[1] A Hebrew tradition given in the Targum of Jonathan, and approved
by Jerome, identifies Malachi with Ezra the priest and scribe.
[2] Torrey (_Ency. Bib._ c. 2908) holds that the reference here is
purely figurative; "Judah has dealt falsely with the wife of his
youth, the covenant religion, and is wedding a strange cult." But he
assigns the book to the 4th century.
[3] This closing prophecy may possibly be a later addition (so Marti)
rounding off the prophetic canon by reference to the two great names
of Moses and Elijah, and their characteristic activities. In this
case, "Elijah" will represent an early interpretation (cf. Ecclus.
xlviii. 10) of the "messenger," originally conceived as a purely
ideal figure. The only other passage in the book whose originality is
not generally accepted is that referring to mixed marriages (ii. 11,
12).
[4] It is the Deuteronomic law that is most familiar to him, as
appears from his use of the name Horeb for the mountain of the law,
and the Deuteronomic phrase "statutes and judgments" (iv. 4), from
his language as to tithes and offerings (iii. 8, 10; cf. Deut. xii.
11; xxvi. 12), and especially from his conception of the priesthood
as resting on a covenant with Levi (ii. 4 seq.). Malachi indeed
assumes that the "whole tithe"--the Deuteronomic phrase for the tithe
in which the Levites shared--is not stored in each township, but
brought into the treasury at the Temple. But this was a modification
of the Deuteronomic law naturally called for under the circumstances
of the return from Babylon, and Neh. x. and xiii. produce the
impression that it was not introduced for the first time by Ezra and
Nehemiah, though the collection of the tithe was enforced by them.
See further, W.R.S. in _O.T.J.C._ ii. 425-427.
[5] Cf. Stade's reconstruction, _G.V.I._ ii. 128-138.
[6] Welch in _D.B._ iii. 220.
[7] This remarkable utterance is sometimes (as by W.R.S.) interpreted
of the worship of Jews scattered in the Dispersion: reasons for the
above view are given by Driver.
[8] In ii. 16 the Targum renders "If thou hatest her put her away."
It is characteristic of later Judaism that an arbitrary exegesis
transformed the above anticipation of the doctrine of marriage laid
down in the gospel into an express sanction of the right of the
husband to put away his wife at will.
[9] "The permanence of Judaism depended on the religious separateness
of the Jews" (Ryle, _Ezra and Nehemiah_, p. 143).
[10] Matt. xvii. 3, 4, 10-13; xxvii. 47, 49; John i. 21, 25.
MALACHITE, a copper-ore of fine green colour, sometimes polished as an
ornamental stone. The name is derived from Gr. [Greek: maláchê], the
mallow, in allusion to the colour of the mineral being rather like that
of the mallow-leaf. Malachite was perhaps one of the green minerals
described by Theophrastus under the general name of [Greek: smaragdos];
and according to the late Rev. C. W. King it was probably the _smaragdus
medicus_ of Pliny, whilst his _molochites_ seems to have been a
different stone from our malachite and may have been a green jasper. It
is suggested by J. L. Myres (_Ency. Bib._) that malachite may have been
the Heb. _soham_, of the high priest's breastplate.
Malachite is a basic cupric carbonate, represented by the formula
CuCO3Cu(HO)2, and has usually been formed by the action of meteoric
agencies on other copper-minerals; hence it is found in the upper part
of ore-deposits, often as an incrustation, and occasionally as a
pseudomorph after cuprite, chalcocite, &c. When formed, as commonly
happens, by the alteration of copper-pyrites the iron of this mineral
usually takes the form of limonite, which may remain associated with the
malachite. Occasionally, though but rarely, malachite occurs in small
dark-green prismatic crystals of the monoclinic system. Its usual mode
of occurrence is in nodular or stalagmitic forms, with a mammillated,
reniform or botryoidal surface, whilst in other cases it forms fibrous,
compact or even earthy masses. The nodules, though commonly dull on the
outside, may display on fracture a beautiful zonary structure, the
successive layers often succeeding each other as curved deposits of
light and dark tints. The colours include various shades of apple-green,
grass-green, emerald-green and verdigris-green. Certain varieties
exhibit a finely fibrous structure, producing on the fractured surface a
soft silky sheen.
