientific contributions and an account of his relations

to contemporary anatomists, and is entirely without graces of style or

elements of ordinary human interest.

Malpighi was one of the first to apply the microscope to the study of

animal and vegetable structure; and his discoveries were so important

that he may be considered to be the founder of microscopic anatomy. It

was his practice to open animals alive, and some of his most striking

discoveries were made in those circumstances. Although Harvey had

correctly inferred the existence of the capillary circulation, he had

never seen it; it was reserved for Malpighi in 1661 (four years after

Harvey's death) to see for the first time the marvellous spectacle of

the blood coursing through a network of small tubes on the surface of

the lung and of the distended urinary bladder of the frog. We are

enabled to measure the difficulties of microscopic observation at the

time by the fact that it took Malpighi four years longer to reach a

clear understanding of the corpuscles in the frog's blood, although

they are the parts of the blood by which its movement in the

capillaries is made visible. His discovery of the capillary

circulation was given to the world in the form of two letters _De

Pulmonibus_, addressed to Borelli, published at Bologna in 1661 and

reprinted at Leiden and other places in the years following; these

letters contained also the first account of the vesicular structure of

the human lung, and they made a theory of respiration for the first

time possible. The achievement that comes next both in importance and

in order of time was a demonstration of the plan of structure of

secreting glands; against the current opinion (revived by F. Ruysch

forty years later) that the glandular structure was essentially that

of a closed vascular coil from which the secretion exuded, he

maintained that the secretion was formed in terminal acini standing in

open communication with the ducts. The name of Malpighi is still

associated with his discovery of the soft or mucous character of the

lower stratum of the epidermis, of the vascular coils in the cortex of

the kidney, and of the follicular bodies in the spleen. He was the

first to attempt the finer anatomy of the brain, and his descriptions

of the distribution of grey matter and of the fibre-tracts in the

cord, with their extensions to the cerebrum and cerebellum, are

distinguished by accuracy; but his microscopic study of the grey

matter conducted him to the opinion that it was of glandular structure

and that it secreted the "vital spirits." At an early period he

applied himself to vegetable histology as an introduction to the more

difficult study of the animal tissues, and he was acquainted with the

spiral vessels of plants in 1662. It was not till 1671 that he wrote

his _Anatome plantarum_ and sent it to the Royal Society, who

published it in the following year. An English work under a similar

title (_Anatomy of Vegetables_) had been published in London a few

months earlier, by Nehemiah Grew; so that Malpighi's priority as a

vegetable histologist is not so incontestable as it is in animal

histology. The _Anatome plantarum_ contained an appendix,

_Observations de ovo incubato_, which gave an account (with good

plates) of the development of the chick (especially of the later

stages) in many points more complete than that of Harvey, although the

observations were needlessly lessened in value by being joined to the

metaphysical notion of "praedelineation" in the undeveloped ovum.

He also wrote _Epistolae anatomicae Marc. Malpighii et Car.

Fracassati_ (Amsterdam, 1662) (on the tongue, brain, skin, omentum,

&c.); _De viscerum structura: exercitatio anatomica_ (London, 1669);

_De structura glandularum conglobatarum_ (London, 1689); _Opera

posthuma, et vita a seipso scripta_ (London, 1697; another edition,

with preface and additions, was published at Amsterdam in 1700.). An

edition containing all his works except the last two was published in

London in 1687, in 2 vols. folio, with portrait and plates.

MALPLAQUET, a village of France in the department of the Nord, close to

the Belgian frontier and about 10 miles S. by E. of Mons, famous as the

scene of the battle, September 1709, between the Allies under the duke

of Marlborough and Prince Eugène and the French commanded by Marshal

Villars, in which the former were victorious. The country to the west

and south of Mons is enclosed by a semicircular wall of woods and broken

ground, through which there are only two important gaps--that of

Jemappes (famous in 1792) to the west, and that of Aulnois, in which

stands the village of Malplaquet, to the south. In the latter gap and

the woods on either side Villars took up his position facing

north-eastwards, on August 29/September 9. The forces in presence, over

90,000 on each side, were exceptionally large, and the French army in

particular represented the spirit of its nation to a degree unusual in

the armies of that time. Villars was the best general in the service of

Louis XIV. and the veteran Marshal Boufflers, though senior to him, had

volunteered to serve as his second in command. Marlborough and Eugène

lay with their army between Mons and the French camps, which were almost

within cannon shot. Marlborough's own wish was for an immediate battle,

but he was opposed by the Dutch deputies at his headquarters, and even

by Eugène, so that it was only on August 31/September 11 that the attack

actually took place. Villars had made full use of his respite. The

French right stood at the fringe of the wood of Lanière, the left was

strongly posted in the midst of the wood of Taisnière, and across the

two and a half miles of open ground between the woods the position was

entrenched with several successive lines of works. The troops were

almost equally distributed along the whole line as usual, and the

cavalry was massed in rear of the infantry. In the Allied army the

mounted troops were also kept back, but for the most part distributed to

the various infantry commands.

