[1] This condition results from the fact that Maine and the adjacent
region were worn down nearly to sea-level by stream erosion, except
certain peaks and ridges inland; then the region was elevated and
numerous river valleys were cut down below the general erosion
surface formed before. Thus we have a general "upland surface," above
which the mountain remnants tower, and below which the rivers have
been entrenched.
[2] This name is applied to a chain of lakes (the Rangeley, or
Oquossoc, the Cupsuptic, the Mooselookmeguntic, the Molechunkamunk or
Upper Richardson, the Welokenebacook or Lower Richardson, and the
Umbagog) in Franklin and Oxford counties, in the western part of the
state; the Umbagog extends into New Hampshire and its outlet helps to
form the Androscoggin River. These lakes are connected by straits,
have a total area of between 80 and 90 sq. m., and are from 1200 to
1500 ft. above the sea. They are sometimes called the Androscoggin
Lakes.
[3] The census of 1905 was taken under the direction of the United
States census bureau, but the statistics for hand trades were
omitted.
[4] According to previous censuses the population was as follows:
(1790) 96,540; (1800) 151,719; (1810) 228,705; (1820) 298,335; (1830)
399,455; (1840) 501,793; (1850) 583,169; (1860) 628,279; (1870)
626,915.
[5] An unincorporated township containing less than 200 inhabitants
may, on the application of three resident voters, be organized as a
plantation, but does not pay state or county taxes unless by special
legislative order. Other unincorporated districts, especially islands
along the coast, are called "grants," "surpluses," "gores" or
"tracts."
[6] By this charter, issued in 1578, Sir Humphrey Gilbert was
entitled to all territory lying within two hundred leagues of any
colony that he might plant within six years; although it had long
since lapsed, Raleigh Gilbert seems not to have been aware of it.
[7] An article in the Act relating to the separation of Maine from
Massachusetts stipulated that the lands within the District of Maine
which prior to the separation had belonged to Massachusetts should
after the separation belong one-half to Maine and one-half to
Massachusetts. In 1826 the wild lands of Maine were surveyed and
divided between the two states; and in 1853 Maine acquired from
Massachusetts, for $362,500, all of this land still remaining in
possession of the latter state.
[8] According to Art. V. of the constitution a majority of the total
number of votes cast was required for election; in case no candidate
should receive a majority, it was prescribed that the "House of
Representatives shall, by ballot, from the persons having the four
highest numbers of votes on the lists, if so many there be, elect two
persons and make returns of their names to the Senate, of whom the
Senate shall, by ballot, elect one, who shall be declared the
governor." An amendment, which became a part of the constitution on
the 9th of November 1880, provided that a plurality of the total
number of votes cast should be sufficient for election.
MAINE DE BIRAN, FRANÇOIS-PIERRE-GONTHIER (1766-1824), French
philosopher, was born at Bergerac, on the 29th of November, 1766. The
name Maine he assumed (some time before 1787) from an estate called Le
Maine, near Mouleydier. After studying with distinction under the
_doctrinaires_ of Périgueux, he entered the life-guards of Louis XVI.,
and was present at Versailles on the memorable 5th and 6th of October
1789. On the breaking up of the _gardes du corps_ Biran retired to his
patrimonial inheritance of Grateloup, near Bergerac, where his retired
life preserved him from the horrors of the Revolution. It was at this
period that, to use his own words, he "passed _per saltum_ from
frivolity to philosophy." He began with psychology, which he made the
study of his life. After the Reign of Terror Maine de Biran took part in
political affairs. Having been excluded from the council of the Five
Hundred on suspicion of royalism, he took part with his friend Laîné in
the commission of 1813, which gave expression for the first time to
direct opposition to the will of the emperor. After the Restoration he
held the office of treasurer to the chamber of deputies, and habitually
retired during the autumn recess to his native district to pursue his
favourite study. He died on the 20th (16th, or 23rd, according to
others) of July 1824.
