In 1909 a treaty was made between Great Britain and Siam, one provision
of which was the cession to the former of the suzerain rights enjoyed by
the latter over certain territories in the Malay Peninsula. These
territories consisted of the four Siamese Malay States: Kelantan,
Trengganu, Kedah and Perlis, very ancient dependencies of Siam, all of
which except Trengganu, were in a flourishing condition and had been
administered by British officers in the service of Siam for some years
prior to their transference. Though the four states were loyal to Siam
and wished to retain their former allegiance, the change was effected
without disturbance of any kind, the British government on assuming the
rights of suzerainty placing an adviser at the court of each raja and
guaranteeing the continuance of the administration on the lines already
laid down by Siam so far as might be compatible with justice and fair
treatment for all. The four states lie to the north of the Federated
Malay States, two on the east and two on the west side of the peninsula.
KELANTAN.--This state on the east coast, bounded N. and N.E. by the
China Sea, E. by Trengganu, S. by Pahang and W. by Perak and Ra-ngé,
lies between 4° 48´ and 6° 20´ N. and 101° 33´ and 102° 45´ E. The
greatest length from north to south is 115 m. and the greatest breadth
from east to west 60 m. The area is about 5000 sq. m. The northern part
of the state is flat and fertile, but the southern district which
comprises more than half the total area, is mountainous and
uncultivated.
Next to the Pahang, the Kelantan River is the largest on the east
coast. It is 120 miles long and is navigable for shallow-draft
launches and big country boats for about 80 miles, and for vessels of
8 ft. draft for about six miles. Its principal tributaries are the
Galas, Pergau and Lebir. The Golok and Semarak rivers water the west
and east parts of the state, falling into the sea a few miles on
either side of the mouth of the Kelantan River. The climate of
Kelantan is mild and singularly healthy in the open cultivated
regions. The population is about 300,000 of which 10,000 are
aboriginal tribes (Sakeis and Jakuns), 10,000 Siamese and Chinese and
the rest Malays. The Chinese are increasing and natives of different
parts of India are resorting to the state for purposes of trade. Kota
Bharu (pop. 10,000) is the only town in the state. It lies on the
right bank of the river, about six miles from the sea. Since 1904 it
has been laid out with metalled roads and many public and private
buildings have been erected. The town is the commercial as well as the
administrative centre of the state. Tumpat and Tabar on the coast,
with population 4000 and 3000 respectively, are the places next in
importance after Kota Bharu. A network of creeks render communication
easy in the northern districts, the river and its tributaries afford
means of access to all parts of the south; 20 miles of road have been
made in the neighbourhood of Kota Bharu. Kelantan is connected by
telegraph with Bangkok and Singapore, and maintains regular postal
communication with those places. Rice cultivation is the principal
industry and is increasing rapidly. Coco-nut and betel-nut growing are
also largely practised. Much livestock is raised. About 400,000 acres
of land are under cultivation. Though reputed rich in minerals, past
misrule prevented mining enterprise in Kelantan until, in 1900, a
large concession was given to an Englishman and the country was opened
to foreigners. In 1909 three mining syndicates were at work, and
several others were in process of formation. Gold, tin and galena have
been found in several localities and during the years 1906-1909 28,000
ounces of gold were dredged from the Kelantan River. The Kelantanese
are expert fishermen, some 30,000 finding employment in fishing and
fish-drying. Silk-weaving is a growing industry. Foreign trade, which
in 1909 reached the value of two and a half million dollars, is
chiefly with Singapore. Principal exports are copra, rice, fish,
cattle and gold; chief imports are cotton goods, hardware and specie.
The currency is the Straits Settlements dollar and small silver coin,
supplemented by a locally made tin coin of low value.
By virtue of a mutual agreement made in 1902 Siam appointed a resident
commissioner to Kelantan and consented, so long as the advice of that
officer should be followed, to leave internal affairs to be conducted
locally. Under this arrangement a council of state was appointed,
departments of government were organized, penal, civil and revenue
laws were passed and enforced, courts were established and a police
force was raised. Though formerly of an evil reputation, the people
were found to be naturally peaceful and law-abiding, and serious crime
is rare. The state revenue, which was practically nothing in 1902,
amounted to $320,000 in 1907. Islamism was adopted about 300 years ago
but the old animistic superstitions are still strong. The state is
divided into _mukim_ or parishes, but the _imam_ no longer exercise
temporal authority. There are three schools at Kota Bharu, education
in the interior being in the hands of the imam assisted with
government grants.