The intention of Marlborough and Eugène, when on the morning of the

battle they examined this formidable position, was to deliver the main

attack upon the French left wing, combining the assaults of several

columns on its front and flanks. In this quarter the French not only

held the interior of the wood but also were thrown forward so as to

occupy the edges of its north-eastern salient, and upon the two faces of

this salient Count Lottum (1650-1719) with the Prussians, and Count von

der Schulenburg (1661-1747) with the Austrian infantry were to deliver a

double attack, while farther to the Allied right a column under the

English General Withers was detached to make a wide turning movement

through the woods. Marlborough took command on the right, Eugène on the

left. The centre, which was intended only to observe the enemy until the

decision had been forced at the wood of Taisnière, consisted of Lord

Orkney's British corps and the prince of Orange's Dutch contingent.

These extended across the Trouée d'Aulnois as soon as the combined

attack of Lottum and Schulenburg opened. The general advance was covered

by a heavy cannonade, and the salient of the Taisnière wood was duly

attacked on its two faces by the Prussians and Austrians about 9 a.m.

They encountered a sterner resistance than in any of the battles and

combats of the past seven campaigns, for on this field the defenders

were fighting, not as hitherto for the interests of their king, but to

defend their country, and the regiments of Picardie and Champagne which

held the salient were the oldest and most famous of the French line.

Lottum attacked the works on the eastern edge, again and again without

success, until three British battalions had to be sent to reinforce him,

and Marlborough placed himself with a corps of cavalry in close support.

At last the entrenchments were stormed. Schulenburg, with the Austrians,

had by this time fought his way through the woods and undergrowth, and

the united force pressed back the French farther and farther into the

wood. Still, so stubborn was the defence and so dense the wood that the

impetus of the assault died away and the troops on both sides broke up

into small disconnected bodies, fighting too fiercely to be amenable to

superior control.

[Illustration: After Hon. J. W. Fortescue, _History of the British

Army_, by permission of Macmillan & Co., Ltd.]

But the French were not reinforced from their right wing as Villars

expected. The prince of Orange, far from merely observing the hostile

right as he had been ordered to do, committed his corps, very early in

the battle, to a serious assault upon it, which Boufflers repulsed with

enormous loss. The Dutch infantry never recovered from its casualties on

this day, and the memory of Malplaquet was strong even at Fontenoy

nearly forty years afterwards. Some Hanoverian troops which took part in

this futile attack suffered equally heavily. The only advantage to the

Allies--an advantage which, as it happened, counted for much--was that

Boufflers did not dare to send reinforcements to the hard-pressed left

wing. Thanks to this the Austrians and Prussians, with the English

detached to their aid, made steady progress in the wood of Taisnière.

Villars launched the "Irish brigade" to check the advance of the Allies,

and this famous corps charged into the forest. Villars, Eugène and

Marlborough personally led their troops in the encounter which followed.

Eugène was wounded, but refused to quit the field. Villars was more

seriously hurt, and after trying in vain to direct the fighting from a

chair was carried insensible from the field. At this crisis General

Withers, who commanded the force that had been ordered to turn the

French extreme left, and had fought his way through the forest, appeared

on the scene. The British 18th regiment (Royal Irish), encountering the

French _Royal Irlandais_, put it to the rout, and Villars's

counterstroke was at an end. The French maintained themselves on this

side only by the aid of troops drawn from the centre and right, and this

gave the Allied centre the opportunity which the prince of Orange had so

rashly anticipated. The great attack over the open was carried out, in

spite of the previous repulse, with the greatest determination. Preceded

by forty guns, the corps of the prince of Orange and Lord Orkney swiftly

carried the first line of works. The Allied cavalry then pushed out to

the front, and horse, foot and artillery were combined in the last

advance. Boufflers's cavalry masses, coming into play for the first

time, fought hard, and the struggle fluctuated with the arrival of

successive reserves on either side, but in the end, shortly before 3

p.m., Boufflers (who had been in command since Villars's fall) decided

to retreat. The Allies had no troops left intact for the pursuit, and

those engaged had expended their last efforts. Moreover Boufflers,

experienced soldier as he was, drew off his men before they had lost

their order and discipline.