Whilst malachite is found in greater or less quantity in most
copper-mines, the finer varieties useful for ornamental purposes are of
very limited occurrence, and the lapidary has generally drawn his supply
from Russia and Australia. The principal source in recent years has been
the Medno-Rudiansk mine near Nizhne Tagilsk, on the Siberian side of the
Urals, but it was formerly obtained from mines near Bogoslovsk to the
north and Gumishev to the south of this locality. A mass from Gumishev,
preserved in the museum of the Mining Institute of St Petersburg weighs
3240lb. and still larger masses have been found near Nizhne Tagilsk. The
mineral is prized in Russia for use in mosaic-work, and for the
manufacture of vases, snuff-boxes and various ornamental objects. Even
folding doors, mantelpieces, table-tops and other articles of furniture
have been executed in malachite, the objects being veneered with thin
slabs cleverly fitted together so as to preserve the pattern, and having
the interspaces filled up with fragments and powder of malachite applied
with a cement. The malachite is sawn into slabs, ground with emery and
polished with tripoli. Its hardness is less than 4, but it takes a good
polish like marble: it is rather denser than marble, having a specific
gravity of 3.7 to 4, but it is more difficult to work, in consequence of
a tendency to break along the curved planes of deposition. Exceptionally
fine examples of the application of malachite are seen in some of the
columns of St Isaac's Cathedral in St Petersburg, which are hollow iron
columns encrusted with malachite. Large masses of ornamental malachite
have been found in Australia, especially at the old Burra Burra
copper-mine in South Australia. The Copper Queen and other mines in
Arizona have yielded fine specimens of malachite associated with
azurite, and polished slabs of the mixed minerals sometimes show the
vivid green and the deep blue carbonate in very striking contrast. This
natural association, cut as an ornamental stone, has been named, by Dr
G. F. Kunz, azurmalachite. Malachite is occasionally used for
cameo-work, and some fine antique examples are known. It was formerly
worn as an amulet to preserve the wearer from lightning, contagion and
witchcraft.
The mineral, when ground, has been used as a pigment under the name of
"mountain green." The coarser masses are extensively used, with other
minerals, as ores of copper, malachite containing about 57% of metal.
"Blue malachite" is a name sometimes given to azurite (q.v.), whilst
"siliceous malachite" is a term inappropriately applied to chrysocolla
(q.v.). (F. W. R.*)
MALACHOWSKI, STANISLAW (1736-1809), Polish statesman, the younger son of
Stanislaw Malachowski, palatine of Posen, the companion in arms of
Sobieski. From his youth Malachowski laboured zealously for the good of
his country, and as president of the royal court of justice won the
honourable title of the "Polish Aristides." He was first elected a
deputy to the Coronation Diet of 1764, and the great Four Years' Diet
unanimously elected him its speaker at the beginning of its session in
1788. Accurately gauging the situation, Malachowski speedily gathered
round him all those who were striving to uphold the falling republic and
warmly supported every promising project of reform. He was one of the
framers of the constitution of the 3rd of May 1791, exceeding in
liberality all his colleagues and advocating the extension of the
franchise to the towns and the emancipation of the serfs. He was the
first to enter his name as a citizen of Warsaw in the civic register and
to open negotiations with his own peasantry for their complete
liberation. Disappointed in his hopes by the overthrow of the
constitution, he resigned office and left the country in 1792, going
first to Italy and subsequently to his estates in Galicia, where he was
imprisoned for a time on a false suspicion of conspiracy. In 1807
Malachowski was placed at the head of the executive committee appointed
at Warsaw after its evacuation by the Prussians, and when the grand
duchy of Warsaw was created Malachowski became president of the senate
under King Frederick Augustus of Saxony. In the negotiations with the
Austrian government concerning the Galician salt-mines Malachowski came
to the assistance of the depleted treasury by hypothecating all his
estates as an additional guarantee. In 1809 he died at Warsaw. His death
was regarded as a public calamity, and multitudes followed his remains
to their last resting-place in the Church of the Holy Cross. In all the
other towns of the grand duchy funeral services were held simultaneously
as a tribute of the respect and gratitude of the Polish nation.
See August Sokolowski, _Illustrated History of Poland_ (Pol.), vol.
iv. (Vienna, 1900); _Life and Memoirs of S. Malachowski_, edited by
Lucyan Siemienski (Pol; Cracow, 1853). (R. N. B.)
MALACHY, ST (c. 1094-1148), otherwise known as Maol-Maodhog (or
Maelmaedhog) Ua Morgair, archbishop of Armagh and papal legate in
Ireland, was born at Armagh. His father, an Irish clergyman, the
_Fearleighlinn_, or _lector_, at the university, was said to have been
of noble family. Having been ordained to the priesthood, he for some
time acted as vicar of Archbishop Celsus or Ceallach of Armagh, and
carried out many reforms tending to increase conformity with the usage
of the Church of Rome. In order to improve his knowledge of the Roman
ritual he spent four years with Malchus, bishop of Lismore (in Munster),
a strong advocate of Romanism. Here he became acquainted with Cormac
MacCarthy, king of Desmond, who had sought refuge with Malchus, and,
when he subsequently regained his kingdom, rendered great services to
Malachy. On his return from Lismore, Malachy undertook the government of
the decayed monastery of Bangor (in Co. Down), but very soon afterwards
he was elected bishop of Connor (now a small village near Ballymena).