No historical records of Kelantan exist, and the state was not noticed
by the European merchants of the 16th and 17th centuries. Consequently
little is known of its early history beyond what is to be gathered
from brief references in the Malay annals and the old chronicles of
Siam. The sites of ancient towns and the remains of former gold
diggings are visible here and there, but all knowledge of the men who
made these marks has been lost. The present ruling family dates from
about 1790. Siam was frequently called upon to maintain internal peace
and in 1892 a royal prince was sent to reside in Kelantan as
commissioner. Complications brought about by the incapacity of the
ruler led to the making of the agreement of 1902 above mentioned, to
the fixing of a regular tribute in money to Siam, and ultimately to
the merging of the state from chaotic lawlessness into the path of
reform. On the 15th of July 1909 the state came under British
suzerainty and the commissioner of Siam was replaced by a British
adviser, from which date the liability to payment of tribute ceased,
though in all other respects the administrative arrangements of Siam
remained unaltered.
TRENGGANU.--This state on the east coast, bounded N. and N.E. by the
China Sea, S. by Pahang and W. by Pahang and Kelantan, lies between
parallels 4° 4´ and 4° 46´ N. and 102° 30´ and 103° 26´ E. The greatest
length from north to south is 120 m., and the greatest breadth from east
to west 50 m. It has a coast-line of 130 m. and an estimated area of
about 5000 sq. m. There are several islands off the coast, some of which
are inhabited. The surface is generally mountainous.
Principal rivers are the Besut, Stiu, Trengganu, Dungun and Kmamun,
none of which is navigable for any distance. The climate is mild and
fairly healthy. The population numbers about 180,000, almost all
Malays, and mostly clusters round the mouths and lower reaches of the
rivers. The capital, which is situated at the mouth of the Trengganu
River, contains, with its suburbs, not less than 30,000 people.
Difficulty of access by river and by land render the interior
districts almost uninhabitable. Communication is maintained by boat
along the coast. There are no roads and no postal or telegraphic
communications.
The majority of the people are sailors and fishermen. Rice is grown,
but not in sufficient quantities to supply local needs. Much pepper
and gambier were at one time grown and exported, but about the year
1903 agriculture began to fall off owing to prevailing insecurity of
life and property. Not much livestock is raised, the few head of
cattle exported from Besut being mostly stolen from across the
neighbouring Kelantan border. A successful tin mine under European
control exists in the Kmamun district, but as everything possible was
done in the past to discourage all foreign enterprise, the probable
mineral wealth of the country is still practically untouched.
Silk-weaving, carried on entirely by the women, is a considerable
industry. The silk is imported raw and is re-exported in the form of
Malay clothing (_sarongs_) of patterns and quality which are widely
celebrated. The manufacture of native weapons and of brassware was at
one time brisk but is declining. The trade of Trengganu is not
increasing. It is valued roughly at about one and a half million
dollars a year, is chiefly with Singapore, and is to a great extent
carried in Trengganu-built ships, which latter also do some carrying
trade for other states on the east coast.
The Trengganu sultanate is one of the most ancient in the peninsula
and ranks with that of Riau. The state was feudatory to Malacca in the
13th century and during the 14th, 15th and 16th centuries its
possession was frequently disputed between Malacca and Siam. The
present sultan is the descendant of an ancient family, the members of
which have quarrelled and fought with each other for the succession
from time immemorial. The last serious disturbance was in 1837 when
the grandfather of the present sultan stole the throne from his
nephew. Until the acquisition of the state by Great Britain a
triennial tribute of gold flowers was paid to Siam, and this with
occasional letters of instructions and advice, constituted almost the
only tangible evidence of Siamese suzerainty. Of government there was
practically none. The sultan, having alienated most of his powers and
prerogatives to his relatives, passed his life in religious seclusion
and was ruler in no more than name. The revenues were devoured by the
relatives, a small part of those accruing from the capital sufficing
for the sultan's needs. There were no written laws, no courts and no
police. All manner of crime was rampant, the peasantry was mercilessly
downtrodden, but the land was full of holy men and the cries of the
miserable were drowned in the noise of ostentatious prayer. In fine,
Trengganu presented in the beginning of the year 1909 the type of
untrammelled Malay rule which had fortunately disappeared from every
other state in the peninsula. In July of that year, however, the first
British adviser or agent arrived in the state, which was shortly
afterwards visited by the governor of the Straits Settlements, who
discussed with the sultan the changed conditions consequent upon the
Anglo-Siamese treaty and laid the foundations of future reform.
KEDAH.--This state, on the west coast of the peninsula, lies between
parallels 5° 20´ and 6° 42´ N., and is bounded, N. by Palit and Songkla,
E. by Songkla and Raman, S. by Province Wellesley and Perak, and W. by
the sea. The coast-line is 65 m. long, the greatest distance from north
to south is 115 m. and the greatest breadth 46 m. Off the coast lies a
group of islands, the largest of which is Langkawi, well peopled and
forming a district of the state.