Maine de Biran's philosophical reputation has suffered from two
causes--his obscure and laboured style, and the fact that only a few,
and these the least characteristic, of his writings appeared during his
lifetime. These consisted of the essay on habit (_Sur l'influence de
l'habitude_, 1803), a critical review of P. Laromiguière's lectures
(1817), and the philosophical portion of the article "Leibnitz" in the
_Biographie universelle_ (1819). A treatise on the analysis of thought
(_Sur la décomposition de la pensée_), although sent to press, was never
printed. In 1834 these writings, together with the essay entitled
_Nouvelles considérations sur les rapports du physique et du moral de
l'homme_, were published by Victor Cousin, who in 1841 added three
volumes, under the title _Oeuvres philosophiques de Maine de Biran_. But
the publication (in 1859) by E. Naville (from MSS. placed at his
father's disposal by Biran's son) of the _Oeuvres inédites de Maine de
Biran_, in three volumes, first rendered possible a connected view of
his philosophical development. At first a sensualist, like Condillac and
Locke, next an intellectualist, he finally shows himself a mystical
theosophist. The _Essai sur les fondements de la psychologie_
represents the second or completest stage of his philosophy, the
fragments of the _Nouveaux essais d'anthropologie_ the third.
Maine de Biran's first essays in philosophy were written avowedly from
the point of view of Locke and Condillac, but even in them he was
brought to signalize the essential fact on which his later speculation
turns. Dealing with the formation of habits, he is compelled to note
that passive impressions, however transformed, do not furnish a
complete or adequate explanation. With Laromiguière he distinguishes
attention as an active effort, of no less importance than the passive
receptivity of sense, and with Butler distinguishes passively formed
customs from active habits. He finally arrived at the conclusion that
Condillac's notion of passive receptivity as the one source of
conscious experience was not only an error in fact but an error of
method--in short, that the mechanical mode of viewing consciousness as
formed by external influence was fallacious and deceptive. For it he
proposed to substitute the genetic method, whereby human conscious
experience might be exhibited as growing or developing from its
essential basis in connexion with external conditions. The essential
basis he finds in the real consciousness, of self as an active
striving power, and the stages of its development, corresponding to
what one may call the relative importance of the external conditions
and the reflective clearness of self-consciousness he designates as
the affective, the perceptive and the reflective. In connexion with
this Biran treats most of the obscure problems which arise in dealing
with conscious experience, such as the mode by which the organism is
cognized, the mode by which the organism is distinguished from
extra-organic things, and the nature of those general ideas by which
the relations of things are known to us--cause, power, force, &c.
In the latest stage of his speculation Biran distinguishes the animal
existence from the human, under which the three forms above noted are
classed, and both from the life of the spirit, in which human thought
is brought into relation with the supersensible, divine system of
things. This stage is left imperfect. Altogether Biran's work presents
a very remarkable specimen of deep metaphysical thinking directed by
preference to the psychological aspect of experience.
The _Oeuvres inédites_ of Maine de Biran by E. Naville contain an
introductory study; in 1887 appeared _Science et psychologie:
nouvelles oeuvres inédites_, with introduction by A. Bertrand. See
also O. Merton, _Étude critique sur Maine de Biran_ (1865); E.
Naville, _Maine de Biran, sa vie et ses pensées_ (1874); J. Gérard,
_Maine de Biran, essai sur sa philosophie_ (1876); Mayonade, _Pensées
et pages inédites de Maine de Biran_ (Périgueux, 1896); G. Allievo,
"Maine de Biran e la sua dottrina antropologica" (Turin, 1896, in
_Memorie dell' accademia delle scienze_, 2nd ser., xlv, pt. 2); A.
Lang, _Maine de Biran und die neuere Philosophie_ (Cologne, 1901);
monographs by A. Kühtmann (Bremen, 1901) and M. Couailhac (1905); N.
E. Truman in _Cornell Studies in Philosophy_, No. 5 (1904) on Maine de
Biran's Philosophy of Will.