After the sack of that place by the king of Ulster he withdrew into
Munster; here he was kindly received by Cormac MacCarthy, with whose
assistance he built the monastery of Ibrach (in Kerry). Meanwhile he had
been designated by Celsus (in whose family the see of Armagh had been
hereditary for many years) to succeed him in the archbishopric; in the
interests of reform he reluctantly accepted the dignity, and thus became
involved for some years in a struggle with the so-called heirs. Having
finally settled the diocese, he was permitted, as had been previously
stipulated by himself, to return to his former diocese, or rather to the
smaller and poorer portion of it, the bishopric of Down. Although the
Roman party had by this time obtained a firm hold in the north of
Ireland, the organization of the Church had not yet received the
sanction of the pope. Accordingly, in 1139, Malachy set out from Ireland
with the purpose of soliciting from the pope the pallium (the token of
archiepiscopal subjection to Rome) for the archbishop of Armagh. On his
way to Rome he visited Clairvaux, and thus began a lifelong friendship
with St Bernard. Malachy was received by Innocent II. with great honour,
and made papal legate in Ireland, though the pope refused to grant the
pallium until it had been unanimously applied for "by a general council
of the bishops, clergy and nobles." On his way home Malachy revisited
Clairvaux, and took with him from there four members of the Cistercian
order, by whom the abbey of Mellifont (in the county of Louth) was
afterwards founded in 1141. For the next eight years after his return
from Rome Malachy was active in the discharge of his legatine duties,
and in 1148, at a synod of bishops and clergy held at Inis-Patrick (St
Patrick's Island, near Skerries, Co. Dublin), he was commissioned to
return to Rome and make fresh application for the pallium; he did not,
however, get beyond Clairvaux, where he died in the arms of St Bernard
on the 2nd of November 1148. The object of his life was realized four
years afterwards, in 1152, during the legateship of his successor.
Malachy was canonized by Clement III. in 1190.
The influence of Malachy in Irish ecclesiastical affairs has been
compared with that of Boniface in Germany. He reformed and reorganized
the Irish Church and brought it into subjection to Rome; like Boniface,
he was a zealous reformer and a promoter of monasticism. But perhaps his
chief claim to distinction is that of having opened the first Cistercian
monastery in Ireland, five more being soon afterwards established.
Several works are attributed to him, but are all probably spurious. The
most curious of these is a _Prophecy concerning the Future Roman
Pontiffs_, which has produced an extensive literature. It is now
generally attributed to the year 1590, and is supposed to have been
forged to support the election of Cardinal Simoncelli to the papal
chair.
St Bernard's _Life_ of Malachy, and two sermons on his death will be
found in J. P. Migne, _Patrologia Latina_; clxxxii., clxxxiii.; see
also _Annals of the Kingdom of Ireland by the Four Masters_, ed. J.
O'Donovan (Dublin, 1851); G. Germano, _Vita, gesti e predittioni del
padre san Malachia_ (Naples, 1670); the ecclesiastical histories of
Ireland by J. Lanigan (1829) and W. D. Killen (1875); A. Bellesheim,
_Geschichte der katholischen Kirche in Irland_, Bd. I. (Mainz, 1890);
G. T. Stokes, _Ireland and the Celtic Church_ (6th ed., 1907); J.
O'Hanlon, _Life of Saint Malachy_ (Dublin, 1859); articles in
_Dictionary of National Biography_ and Herzog-Hauck's
_Realencyklopädie für protestantische Theologie_. On the _Prophecy_,
see the treatise by C. F. Menêtrier (Paris, 1689); Marquis of Bute in
_Dublin Review_ (1885); A. Harnack in _Zeitschrift für
Kirchengeschichte_, Bd. III.
MALACOSTRACA. Under this zoological title are included several groups of
Crustacea (q.v.), united by characters which attest their common origin,
though some, and probably all of them, were already separated in distant
geological ages, and some have now attained a peculiar isolation.
Throughout the whole, the researches made since 1860 have not only added
a great throng of new species, genera and families, but have thrown a
flood of light upon questions of their phylogeny, systematic
arrangement, horizontal and bathymetric distribution, organization,
habits of life and economic importance. There are at least seven orders:
the stalk-eyed Brachyura, Macrura, Schizopoda, Stomatopoda, and the
sessile-eyed Sympoda, Isopoda, Amphipoda. An ocular segment claimed by
the former division is not present or in no case demonstrable in the
latter. In neither does the terminal segment or telson, whether large or
obsolescent, whether articulated or coalescent, carry appendages, unless
occasionally in fusion with itself. Between the eyes and the tail-piece
in all the orders nineteen segments are counted, the proof of a
segment's existence depending on its separateness, complete or partial,
or on a sutural indication, or else on the pair of appendages known to
belong to it. All these marks may fail, and then the species must be
proved to be Malacostracan by other evidence than the number of its
segments; but if some exceptions exhibit fewer, none of the Malacostraca
exhibits more than 19 (+1 or + 2) segments, unless the Nebaliidae be
included. Of the corresponding pairs of appendages thirteen belong to
the head and trunk, two pairs of antennae, one pair of mandibles, two
pairs of maxillae, followed by three which may be all maxillipeds or may
help to swell the number of trunk-legs to which the next five pairs
belong. The abdomen or pleon carries the remaining six pairs, of which
from three to five are called pleopods and the remainder uropods.