The total area of Kedah is about 4000 sq. m. The land is low-lying and
swampy near the coast except towards the south where the height known
as Kedah Hill rises from the shore opposite Penang, flat and fertile
farther inland, and mountainous towards the eastern border. The rivers
are small, the Sungei Kedah, navigable for a few miles for vessels of
50 tons, and the S. Muda, which forms the boundary with Province
Wellesley, being the only streams worthy of notice. The plains are
formed of marine deposit, and in the mountains limestone and granite
preponderate. The population is estimated at 220,000, of whom about
100,000 are Malays, 50,000 Siamese and Samsams and 70,000 Chinese and
Madrassis (Klings). There are three towns of importance. Alor Star,
the capital, on the Kedah river, 10 miles from the sea, in a flat,
unhealthy, but fertile locality, is a well laid out town with good
streets, many handsome public and private buildings, and good
wharfage for small vessels. The population is about 20,000, of whom
more than half are Chinese and the remainder government servants and
retainers of the local aristocracy. Kuala Muda (pop. 10,000) and Kulim
(pop. 8000) situated in the south, are unimposing collections of small
birch houses and thatched bamboo huts; the latter is the centre of the
Kedah tin mining industry. The bulk of the population is scattered
over the plains in small villages. A good road runs north from Alor
Star to the border of the state, a distance of 40 miles, and other
roads are being constructed. The state has 185 miles of telegraph line
and 75 miles of telephone line. Mails are closed daily at Alor Star
for Penang and there is a good internal postal service. The chief
industry is rice cultivation. Coco-nut, betel-nut and fruit
plantations are many, and the cultivation of rubber has recently been
taken up with prospects of success. The estimated area under
cultivation is about 300,000 acres. There are rice-mills at Alor Star
and at Kuala Muda. The principal exports are rice, cattle and tin. The
chief imports are cotton goods, provisions, hardware and raw silk.
Accurate trade statistics are not available. The ruler holds the rank
of sultan and is assisted in the government by a council and by the
British adviser who since the state passed from Siamese to British
protection in 1909, has replaced the officer formerly appointed by
Siam. The sultan comes of a family long recognized by Siam as having
hereditary right to the rulership. The penal and civil laws are
administered in accordance with the precepts of Islamism, the official
religion of the state. Though much has been done to improve the
courts, justice is not easily obtainable. A land registration system
is in force but is in a state of confusion, though a land law passed
in 1905 gives security of tenure over lands newly acquired. The mining
laws are similar to those of Siam. In 1905 the Siamese government
advanced two and a half million dollars to Kedah, to pay the debts of
the state, which sum was refunded by the British Government on
assuming the position of protector. The annual revenue is $1,000,000
and the expenditure about the same. Chief heads of revenue are opium
and land tax. Many revenue monopolies, created in the past, have not
yet expired; but for this the revenue would be greater than it is.
There is no army. In 1906 the police service was reorganized under
British officers, resulting in great improvement to this department.
The state is divided into a number of administrative districts under
Malay officials. Each district comprises several _mukim_ or parishes,
the _imam_ of which exercise both spiritual and temporal control.
There are schools in the chief towns, but education has not yet been
seriously undertaken.
Kedah was founded by colonists from India in A.D. 1200, about which
time the Siamese had subdued Nakhon Sri Tammarat and claimed the whole
Malay Peninsula. When the rise of Malacca shook Siamese authority in
the peninsula, Kedah oscillated between them, and on the conquest of
Malacca by the Portuguese, fell to Siam, though the capital was raided
and burnt by the Europeans. The ruler and his people were converted to
Islam in the 15th century. In 1768, the Siamese kingdom being
disorganized, the sultan of Kedah entered into direct political
relations with the Hon. East India Company, leasing the island of
Penang to the latter. Further treaties followed in 1791 and 1802, but
in 1821 Siam reasserted her control, expelling the rebellious sultan
after a sanguinary war. The sultan made several fruitless efforts to
recover the state, and at length made full submission, when he was
reinstated. In 1868 an agreement between Great Britain and Siam was
substituted for the treaties of the East India Company with the
sultan. The present sultan succeeded in 1881, and for 14 years
governed well, but in 1895 he began to contract debts and to leave the
government to his minions. The result was chaos, and in 1905 the
Siamese government had to intervene to avert a condition of
bankruptcy, adjusting the finances and reorganizing the general
administration to such effect that when, four years later, the state
became a British dependency, a government was found established on a
sound basis and requiring nothing but the presence of a firm and
experienced officer as adviser to maintain its efficiency and assist
its further advance.
PERLIS (_Palit_).--This small state, consisting of the left bank
drainage area of the Perlis River, lies between Setul and Kedah, which
bound it on the N. and W. and on the E. respectively. It touches the sea
only round the mouth of the river.