MAINE-ET-LOIRE, a department of western France, formed in 1790 for the
most part out of the southern portion of the former province of Anjou,
and bounded N. by the departments of Mayenne and Sarthe, E. by
Indre-et-Loire, S.E. by Vienne, S. by Deux-Sèvres and Vendée, W. by
Loire-Inférieure, and N.W. by Ille-et-Vilaine. Area, 2786 sq. m. Pop.
(1906), 513,490. Maine-et-Loire is made up of two distinct regions, the
line of demarcation running roughly from north to south along the valley
of the Sarthe, then turning south-west and passing Brissac and Doué;
that to the west consists of granites, felspars, and a continuation of
the geological formations of Brittany and Vendée; to the east, schists,
limestone and chalk prevail. The department is traversed from east to
west by the majestic valley of the Loire, with its rich orchards,
nurseries and market-gardens. The highest altitudes are found in the
south-west, where north-east of Cholet one eminence reaches 689 ft.
Elsewhere the surface is low and undulating in character. The department
belongs entirely to the basin of the Loire, the bed of which is wide but
shallow, and full of islands, the depth of the water in summer being at
some places little more than 2 ft. Floods are sudden and destructive.
The chief affluent of the Loire within the department is the Maine,
formed a little above Angers by the junction of the Mayenne and the
Sarthe, the latter having previously received the waters of the Loire.
All three are navigable. Other tributaries of the Loire are the Thouet
(with its tributary the Dive), the Layon, the Evre, and the Divatte on
the left, and the Authion on the right. The Mayenne is joined on the
right by the Oudon, which can be navigated below Segré. The Erdre, which
joins the Loire at Nantes, and the Moine, a tributary of the
Sèvre-Nantaise, both rise within this department. The climate is very
mild. The mean annual temperature of Angers is about 53°, slightly
exceeding that of Paris; the rainfall (between 23 and 24 in. annually)
is distinctly lower than that of the rest of France. Notwithstanding
this deficiency, the frequent fogs, combined with the peculiar nature of
the soil in the south-east of the department, produce a degree of
moisture which is highly favourable to meadow growths. The winter colds
are never severe, and readily permit the cultivation of certain trees
which cannot be reared in the adjoining departments.
The agriculture of the department is very prosperous. The produce of
cereals, chiefly wheat, oats and barley, is in excess of its needs, and
potatoes and mangels also give good returns. Extensive areas in the
valley of the Loire are under hemp, and the vegetables, melons and other
fruits of that region are of the finest quality. Good wine is produced
at Serrant and other places near Angers, and on the right bank of the
Layon and near Saumur, the sparkling white wine of which is a rival of
the cheaper brands of champagne. Cider is also produced, and the
cultivation of fruit is general. Forests and woodland in which oak and
beech are the chief trees cover large tracts. The fattening of cattle is
an important industry round Cholet, and horses much used for light
cavalry are reared. Several thousand workmen are employed in the slate
quarries in the vicinity of Angers, tufa is worked in the river valleys,
and freestone and other stone, mispickel, iron and coal are also found.
Cholet, the chief industrial town, and its district manufacture
pocket-handkerchiefs, as well as linen cloths, flannels, cotton goods,
and hempen and other coarse fabrics, and similar industries are carried
on at Angers, which also manufactures liqueurs, rope, boots and shoes
and parasols. Saumur, besides its production of wine, makes beads and
enamels. The commerce of Maine-et-Loire comprises the exportation of
live stock and of the various products of its soil and industries, and
the importation of hemp, cotton, and other raw materials. The department
is served by the railways of the state and the Orléans and Western
companies. The Mayenne, the Sarthe and the Loir, together with some of
the lesser rivers, provide about 130 m. of navigable waterway. In the
south-east the canal of the Dive covers some 10 m. in the department.