Underlying the diversity of names and functions and countless varieties
of shape, there is a common standard to which the appendages in general
can be referred. In the maxillipeds and the trunk-legs it is common to
find or otherwise easy to trace a seven-jointed stem, the endopod, from
which may spring two branches, the epipod from the first joint, the
exopod from the second.[1] The first antennae are exceptional in
branching, if at all, at the third joint. In the mandibles and maxillae
some of the terminal joints of the stem are invariably wanting. In the
rest of the appendages they may either be wanting or indistinguishable.
The latter obscurity results either from coalescence, to which all
joints and segments are liable, or from subdivision, which occasionally
affects joints even in the trunk-legs. The carapace, formerly referred
only to the antennar-mandibular segments, may perhaps in fact contain
elements from any number of other segments of head and trunk, Huxley,
Alcock, Bouvier giving support to this opinion by the sutural or other
divisional lines in _Potamobius_, _Nephrops_, _Thalassina_, and various
fossil genera. Not all questions of classification internal to this
division are yet finally settled. Between the Brachyura and Macrura some
authors uphold an order Anomura, though in a much restricted sense, the
labours of Huxley, Boas, Alcock and conjointly Alphonse Milne-Edwards
and Bouvier, having resulted in restoring the Dromiidea and Raninidae to
the Brachyura, among which de Haan long ago placed them. The French
authors argue that from the macruran lobsters (_Nephropsidae_) anciently
diverged two lines: one leading through the Dromiidea to the genuine
Brachyura; or crabs, the other independently to the Anomura proper,
which may conveniently be named and classed as _Macrura anomala_. Spence
Bate maintained that the Schizopoda ought not to form a separate order,
but to be ranged as a macruran tribe, "more nearly allied to the
degraded forms of the Penaeidea than to those of any other group"
(_"Challenger" Reports_, "Macrura," p. 472, 1888). According to Sars,
the Sympoda (or Cumaceans), in spite of their sessile eyes, have closer
affinities with the stalk-eyed orders. H. J. Hansen and others form a
distinct order Tanaidea for the decidedly anomalous group called by Sars
_Isopoda chelifera_.
1. BRACHYURA.--For the present, as of old, the true Brachyura are
divided into four tribes: _Cyclometopa_, with arched front as in the
common eatable crab; _Catometopa_, with front bent down as in the
land-crabs and the little oyster-crab; _Oxyrhyncha_, with sharpened
beak-like front as in the various spider-crabs; _Oxystomata_,
including the Raninidae, and named not from the character of the front
but from that of the buccal frame which is usually narrowed forwards.
In these tribes the bold and active habits, the striking colours, or
the fantastic diversities of structure, have so long attracted remark
that recent investigations, while adding a multitude of new species
and supplying the specialist with an infinity of new details, have not
materially altered the scientific standpoint. New light, however, has
been thrown upon the "intellectual" capacity of Crustacea by the proof
that the spider-crabs deliberately use changes of raiment to harmonize
with their surroundings, donning and doffing various natural objects
as we do our manufactured clothes. Others have the power of producing
sounds, one use to which they put this faculty being apparently to
signal from their burrow in the sand that they are "not at home" to an
inopportune visitor. Deep-sea exploration has shown that some species
have an immensely extended range, and still more, that species of the
same genus, and genera of the same family, though separated by great
intervals of space, may be closely allied in character. A curious
effect of parasitism, well illustrated in crabs, though not confined
to them, has been expounded by Professor Giard, namely, that it tends
to obliterate the secondary sexual characters. Modern research has
discovered no crab to surpass _Macrocheira kämpferi_, De Haan, that
can span between three and four yards with the tips of its toes, but
at the other end of the scale it has yielded _Collodes malabaricus_,
Alcock, "of which the carapace, in an adult and egg-laden female, is
less than one-sixth of an inch in its greatest diameter." The most
abyssal of all crabs yet known is _Ethusina abyssicola_, Smith, or
what is perhaps only a variety of it, _E. challengeri_, Miers. Of the
latter the "Albatross" obtained a specimen from a depth of 2232
fathoms (Faxon, 1895), of the former from 2221 fathoms, and of this S.
I. Smith remarks that it has "distinctly faceted black eyes," although
in them "there are only a very few visual elements at the tips of the
immobile eye-stalks."
The _Brachyura anomala_, or Dromiidea, "have preserved the external
characters and probably also the organization of the Brachyura of the
Secondary epoch" (Milne-Edwards and Bouvier, 1901). They agree with
the true crabs in not having appendages (uropods) to the sixth segment
of the pleon, the atrophy being complete in the Homolidae and
Homolodromiidae, whereas in the Dromiidae and Dynomenidae a pair of
small plates appear to be vestiges of these organs. In the family
Homolidae stands the strange genus _Latreillia_, Roux, with long
slender limbs and triangular carapace after the fashion of oxyrhynch
spider-crabs. In _Homola_ the carapace is quadrilateral. Between these
two a very interesting link was discovered by the "Challenger" in the
species _Latreillopsis bispinosa_. Henderson. Bouvier (1896) has shown
that _Palaeinachus longipes_, Woodward, from the Forest Marble of
Wiltshire, is in close relationship, not to the oxyrhynch Inachidae,
but to the genera _Homolodromia_ and _Dicranodromia_ of the
Homolodromiidae, and that the Jurassic crabs in general, of the family
Prosoponidae (Meyer), are Dromiidea.