The population is about 10,000, Malays and Chinese. The chief town,
Perlis, is situated about 12 m. up the river. A good deal of tin is
worked, and rice and pepper are grown and exported. In the early part
of the 19th century Perlis was a district of Kedah, but during a
period of disturbance in the latter state it established itself as a
separate chiefdom. In 1897 Siam restored the nominal authority of
Kedah, but the measure was not productive of good. In 1905 the Siamese
government advanced a loan of $200,000 to Perlis, and appointed an
English adviser to assist in the general administration. This money
was refunded to Siam and the adviser relieved by a British officer
when the state became British in July 1909. The condition of the state
has improved, but the revenue, $80,000, is not sufficient for the
immediate needs of government.
Authorities.--Norman, _The Far East_ (London, 1895); H. Clifford, in
the _Geographical Journal_ (London, 1896); Carter, _The Kingdom of
Siam_ (London, 1904); Graham, _Reports on Kelantan_ (Bangkok,
1905-1909); Skeat and Blagden, _Pagan Races of the Malay Peninsula_
(London, 1906); Hart, _Reports on Kedah_ (Calcutta, 1907-1909);
Graham, _Kelantan, a Handbook_ (Glasgow, 1907). (W. A. G.)
MALAY STATES (SIAMESE). The authority of Siam, which at one time covered
the whole of the Malay peninsula, now extends southward to an irregular
line drawn across the Peninsula at about 6° 30´ N. Between that line and
the Isthmus of Kra, usually accepted as the northernmost point of the
Malay Peninsula, there lie some 20,000 sq. m. of territory inhabited by
a mixed population of Siamese and Malays with here and there a few
remnants of the aboriginal inhabitants clinging to the wilder districts,
and with a few Chinese settlers engaged in commerce. Formerly this tract
was divided into a number of states, each of which was ruled by a chief
(Siamese, _Chao Muang_; Malay, _raja_), who held his title from the king
of Siam, but, subject to a few restrictions, conducted the affairs of
his state in accordance with his own desires; the office of chief,
moreover, was hereditary, subject always to the approval of the
suzerain. The states formed two groups: a northern, including Langsuan,
Chaya, Nakhon Sri Tammarat, Songkla, Renawng, Takoapa, Pang Nga, Tongka
and Trang, in which the Siamese element predominated and of which the
chiefs were usually Siamese or Chinese; and a southern, including
Palean, Satun (Setul), Patani, Raman, Jering, Sai (Teloban), Re Nge
(Legeh), Yala (Jalor) and Nong Chik, in which the population was
principally Malay and the ruler also Malay. Four other states of the
southern group, Kelantan, Trengganu, Kedah and Perlis, of which the
population is entirely Malay, passed from Siamese to British protection
in 1909.
With the gradual consolidation of the Siamese kingdom all the states of
the northern group have been incorporated as ordinary provinces of Siam
(q.v.), the hereditary _Chao Muang_ having died or been pensioned and
replaced by officials of the Siamese Civil Service, while the states
themselves now constitute provinces of the administrative divisions of
Chumpon, Nakhon Sri Tammarat and Puket. The states of the southern
group, however, retain their hereditary rulers, each of whom presides
over a council and governs with the aid of a Siamese assistant
commissioner and with a staff of Siamese district officials, subject to
the general control of high commissioners under whom the states are
grouped. This southern group, with a total area of about 7000 sq. m. and
a population of 375,000, constitutes the Siamese Malay States. A British
consul with headquarters at Puket, and a vice-consul who resides at
Songkla, watch over the interests of British subjects in the states of
the west and east sides of the peninsula respectively. Other foreign
powers are unrepresented.
_Palean._--This small state on the west coast, bounded N. by the
province of Trang, E. by the Songkla division, S. by the state of
Setul, and W. by the sea, is about 900 sq. m. in area, and has a
population of about 20,000. It is attached for administrative purposes
to the province of Trang, and its people are chiefly engaged in the
cultivation of pepper, of which about 150 tons are annually exported.
A few tin mines are also worked.
_Satun_ (_Setul_).--This small state, bounded N. by Palean, E. by
Songkla, S. by Perlis, and W. by the sea, contains about 1000 sq. m.
area with a population of about 25,000, Malays, Siamese and a few
Chinese. The principal production is pepper, which is exported in
junks and in the small Penang steamers which ply on the west coast of
the peninsula. In 1897 Setul was placed under the control of Kedah,
then a Siamese dependency, but the arrangement was not a success, and
in 1907 the Siamese government was forced, owing to prevailing
corruption and misrule, to restrict the powers of the chief and,
cancelling the authority of Kedah, to place him to some extent under
the orders of the high commissioner of Songkla. By the terms of the
Anglo-Siamese treaty of 1909 about half of the state of Perlis was
added to Satun, an arrangement by which the importance of the latter
was considerably increased.