There are five arrondissements--Angers, Baugé, Cholet, Saumur and Segré,
with 34 cantons and 381 communes. Maine-et-Loire belongs to the académie
(educational division) of Rennes, to the region of the VIII. army corps,
and to the ecclesiastical province of Tours. Angers (q.v.), the capital,
is the seat of a bishopric and of a court of appeal. Other principal
places are Cholet, Saumur, and Fontevrault, which receive separate
treatment. For architectural interest there may also be mentioned the
châteaux of Brissac (17th century), Serrant (15th and 16th centuries),
Montreuil-Bellay (14th and 15th centuries), and Ecuillé (15th century),
and the churches of Puy-Notre-Dame (13th century) and St
Florent-le-Vieil (13th, 17th, and 19th centuries), the last containing
the fine monument to Charles Bonchamps, the Vendean leader, by David
d'Angers. Gennes has remains of a theatre and other ruins of the Roman
period, as well as two churches dating in part from the 10th century.
Ponts-de-Cé, an interesting old town built partly on islands in the
Loire, is historically important, because till the Revolution its
bridges formed the only way across the Loire between Saumur and Nantes.
MAINPURI, or MYNPOOREE, a town and district of British India, in the
Agra division of the United Provinces. The town has a station on a
branch of the East Indian railway recently opened from Shikohabad. Pop.
(1901), 19,000. It consists of two separate portions, Mainpuri proper
and Mukhamganj. Holkar plundered and burned part of the town in 1804,
but was repulsed by the local militia. Since the British occupation the
population has rapidly increased and many improvements have been carried
out. The Agra branch of the Grand Trunk road runs through the town,
forming a wide street lined on both sides by shops, which constitute the
principal bazaar. Mainpuri has a speciality in the production of carved
wooden articles inlaid with brass wire. The American Presbyterian
mission manages a high school.
The DISTRICT OF MAINPURI lies in the central Doab. Area, 1675 sq. m.
Pop. (1901), 829,357, an increase of 8.8% in the decade. It consists of
an almost unbroken plain, intersected by small rivers, with a few
undulating sand ridges. It is wooded throughout with mango groves, and
isolated clumps of _bábul_ trees occasionally relieve the bareness of
its saline _usar_ plains. On the south-western boundary the Jumna flows
in a deep alluvial bed, sometimes sweeping close to the high banks which
overhang its valley, and elsewhere leaving room for a narrow strip of
fertile soil between the river and the upland plain. From the low-lying
lands thus formed a belt of ravines stretches inland for some 2 m.,
often covered with jungle, but affording good pasturage for cattle. The
district is watered by two branches of the Ganges canal, and is
traversed by the main line of the East Indian railway.
Mainpuri anciently formed part of the great kingdom of Kanauj, and
after the fall of that famous state it was divided into a number of
petty principalities, of which Rapri and Bhongaon were the chief. In
1194 Rapri was made the seat of a Moslem governor. Mainpuri fell to
the Moguls on Baber's invasion in 1526, and, although temporarily
wrested from them by the short-lived Afghan dynasty of Shere Shah, was
again occupied by them on the reinstatement of Humayun after the
victory of Panipat. Like the rest of the lower Doab, Mainpuri passed,
towards the end of the 18th century, into the power of the Mahrattas,
and finally became a portion of the province of Oudh. When this part
of the country was ceded to the British, in 1801, Mainpuri town became
the headquarters of the extensive district of Etawah, which was in
1856 reduced by the formation of Etah and Mainpuri into separate
collectorates. On the outbreak of the Mutiny in 1857 the regiment
stationed at Mainpuri revolted and attacked the town, which was
successfully defended by the few Europeans of the station for a week,
until the arrival of the Jhansi mutineers made it necessary to abandon
the district.
MAINTENANCE (Fr. _maintenance_, from _maintenir_, to maintain, support,
Lat. _manu tenere_, to hold in the hand). The action of giving support,
supplying means of subsistence, keeping efficient or in working order.