2. MACRURA.--The _Macrura anomala_, or Anomura in restricted sense,
are popularly known through the hermit-crabs alone. These only
partially represent one of the three main divisions, Paguridea,
Galatheidea, Hippidea. The first of these is subdivided into
_Pagurinea_, _Lithodinea_, _Lomisinea_, each with a literature of its
own. Among the Pagurinea is the _Birgus latro_, or robber-crab, whose
expertness in climbing the coco-nut palm need no longer be doubted,
since in recent years it has been noted and photographed by
trustworthy naturalists in the very act. Alcock "observed one of these
crabs drinking from a runnel of rain-water, by dipping the fingers of
one of its chelipeds into the water and then carrying the wet fingers
to its mouth." Hermits of the genus _Coenobita_ he found feeding
voraciously on nestling sea-terns. That pagurids must have the usually
soft pleon or abdomen protected by the shell of a mollusc is now known
to be subject to a multitude of exceptions. _Birgus_ dispenses with a
covering; _Coenobita_ can make shift with half the shell of a
coco-nut; _Chlaenopagurus_ wraps itself up in a blanket of colonial
polyps; _Cancellus tanneri_, Faxon, was found in a piece of dead coral
rock; _Xylopagurus rectus_, A. Milne-Edwards, lodges in tubes of
timber or bits of hollow reed. The last-named species has a straight
symmetrical abdomen, with the penultimate segment expanded and
strongly calcified to form a back-door to the very unconventional
habitation. This it enters head-foremost from the rear, while
"hermits" in general are forced to go backwards into their spiral or
tapering shelters by the front. Some of the species can live in the
ocean at a depth of two or three miles. Some can range inland up to a
considerable height on mountains. The advantage that this group has
derived from the adoption of mollusc shells as houses or fortresses,
ready built and light enough for easy transport, is obviously
discounted by a twofold inconvenience. There is nothing to ensure that
the supply will be equal to the demand, and Nature has not arranged
that the borrowed tenement shall continue to grow with the growth of
its new tenant. To meet these defects it is found that numerous
species encourage or demand the companionship of various zoophytes,
simple or colonial. These sometimes completely absorb the shell on
which they are settled, but then act as a substitute for it, and in
any case by their outgrowth they extend the limits of the dwelling, so
that the inmate can grow in comfort without having to hunt or fight
for a larger abode. Among the _Lithodinea_, or stone crabs, besides
important readjustments of classification (Bouvier, 1895, 1896),
should be noticed the evidence of their cosmopolitan range, and the
species _Neolithodes agassizii_ (Smith) and _N. grimaldii_,
Milne-Edwards and Bouvier, which carry to an extreme the spinosity
characteristic of the group (fig. 1). S. I. Smith's investigations on
the early stages of _Hippa talpoida_, Say, were published in 1877.
[Illustration: FIG. 1.--_Neolithodes grimaldii_, A. Milne-Edwards and
Bouvier.]
With regard to the accessions to knowledge in the enormous group of
the genuine Macrura, reference need only be made to the extensive
reports in which Spence Bate, S. I. Smith, Faxon, Wood-Mason, Alcock,
and others have made known the results of celebrated explorations.
Various larval stages have been successfully investigated by Sars.
Alcock (1901) describes from his own observation the newly hatched
_Phyllosoma_ larva of _Thenus orientalis_, Fabricius. An admirable
discrimination of the larval and adult characters of the genus
_Sergestes_ has been given by H. J. Hansen (_Proc. Zool. Soc._,
London, 1896). Singularity excites our wonder in _Thaumastocheles
zaleucus_, v. Willemoes Suhm, which makes up for its vanished eyes by
its extraordinarily elongate and dentated claws; in _Psalidopus
huxleyi_, Wood-Mason and Alcock (1892), bristling with spikes from
head to tail; in the Nematocarcinidae, with their long thread-like
limbs and longer antennae; in species of _Aristaeopsis_ reported by
Chun from deep water off the east coast of Africa, bright red prawns
nearly a foot long, with antennae about five times the length of the
body. That certain species, particularly many from deep water, have
disproportionately large eggs, is explained by the supposition that
the young derive the advantage of being hatched in an advanced stage
of development.
[Illustration: FIG. 2.--_Anaspides tasmaniae_, Thomson.]