_Patani._--The seven Malay states of Nawng Chik, Patani, Jering, Yala
(Jalor), Sai (Teloban), Raman and Ra-ngé (Legeh) were constituted from
the old state of Patani at the beginning of the 19th century. In 1906
they were reunited to form the Patani administrative division of Siam,
but each state retains its Malay ruler, who governs jointly with a
Siamese officer under the direction of the Siamese high commissioner,
and many of the ancient privileges and customs of Malay government are
preserved. The group of States is situated between 5° 34´ and 6° 52´
N. and 100° 54´ and 101° 58´ E. It is bounded N. by the China Sea, E.
by the China Sea and Kelantan, S. by Perak, and W. by Kedah. The total
area is about 5000 sq. m. The country is mountainous except close to
the coast. The principal rivers are the Patani and the Teloban, long,
winding and shallow, and navigable for small boats only. The
population is about 335,000, of whom the great majority are Malays.
Each state has its capital, but Patani (the headquarters of the high
commissioner) is the only town of importance. Communications are poor
and are chiefly by river, but roads are under construction. Patani and
Sai are in telegraphic communication with Bangkok and Singapore, and
regular weekly mails are despatched to those places. The area under
cultivation is small except round about Patani and in Nawng Chik,
where much rice is grown. Tin mining is a growing industry; many
Chinese own mines and several European syndicates are at work in
Raman, Ra-ngé and Patani, prospecting for, or mining, this metal.
Fishing and salt-evaporation occupy a large proportion of the
population. The annual export of tin is about 400 tons, and dried
fish, salt, cattle and elephants are other exports. Steamers up to 300
tons maintain frequent communication with Bangkok and Singapore, and
the Patani roads afford good anchorage at all seasons.
Mahommedan law is followed in the settlement of inherited property
disputes and of matrimonial affairs; otherwise the laws of Siam
obtain. Efficient law courts have been established in each state, and
there is a serviceable force of gendarmerie recruited from amongst
Malays and Siamese alike. The revenue amounts to about 600,000 ticals,
or £45,000 a year, one-third being payable to the rulers as private
income for themselves and their relatives, one-third expended on the
administration, and one-third reserved for special purposes, but it is
usually found necessary to devote the last-mentioned third to the
expenses of administration. Patani has been subject to Siam from the
remotest times. It is said that the old state adopted Islamism in the
16th century, the chief, a relative of the kings of Siam, embracing
that religion and at the same time revolting to Malacca. It has
several times been necessary to send punitive expeditions to recall
the state to its allegiance. The present rulers are mostly descended
from the ruling families of the neighbouring state of Kelantan, but
the chief of Patani itself is a member of the family which ruled there
in the days of its greatness. Throughout the 17th century Patani was
resorted to by Portuguese, Dutch and English merchants, who had
factories ashore and used the place as an emporium for trade with
Siam. In 1621 an engagement took place in the Patani roads between
three Dutch and two British ships, the latter being taken after the
president of the British merchants, John Jourdain, had been killed. In
1899 the border between the state of Perak and Raman was fixed by an
agreement between England and Siam, a dispute of old standing being
thereby settled, but the question was reopened in the negotiations
which preceded the Anglo-Siamese treaty of 1909, when a new border
line was fixed between British and Siamese possessions in the
Peninsula. (W. A. G.)
MALCHIN, a town of Germany, in the grand-duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin,
on the river Peene, between lakes Malchin and Kummerow, 28 m. by rail
N.W. of Neu-Brandenburg. Pop. (1900), 7449. It is, alternately with
Sternberg, the place of assembly of the Diet of Mecklenburg. Here are
the châteaux of Remplin, Basedow and Schlitz; a church dating from the
14th century, and a fine town-hall. The well-wooded and undulating
country, environing the shores of Lake Malchin, is known as the
"Mecklenburg Switzerland," and is increasing in favour as a summer
resort. A canal unites Lake Kummerow with the Peene. The industries of
the town include the manufacture of sugar and bricks, and brewing and
malting. Malchin became a town in 1236.
MALCOLM, the name of four kings of the Scots, two of whom, MALCOLM I.,
king from 943 to 954, and MALCOLM II., king from 1005 to 1034, are
shadowy and unimportant personages.
MALCOLM III. (d. 1093), called Canmore or the "large-headed," was a son
of King Duncan I., and became king after the defeat of the usurper
Macbeth in July 1054, being crowned at Scone in April 1057. Having
married as his second wife, (St) Margaret (q.v.), a sister of Edgar
Ætheling, who was a fugitive at his court, he invaded England in 1070 to
support the claim of Edgar to the English throne, returning to Scotland
with many captives after harrying Northumbria. William the Conqueror
answered this attack by marching into Scotland in 1072, whereupon
Malcolm made peace with the English king at Abernethy and "was his man."