In English law maintenance is an officious intermeddling in an action
that in no way belongs to one by maintaining or assisting either party,
with money or otherwise, to prosecute or defend it. It is an indictable
offence, both at common law and by statute, and punishable by fine and
imprisonment. It invalidates all contracts involving it. It is also
actionable. There are, however, certain cases in which maintenance is
justifiable, e.g. any one who has an interest, even if it be only
contingent, in the matter at variance can maintain another in an action
concerning the matter; or several parties who have a common interest in
the same thing may maintain one another in a suit concerning the same.
Neither is it reckoned maintenance to assist another in his suit on
charitable grounds, or for a master to assist his servant, or a parent
his son, or a husband his wife. The law with regard to the subject is
considered at length in _Bradlaugh_ v. _Newdegate_, 1883, 11 Q.B.D. 1.
See also CHAMPERTY. For the practice of "livery and maintenance" see
ENGLISH HISTORY, §§ v. and vi.
A CAP OF MAINTENANCE, i.e. a cap of crimson velvet turned up with
ermine, is borne, as one of the insignia of the British sovereign,
immediately before him at his coronation or on such state occasions as
the opening of parliament. It is carried by the hereditary bearer, the
marquess of Winchester, upon a white wand. A similar cap is also borne
before the lord mayor of London. The origin of this symbol of dignity
is obscure. It is stated in the _New English Dictionary_ that it was
granted by the pope to Henry VII. and Henry VIII. It is probably
connected with the "cap of estate" or "dignity," sometimes also styled
"cap of maintenance," similar to the royal symbol with two peaks or
horns behind, which is borne as a heraldic charge by certain families.
It seems originally to have been a privilege of dukes. Where it is
used the crest is placed upon it, instead of on the usual wreath.
MAINTENON, FRANÇOISE D'AUBIGNÉ, MARQUISE DE (1635-1719), the second wife
of Louis XIV., was born in a prison at Niort, on the 27th of November
1635. Her father, Constant d'Aubigné, was the son of Agrippa d'Aubigné,
the famous friend and general of Henry IV., and had been imprisoned as a
Huguenot malcontent, but her mother, a fervent Catholic, had the child
baptized in her religion, her sponsors being the duc de la
Rochefoucauld, father of the author of the _Maxims_, and the comtesse de
Neuillant. In 1639 Constant d'Aubigné was released from prison and took
all his family with him to Martinique, where he died in 1645, after
having lost what fortune remained to him at cards. Mme d'Aubigné
returned to France, and from sheer poverty unwillingly yielded her
daughter to her sister-in-law, Mme de Villette, who made the child very
happy, but converted or pretended to convert her to Protestantism. When
this was known an order of state was issued that she should be entrusted
to Mme de Neuillant, her godmother. Every means was now used to convert
her back to Catholicism, but at the last she only yielded on the
condition that she need not believe that the soul of Mme de Villette was
lost. Once reconverted, she was neglected and sent home to live with her
mother, who had only a small pension of 200 livres a year, which ceased
on her death in 1650. The chevalier de Meré, a man of some literary
distinction, who had made her acquaintance at Mme de Neuillant's,
discovered her penniless condition, and introduced his "young Indian,"
as he called her, to Scarron, the famous wit and comic writer, at whose
house all the literary society of the day assembled. Scarron took a
fancy to the friendless girl, and offered either to pay for her
admission to a convent, or, though he was deformed and an invalid, to
marry her himself. She accepted his offer of marriage, and became Mme
Scarron in 1651. For nine years she was not only his most faithful
nurse, but an attraction to his house, where she tried to bridle the
licence of the conversation of the time. On the death of Scarron, in
1660, Anne of Austria continued his pension to his widow, and even
increased it to 2000 livres a year, which enabled her to entertain and
frequent the literary society her husband had made her acquainted with;
but on the queen-mother's death in 1666 the king refused to continue her
pension, and she prepared to leave Paris for Lisbon as lady attendant to
the queen of Portugal. But before she started she met Mme de Montespan,
who was already, though not avowedly, the king's mistress, and who took
such a fancy to her that she obtained the continuance of her pension,
which put off for ever the question of going to Portugal. Mme de