3. SCHIZOPODA.--This order of animals for the most part delicately
beautiful, has for the moment five families--Lophogastridae,
Eucopiidae, Euphausiidae, Mysidae and Anaspididae. In the Euphausiidae
the digitiform-arborescent branchiae, as if conscious of their own
extreme elegance, remain wholly uncovered. In the two preceding
families they are partially covered. In the Mysidae the branchiae are
wanting, and some would form this family into a separate order,
Mysidacea. In _Anaspides_, a peculiar fresh-water genus discovered in
1892 by G. M. Thomson on Mount Wellington, in Tasmania, the gills are
not arborescent, and there are seven segments of the trunk free of the
carapace (fig. 2). A membranaceous carapace separates the Eucopiidae
from the more solidly invested Lophogastridae. Among many papers that
the student will find it necessary to consult may be mentioned the
"_Challenger_" _Report_ on Schizopoda, by Sars, 1885, dealing with
the order at large; "British Schizopoda," by Norman _Ann. Nat. Hist._
(1892); "Decapoden und Schizopoden," _Plankton-Expedition_ (Ortmann,
1893); "Euphausiidae," by Stebbing, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ (London, 1900);
_Mysidae of the Russian Empire_, by Czerniavski (1882-1883); and
_Mysidae of the Caspian_, by Sars (1893-1895-1897).
4. STOMATOPODA.--This order, at one time a medley of heterogeneous
forms, is now confined to the singularly compact group of the
Squillidae. Here the articulation of the ocular segment is unusually
distinct, and here two characters quite foreign to all the preceding
groups come into view. The second maxillipeds are developed into
powerful prehensile organs, and the branchiae, instead of being
connected with the appendages of head and trunk, are developed on the
pleopods, appendages of the abdomen. At least three segments of the
trunk are left uncovered by the carapace. The developing eggs are not
carried about by the mother, but deposited in her subaqueous burrow,
"where they are aerated by the currents of water produced by the
abdominal feet of the parent." An excellent synopsis of the genera and
species is provided by R. P. Bigelow (_Proc. U.S. Mus._ vol. xvii.,
1894). For the habits and peculiarities of these and many other
Crustaceans, A. E. Verrill and S. I. Smith on the _Invertebrates of
Vineyard Sound_ should be consulted (1874). The general subject has
been illuminated by the labours of Claus, Miers, Brooks (_"Challenger"
Report_, 1886), and the latest word on the relationship between the
various larvae and their respective genera has been spoken by H. J.
Hansen (_Plankton-Expedition Report_, 1895). The striking forms of
_Alima_ and _Erichthus_, at one time regarded as distinct genera, are
now with more or less certainty affiliated to their several squillid
parents.
[Illustration: FIG. 3.--_Pseudocuma pectinatum_, Sowinsky.]
5. SYMPODA.--This order of sessile-eyed decapods was absolutely
unknown to science till 1779. A species certainly belonging to it was
described by Lepekhin in 1780, but the obscure _Gammarus esca_, "food
Gammarus" beloved of herrings, described by J. C. Fabricius in the
preceding year, may also be one of its members. Nutritious
possibilities are implied in _Diastylis rathkii_, Kröyer, one of the
largest forms, which, though slender and rarely an inch long, in its
favourite Arctic waters is found "in incalculable masses, in thousands
of specimens" (Stuxberg, 1880). Far on in the 19th century eminent
naturalists were still debating whether in this group there were eyes
or no eyes, whether the eyes were stalked or sessile, whether the
animals observed were larval or adult. The American T. Say in 1818
gave a good description of a new species and founded the premier genus
_Diastylis_, but other investigators derived little credit from the
subject till more than sixty years after its introduction by the
Russian Lepekhin. Then Goodsir, Kröyer, Lilljeborg, Spence Bate and
one or two others made considerable advances, and in 1865 a memorable
paper by G. O. Sars led the way to the great series of researches
which he has continued to the present day. The name _Cumacea_,
however, which he uses cannot be retained, being founded on the
preoccupied name _Cuma_ (Milne-Edwards, 1828). The more recent name
_Sympoda_ (see Willey, _Results_, pt. v. p. 609, 1900) alludes to the
huddling together of the legs, which is conspicuous in most of the
species. Ten families are now distinguished--Diastylidae, Lampropidae,
Platyaspidae, Pseudocumidae, all with an articulated telson; without
one, the Bodotriidae (formerly called _Cumidae_), Vaunthompsoniidae,
Leuconidae, Nannastacidae, Campylaspidae, Procampylaspidae. All the
Leuconidae and Procampylaspidae are blind, and some species in most of
the other families. Usually the sides of the carapace are strangely
produced into a mock rostrum in front of the ocular lobe, be it
oculiferous or not. The last four or five segments of the trunk are
free from the carapace. The slender pleon has always six distinct
segments, the sixth carrying two-branched uropods, the preceding five
armed with no pleopods in the female, whereas in the male the number
of pairs varies from five to none. The resemblance of these creatures
to miniature Macrura is alluded to in the generic name _Nannastacus_,
meaning dwarf-lobster. In this genus alone of the known Sympoda the
eyes sometimes form a pair, in accordance with the custom of all other
malacostracan orders except this and of this order itself in the
embryo (Sars, 1900). The most but not the only remarkable character
lies in the first maxillipeds. These, with the main stem more or less
pediform, have the epipod and exopod modified for respiratory
purposes. The backward-directed epipods usually carry branchial
vesicles. The forward-directed exopods either act as valves or form a
tube (rarely two tubes), protensile and retractile, for regulating
egress of water from the branchial regions. This mechanism as a whole
is unique, although, as Sars observes, the epipod of the first
maxillipeds has a respiratory function also in the Lophogastridae and
Mysidae and in the cheliferous isopods. As a rule armature of the
carapace is much more developed in the comparatively sedentary female
than in the usually more active male. Only in the male do the second
antennae attain considerable length, with strong resemblance to what
is found in some of the Amphipoda. About 150 species distributed among
thirty-four genera are now known, many from shallow water and from
between tide-marks, some from very great depths. H. J. Hansen
concludes that "they are all typically ground animals, and as yet no
species has been taken under such conditions that it could be reckoned
to the pelagic plankton." As they have been found in all zones and
chiefly by a very few observers, it is probable that a great many more
species remain to be discovered. In recent years thirteen species, all
belonging to the same genus _Pseudocuma_ (fig. 3), have been recorded
by Sars from the Caspian Sea. A bibliography of the order is given in
that author's _Crustacea of Norway_, vol. iii. (1899-1900).