However, in spite of this promise he ravaged the north of England again
and again, until in 1091 William Rufus invaded Scotland and received his
submission. Then in 1092 a fresh dispute arose between the two kings,
and William summoned Malcolm to his court at Gloucester. The Scot
obeyed, and calling at Durham on his southward journey was present at
the foundation of Durham Cathedral. When he reached Gloucester Rufus
refused to receive him unless he did homage for his kingdom; he declined
and returned home in high dudgeon. Almost at once he invaded
Northumbria, and was killed at a place afterwards called Malcolm's
Cross, near Alnwick, on the 13th of November 1093. Four of Malcolm's
sons, Duncan II., Edgar, Alexander I., and David I., became kings of
Scotland; and one of his daughters, Matilda, became the wife of Henry I.
of England, a marriage which united the Saxon and the Norman royal
houses.
MALCOLM IV. (c. 1141-1165) was the eldest son of Henry, earl of
Huntingdon (d. 1152), son of King David I., and succeeded his
grandfather David as king of Scotland in 1153. He is called the
"Maiden," and died unmarried on the 9th of December 1165.
See E. A. Freeman, _The Norman Conquest_, vols. iv. and v.
(1867-1879), and _The Reign of William Rufus_ (1882); W. F. Skene,
_Celtic Scotland_ (1876-1880); E. W. Robertson, _Scotland under her
Early Kings_ (1862); and A. Lang, _History of Scotland_, vol. i.
(1900).
MALCOLM, SIR JOHN (1769-1833), Anglo-Indian soldier, diplomatist,
administrator and author, was born at Burnfoot on the Esk, near
Langholm, Dumfriesshire, Scotland, on the 2nd of May 1769. His father
was a humble farmer, but three of his sons attained the honour of
knighthood. At the age of twelve he received a cadetship in the Indian
army, and in April 1783 he landed at Madras, shortly afterwards joining
his regiment at Vellore. In 1792, having for some time devoted himself
to the study of Persian, he was appointed to the staff of Lord
Cornwallis as Persian interpreter, but two years afterwards was
compelled by ill health to leave for England. On his return to India in
1796 he became military secretary to Sir Alured Clarke,
commander-in-chief at Madras, and afterwards to his successor General
Harris; and in 1798 he was appointed by Lord Wellesley assistant to the
resident at Hyderabad. In the last-mentioned capacity he highly
distinguished himself by the manner in which he gave effect to the
difficult measure of disbanding the French corps in the pay of the
nizam. In 1799, under the walls of Seringapatam, began his intimacy with
Colonel Arthur Wellesley, which in a short time ripened into a lifelong
friendship. In the course of the same year he acted as first secretary
to the commission appointed to settle the Mysore government, and before
its close he was appointed by Lord Wellesley to proceed as envoy to the
court of Persia for the purpose of counteracting the policy of the
French by inducing that country to form a British alliance. Arriving at
Teheran in December 1800, he was successful in negotiating favourable
treaties, both political and commercial, and returned to Bombay by way
of Bagdad in May 1801. He now for some time held the interim post of
private secretary to Lord Wellesley, and in 1803 was appointed to the
Mysore residency. At the close of the Mahratta War, in 1804, and again
in 1805, he negotiated important treaties with Sindhia and Holkar, and
in 1806, besides seeing the arrangements arising out of these alliances
carried out, he directed the difficult work of reducing the immense body
of irregular native troops. In 1808 he was again sent on a mission to
Persia, but circumstances prevented him from getting beyond Bushire; on
his reappointment in 1810, he was successful indeed in procuring a
favourable reception at court, but otherwise his embassy, if the
information which he afterwards incorporated in his works on Persia be
left out of account, was (through no fault of his) without any
substantial result. He sailed for England in 1811, and shortly after his
arrival in the following year was knighted. His intervals of leisure he
devoted to literary work, and especially to the composition of a
_History of Persia_, which was published in two quarto volumes in 1815.
On his return to India in 1817 he was appointed by Lord Moira his
political agent in the Deccan, with eligibility for military command; as
brigadier-general under Sir T. Hislop he took a distinguished part in
the victory of Mehidpur (December 21, 1817), as also in the subsequent
work of following up the fugitives, determining the conditions of peace
and settling the country. In 1821 he returned once more to England,
where he remained until 1827, when he was appointed governor of Bombay.