Thus this "very murdering battle" as Marlborough called it--the last and

greatest pitched battle of the war--was almost barren of results. The

Allies lost not less than twenty thousand men, or nearly a quarter of

the whole force, the thirty battalions of the Dutch infantry losing half

their numbers. On the French side there were some twelve thousand

casualties. If further evidence were necessary to prove that the French

fought their hardest, it could be found in the fact that whereas in

almost every other battle, from 1660 to 1792, there were deserters and

prisoners by the thousand, at Malplaquet only 500 of the French fell

into the hands of the victors unwounded.

MALSTATT-BURBACH, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine province on

the right bank of the Saar (Sarre), which separates it from Saarbrücken.

Pop. (1900), 31,195. It lies in the midst of an important coal-mining

and industrial district, and is itself little more than a long and

narrow row of manufactories and workmen's houses. The largest factories

are engaged in the production of iron, steel and cement. There is a

large wharf on the river for the export of coal.

Malstatt received municipal rights in 1321. These, however, were

afterwards resigned to the newer town of Saarbrücken, and in 1818

Malstatt and Burbach were two small villages with a joint population

of only about 800. About the middle of the century the population

began to increase rapidly, in consequence of the development of the

mining industry of the district and the extension of the railway

system, and in 1874 the two villages were united to form a town.

MALT (O. Eng., _mealt_; O. Sax., _malt_; O. Teut., _maltos_; Mod. Ger.,

_Malz_; Scand., _malt_; probably derived from the Sanskrit _mrdu_, soft,

thus having reference to the fact that malt is raw grain rendered soft

or tender), the name given to grain in which germination has been caused

to proceed to a certain stage and has then been arrested by the removal

of water and the application of heat. During this limited germination

enzymes are developed (see FERMENTATION), and the constituents of the

grain modified so that the finished malt, when ground and submitted to

the mashing process (see BREWING), differs from the original raw grain

in that the greater portion dissolves. This solubility is, however, a

direct one to a slight extent only; it is due for the most part to the

action of the malt enzymes, diastase, &c. on the constituents of the

grain, the main portion of which are of themselves insoluble. Thus

starch, the main constituent of all graminaceous seeds, probably exists

in the same condition in raw grain and in malt. When however the malt is

mashed, the starch is attacked by the enzyme diastase, and converted by

the process of hydrolysis into a mixture of soluble compounds, e.g. the

crystalline sugar, maltose, and a number of gummy substances known as

maltodextrins. But to a certain extent starch and other carbohydrate

substances are rendered directly soluble and diffusible during the

malting process, some of the products serving the respiratory needs of

the growing germ, others being assimilated by the plantlet and

reconverted into reserve carbohydrates in the tissues of the germ and

rootlets, whilst the remaining portions are retained as such in the

finished malt. Similarly certain of the nitrogenous constituents of the

grain, the proteïns, are broken down and rendered soluble by proteolytic

enzymes, the products being assimilated to a certain extent by the germ

and rootlets, by the cells of which they are again built up into complex

proteïns, whilst others remain in their simplified form. It is now known

that proteolytic enzymes exist in finished malt, and that, when the

mashing process is conducted under certain conditions, these are able to

degrade and render soluble some of the higher proteïns present in the

malt. When germination is allowed to proceed as it does when the grain

is planted in the soil, the whole of the contents are rendered soluble

by degrees and in turn assimilated by the growing plantlet. By the

limited germination which constitutes the malting process, however, the

balance of soluble compounds left in the finished malt is from 15 to 25%

of the total weight of the corn.

Although other seeds of the natural order Gramineae are occasionally

malted, the greater portion of malt is made from the various species of

_Hordeum_, known by the name of barley (q.v.), bigg, or bere. Indeed

ordinary beer derives its characteristic flavour to the greatest extent

from barley malt. A small proportion of malted oats or malted wheat is

sometimes used in conjunction with barley malt for certain kinds of

beer, whilst rye, maize, and even rice are occasionally malted. Barley

is, however, the grain best adapted for making malt intended for brewing

beer, and accordingly some space will be devoted to a description of

those varieties of this grain which are used by the brewer.

Barley belongs to the genus Hordeum, of which there are numerous species

and varieties. Linnaeus and the earlier botanists recognized six species

of cultivated barleys, but modern botanists usually consider all

cultivated barleys as belonging to one species to which the name _H.

sativum_ has been given. Körnicke regards _H. spontaneum_, a very long

thin-grained two-rowed barley (see below) which grows in the East, as

being the parent form; but E. S. Beaven inclines to the view that wild

species of more than one form were originally used as food and

subsequently cultivated. The last-named author has drawn up a scheme of

classification for the varieties and races of cultivated barleys.

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