[Illustration: Fig. 4.--_Rhabdosoma piratum_, Stebbing.]
6. ISOPODA.--This vast and populous order can be traced far back in
geological time. It is now represented in all seas and lands, in
fresh-water lakes and streams, and even in warm springs. It adapts
itself to parasitic life not only in fishes, but in its own class
Crustacea, and that in species of every order, its own included. In
this process changes of structure are apt to occur, and sometimes
unimaginable sacrifices of the normal appearance. The order has been
divided into seven tribes, of which a fuller summary than can here be
given will be found in Stebbing, _History of Crustacea_ (1893). The
first tribe, called Chelifera, from the usually chelate or
claw-bearing first limbs, may be regarded as _Isopoda anomala_, of
which some authors would form a separate order, Tanaidea. Like the
genuine isopods, they have seven pairs of trunk-legs, but instead of
having seven segments of the middle body (or peraeon) normally free,
they have the first one or two of its segments coalesced with the
head. Instead of the breathing organs being furnished by the
appendages of the pleon with the heart in their vicinity, the
respiration is controlled by the maxillipeds, with the heart in the
peraeon (see Delage, _Arch. Zool. expér. et gén._, vol. ix., 1881).
There are two families, Tanaidae and Apseudidae. Occasionally the
ocular lobes are articulated.
The genuine Isopoda are divided among the _Flabellifera_, in which the
terminal segment and uropods form a flabellum or swimming fan; the
_Epicaridea_, parasitic on Crustaceans; the _Valvifera_, in which the
uropods fold valve-like over the branchial pleopods; the _Asellota_,
in which the first pair of pleopods of the female are usually
transformed into a single opercular plate; the _Phreatoicidea_, a
fresh-water tribe, known as yet only from subterranean waters in New
Zealand and an Australian swamp nearly 6000 ft. above sea-level; and
lastly, the _Oniscidea_, which are terrestrial. Only the last of
these, under the contemptuous designation of wood-lice, has
established a feeble claim to popular recognition. Few persons hear
without surprise that England itself possesses more than a score of
species in this air-breathing tribe. Those known from the world at
large number hundreds of species, distributed among dozens of genera
in six families. That a wood-louse and a land-crab are alike
Malacostracans, and that they have by different paths alike become
adapted to terrestrial life, are facts which even a philosopher might
condescend to notice. Of the other tribes which are aquatic there is
not space to give even the barest outline. Their swarming multitudes
are of enormous importance in the economy of the sea. If in their
relation to fish it must be admitted that many of them plague the
living and devour the dead, in return the fish feed rapaciously upon
them. Among the most curious of recent discoveries is that relating to
some of the parasitic _Cymothoidae_, as to which Bullar has shown that
the same individual can be developed first as a male and then as a
female. Of lately discovered species the most striking is one of the
deep-sea Cirolanidae, _Bathynomus giganteus_, A. M. Edwards (1879),
which is unique in having supplementary ramified branchiae developed
at the bases of the pleopods. Its eyes are said to contain nearly 4000
facets. The animal attains what in this order is the monstrous size of
9 in. by 4. A general uniformity of the trunk-limbs in Isopoda
justifies the ordinal name, but the valviferous Astacillidae, and
among the Asellota the Munnopsidae, offer some remarkable exceptions
to this characteristic. Among many essential works on this group may
be named the _Monogr. Cymothoarum_ of Schiödte and Meinert
(1879-1883); "_Challenger_" _Report_, Beddard (1884-1886);
_Cirolanidae_, H. J. Hansen (1890); _Isopoda Terrestria_, Budde-Lund
(1885); _Bopyridae_, Bonnier (1900); _Crustacea of Norway_, vol. ii.