His influence in this office was directed to the promotion of various
economical reforms and useful administrative measures. Leaving India for
the last time in 1830, he shortly after his arrival in England entered
parliament as member for Launceston, and was an active opponent of the
Reform Bill. He died of paralysis on the 30th of May 1833.
Besides the work mentioned above, Sir John Malcolm published _Sketch
of the Political History of India since ... 1784_ (in 1811 and 1826);
_Sketch of the Sikhs_ (1812); _Observations on the Disturbances in the
Madras Army in 1809_ (1812); _Persia, a Poem_, anonymous (1814); _A
Memoir of Central India_ (2 vols., 1823); and _Sketches of Persia_,
anonymous (1827). A posthumous work, _Life of Robert, Lord Clive_,
appeared in 1836. See _Life and Correspondence of Sir John Malcolm_,
by J. W. Kaye (2 vols., 1856).
MALDA, a district of British India, in the Rajshahi division of Eastern
Bengal and Assam. Area, 1899 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 884,030, showing an
increase of 8.5 in the decade. The administrative headquarters are at
English Bazar (pop. 13,667) near the town of Old Malda. The district is
divided into two almost equal parts by the Mahananda river, flowing from
north to south. The western tract between the Mahananda and the main
stream of the Ganges is an alluvial plain of sandy soil and great
fertility. The eastern half is an elevated region broken by the deep
valleys of the Tangan and Purnabhaba rivers and their small tributary
streams. The soil here is a hard red clay; and the whole is overgrown
with thorny tree jungle known as the _katal_. Agricultural prosperity
centres on the Mahananda, where mango orchards and high raised plots of
mulberry land extend continuously along both banks of the river. The
Ganges nowhere intersects the district, but skirts it from its
north-western corner to the extreme south. The Mahananda flows in a deep
well-defined channel through the centre, and joins the Ganges at the
southern corner. Its tributaries are the Kalindri on the right, and the
Tangan and Purnabhaba on the left bank. The two principal industries are
the production of indigo and silk. The first has declined, and so has
the second as far as concerns the weaving of piece goods, but the
rearing of silkworms and the export of raw silk and silk thread are
carried on upon a large scale. No railway touches the district, but the
communications by water are good.
Malda supplied two great capitals to the early Mahommedan kings of
Bengal; and the sites of Gaur and Pandua exhibit the most interesting
remains to be found in the lower valley of the Ganges. (See GAUR.) The
connexion of the East India Company with Malda dates from a very early
period. As far back as 1676 there was a factory there. In 1770 English
Bazar was fixed upon for a commercial residency, the buildings of
which at the present day form both the public offices and private
residence of the collector.
MALDEN, a city, including several villages, of Middlesex county,
Massachusetts, U.S.A., on the Malden river, about 5 m. N. of Boston.
Pop. (1890), 23,031, (1900), 33,664, of whom 9513 were foreign-born,
3673 being English Canadians, 870 English, and 617 Swedes; (1910 census)
44,404. Malden had in 1906 a land area of 4.78 sq. m. It is served by
the Boston & Maine railroad, and by inter-urban electric railways.
Although it is largely a residential suburb of Boston--its post office
is a Boston sub-station--it has important manufacturing industries. The
most valuable manufactured product is rubber boots and shoes. The
capital invested in manufacturing in 1905 was $5,553,432; and the value
of the factory product, $11,235,635, was 70.2% greater than the value of
the factory product in 1900. Among Malden's institutions are the public
library (endowed by Elisha S. Converse), the Malden hospital, the Malden
day nursery, a Young Men's Christian Association, and a home for the
aged. A fine system of parks is maintained; the best known is possibly
Pine Banks. To the north and west is the Middlesex Fells, a state
reservation; about 60 acres of this and about 20 acres of the Middlesex
Fells Parkway lie within Malden. Malden, when first settled about 1640,
was part of Charlestown, and was known for some years as Mystic Side. It
was incorporated as a town under the name of "Mauldon" in 1640, and was
chartered as a city in 1881. The north part of Malden was set off in
1850 to form Melrose, and the south part in 1870 to form the town of
Everett. Malden was the birthplace of Adoniram Judson, the "apostle to
Burma." Michael Wigglesworth was pastor here from 1656 until 1705.
See D. P. Corey, _History of Malden_ (Malden, 1899); and _Malden, Past
and Present_ (Malden, 1899).