(Isopoda), Sars (1896-1899), while their multitude precludes
specification of important contributions by Benedict, Bovallius,
Chilton, Dohrn, Dollfus, Fraisse, Giard and Bonnier, Harger, Haswell,
Kossmann, Miers, M'Murrich, Norman, Harriet Richardson, Ohlin, Studer,
G. M. Thomson, A. O. Walker, Max Weber and many others.
7. AMPHIPODA.--As in the genuine Isopoda, the eyes of Amphipoda are
always sessile, and generally paired, and, in contrast to crabs and
lobsters, these two groups have only four pairs of mouth-organs
instead of six, but seven pairs of trunk-legs instead of five. From
the above-named isopods the present order is strongly differentiated
by having heart and breathing organs not in the pleon, but in the
peraeon, or middle body, the more or less simple branchial vesicles
being attached to some or all of the last six pairs of trunk-legs.
Normally the pleon carries six pairs of two-branched appendages, of
which the first three are much articulated flexible swimming feet, the
last three few-jointed comparatively indurated uropods. There are
three tribes, _Gammaridea_, _Caprellidea_, _Hyperiidea_. The middle
one contains but two families, the cylindrical and often thread-like
skeleton shrimps, Caprellidae, and their near cousins, the broad,
flattened, so-called whale-lice, Cyamidae. This tribe has the pleon
dwindled into insignificance, whereas in the other two tribes it is
powerfully developed. The Hyperiidea are distinguished by having their
maxillipeds never more than three-jointed. In the companion tribes
these appendages have normally seven joints, and always more than
three. The order thus sharply divided is united by an intimate
interlacing of characters, and forms a compact whole at present
defying intrusion from any other crustacean group. Since 1775, when J.
C. Fabricius instituted the genus _Gammarus_ for five species, of
which only three were amphipods, while he left five other amphipods in
the genus _Oniscus_, from this total of eight science has developed
the order, at first very slowly, but of late by great leaps and
bounds, so that now the _Gammaridea_ alone comprise more than 1300
species, distributed among some 300 genera and 39 families. They
burrow in the sands of every shore; they throng the weeds between
tide-marks; they ascend all streams; they are found in deep wells, in
caverns, in lakes; in Arctic waters they swarm in numbers beyond
computation; they find lodgings on crabs, on turtles, on weed-grown
buoys; they descend into depths of the ocean down to hundreds or
thousands of fathoms; they are found in mountain streams as far above
sea-level as some of their congeners live below it. The Talitridae,
better known as sandhoppers, can forgo the briny shore and content
themselves with the damp foliage of inland forests or casual humidity
in the crater of an extinct volcano. Over the ocean surface, as well
as at various depths, float and swim innumerable _Hyperiidea_--the
wonderful _Phronima_, glass-like in its glassy barrel hollowed out of
some Tunicate; the _Cystisoma_, 4 or 5 in. long, with its eye-covered
head; the _Rhabdosoma_, like a thin rod of glass, with needle-like
head and tail, large eyes, but limbs and mouth-organs all in
miniature, and the second antennae of the male folding up like a
carpenter's rule (fig. 4). On jelly-fishes are to be found species of
_Hyperia_ and their kindred, so fat and wholesome that they have been
commended to shipwrecked men in open boats as an easily procurable
resource against starvation. Many of the Amphipoda are extremely
voracious. Some of them are even cannibals. The Cyamidæ afflict the
giant whale by nibbling away its skin; the _Chelura terebrans_ is
destructive to submerged timber. But, on the other hand, they largely
help to clear the sea and other waters of refuse and carrion, and for
fishes, seals and whales they are food desirable and often
astoundingly copious. From the little flea-like species, scarcely a
tenth of an inch long, up to the great and rare but cosmopolitan
_Eurythenes gryllus_, Lichtenstein, and the still larger _Alicella
gigantea_, Chevreux, nearly half a foot long, captured by the prince
of Monaco from a depth of 2936 fathoms, not one of these ubiquitous,
uncountable hordes has ever been accused of assailing man. For the
naturalist they have the recommendation that many are easy to obtain,
that most, apart from the very minute, are easy to handle, and that
all, except as to the fleeting colours, are easy to preserve.
A nearly complete bibliography of the order down to 1888 will be found
in the "_Challenger_" _Reports_, vol. xxviii., and supplementary
notices in Della Valle's _Monograph of the Gammarini_ (1893), the
scope of his work, however, not covering the Hyperiidea and
Oxycephalidae of Bovallius (1889, 1890); but since these dates very
numerous additions to the literature have been made by Birula,
Bonnier, Norman, Walker and others, especially the _Crustacea of
Norway_, vol. i. (_Amphipoda_), Sars (1890-1895), demanding attention,
and the quite recent _Amphipoda of the Hirondelle_, Chevreux (1900),
and _Hyperiidea of the Plankton-Expedition_, Vosseler (1901).
(T. R. R. S.)