MALDIVE ISLANDS, an archipelago of coral islets in the Indian Ocean,
forming a chain between 7° 6´ N. and 0° 42´ S. It consists of seventeen
atolls with an immense number of islands, of which some three hundred
are inhabited. In the extreme south are the isolated atolls of Addu and
Fua-Mulaku, separated from Suvadiva by the Equatorial Channel, which is
itself separated from the main chain of atolls by One-and-a-half-degree
Channel.[1] Following the chain northward from this channel, we have
Haddumati and Kolumadulu, after which the chain becomes double: to the
east the chief atolls are Mulaku, Felidu, South Malé, North Malé,
Kardiva (where the channel of the same name, 35 m. broad, partly breaks
the chain), and Fadiffolu. To the west are South Nilandu, North Nilandu,
Ari, South Mahlos, North Mahlos and Miladumadulu. To the north again are
Tiladumati and Ihavandifulu. Finally, to the north of Eight-degree
Channel is Minikoi, 71 m. from the nearest point of the Maldives, and
110 m. from that of the Laccadives to the north. The main part of the
archipelago, north of One-and-a-half-degree Channel, consists of a
series of banks either surrounded or studded all over with reefs (see J.
S. Gardiner, "Formation of the Maldives," in _Geographical Journ._ xix.
277 seq.). Mr Gardiner regarded these banks as plateaus rising to
different elevations beneath the surface of the sea from a main plateau
rising steeply from the great depths of the Indian Ocean.
After the Portuguese, from about 1518 onwards, had attempted many times
to establish themselves on the islands by force, and after the
Maldivians had endured frequent raids by the Mopla pirates of the
Malabar coast, they began to send tokens of homage and claims of
protection (the first recorded being in 1645) to the rulers of Ceylon,
and their association with this island has continued practically ever
since. The hereditary sultan of the archipelago is tributary to the
British government of Ceylon. The population of the Maldives is
estimated at 30,000. All are Mahommedans. By Messrs. Gardiner and Cooper
they are classed in four ethnological divisions. (1) Those of the atolls
north of the Kardiva Channel. Here the reefs are generally less perfect
than elsewhere, seldom forming complete central lagoons, and as they
were formerly exposed to the constant attacks of the Mopla pirates from
India, the people are hardier and more vigorous than their less warlike
southern neighbours. They annually visited the coasts of India or
Ceylon, and often married Indian wives, thus acquiring distinct racial
characters of an approximately Dravidian type. (2) Those of the central
division, comprising the atolls between North Malé and Haddumati, who
are under the direct rule of the sultan, and have been more exposed to
Arab influences. They formerly traded with Arabia and Malaysia, and many
Arabs settled amongst them, so that they betray a strong strain of
Semitic blood in their features. (3 and 4) The natives of Suvadiva,
Addu, Mulaku and the other southern clusters, who have had little
communication with the Central Malé people, and probably preserve more
of the primitive type, approximating in appearance to the Sinhalese
villagers of Ceylon. They are an intelligent and industrious people,
growing their own crops, manufacturing their own cloth and mats, and
building their own boats, while many read Arabic more or less fluently,
although still believers in magic and witchcraft. The language is a
dialect of Sinhalese, but indicating a separation of ancient date and
more or less mahommedanized.
The sultan's residence and the capital of the archipelago is the island
of Malé. From the earliest notices the production of coir, the
collection of cowries, and the weaving of excellent textures on these
islands have been noted. The chief exports of the islands besides coir
and cowries (a decreasing trade) are coco-nuts, copra, tortoise-shell
and dried bonito-fish.
Minikoi atoll, with the numerous wrecks on its reefs, its lighthouse,
and its position on the track of all eastward-bound vessels, is a
familiar sight to seafarers in these waters. The atoll, which is
pear-shaped and disposed in the direction from S.W. to N.E. is 5 m.
long, with an extreme breadth of nearly 3 m., with a large but shallow
lagoon approached from the north by a passage two fathoms deep. The
atoll is growing outwards on every side, and at one place rises 19 ft.
above sea-level. The population, which numbers about 3000, is sharply
divided into five castes, of which the three highest are pure
Maldivians, the lower two the same as in the Laccadives. All are centred
in a small village opposite Mou Rambu Point on the west or lagoon side;
but most of the men are generally absent, many being employed with the
Lascar crews on board the large liners plying in the eastern seas.
In 1899-1900 Messrs. J. Stanley Gardiner and C. Forster Cooper carried
out an expedition to the Maldives and Laccadives, for the important
results of which see _The Fauna and Geography of the Maldive and
Laccadive Archipelagoes_, ed. J. S. Gardiner (Cambridge, 1901-1905),
also _Proceedings of the Cambridge Philosophical Society_, vol. xi.
pt. 1 (1900), and the _Geographical Journ._, _loc. cit._, &c. A French
adventurer, François Pyrard de la Val, was wrecked in the Maldives in
1602 and detained there five years; he wrote an interesting account of
the archipelago, _Voyage de F. P. de la Val_ (Paris, 1679; previous
editions 1611, &c.). See also A. Agassiz, "An Expedition to the
Maldives" in _Amer. Journ. Science_, vol. xiii. (1902).