Montespan did yet more for her, for when, in 1669, her first child by
the king was born, Mme Scarron was established with a large income and a
large staff of servants at Vaugirard to bring up the king's children in
secrecy as they were born. In 1674 the king determined to have his
children at court, and their governess, who had now made sufficient
fortune to buy the estate of Maintenon, accompanied them. The king had
now many opportunities of seeing Mme Scarron, and, though at first he
was prejudiced against her, her even temper contrasted so advantageously
with the storms of passion and jealousy exhibited by Mme de Montespan,
that she grew steadily in his favour, and had in 1678 the gratification
of having her estate at Maintenon raised to a marquisate and herself
entitled Mme de Maintenon by the king. Such favours brought down the
fury of Mme de Montespan's jealousy, and Mme de Maintenon's position was
almost unendurable, until, in 1680, the king severed their connexion by
making the latter second lady in waiting to the dauphiness, and soon
after Mme de Montespan left the court. The new _amie_ used her influence
on the side of decency, and the queen openly declared she had never been
so well treated as at this time, and eventually died in Mme de
Maintenon's arms in 1683. The queen's death opened the way to yet
greater advancement; in 1684 Mme de Maintenon was made first lady in
waiting to the dauphiness, and in the winter of 1685-1686 she was
privately married to the king by Harlay, archbishop of Paris, in the
presence, it is believed, of Père la Chaise, the king's confessor, the
marquis de Montchevreuil, the chevalier de Forbin, and Bontemps. No
written proof of the marriage is extant, but that it took place is
nevertheless certain. Her life during the next thirty years can be fully
studied in her letters, of which many authentic examples are extant. As
a wife she was wholly admirable; she had to entertain a man who would
not be amused, and had to submit to that terribly strict court etiquette
of absolute obedience to the king's inclination, which Saint-Simon so
vividly describes, and yet be always cheerful and never complain of
weariness or ill-health. Her political influence has probably been
exaggerated, but it was supreme in matters of detail. The ministers of
the day used to discuss and arrange all the business to be done with the
king beforehand with her, and it was all done in her cabinet and in her
presence, but the king in more important matters often chose not to
consult her. Such mistakes as, for instance, the replacing of Catinat by
Villeroi may be attributed to her, but not whole policies--notably,
according to Saint-Simon, not the policy with regard to the Spanish
succession. Even the revocation of the edict of Nantes and the
dragonnades have been laid to her charge, but recent investigations have
tended to show that in spite of ardent Catholicism, she at least
opposed, if not very vigorously, the cruelties of the dragonnades,
although she was pleased with the conversions they procured. She was
apparently afraid to imperil her great reputation for devotion, which
had in 1692 obtained for her from Innocent XII. the right of visitation
over all the convents in France. Where she deserves blame is in her use
of her power for personal patronage, as in compassing the promotions of
Chamillart and Villeroi, and the frequent assistance given to her
brother Comte Charles d'Aubigné. Her influence was on the whole a
moderating and prudent force. Her social influence was not as great as
it might have been, owing to her holding no recognized position at
court, but it was always exercised on the side of decency and morality,
and it must not be forgotten that from her former life she was intimate
with the literary people of the day. Side by side with this public life,
which wearied her with its shadowy power, occasionally crossed by a
desire to be recognised as queen, she passed a nobler and sweeter
private existence as the foundress of St Cyr. Mme de Maintenon was a
born teacher; she had so won the hearts of her first pupils that they
preferred her to their own mother, and was similarly successful later
with the young and impetuous duchess of Burgundy, and she had always
wished to establish a home for poor girls of good family placed in such
straits as she herself had experienced. As soon as her fortunes began to
mend she started a small home for poor girls at Ruel, which she
afterwards moved to Noisy, and which was the nucleus of the splendid
institution of St Cyr, which the king endowed in 1686, at her request,
out of the funds of the Abbey of St Denis. She was in her element there.
She herself drew up the rules of the institution; she examined every
minute detail; she befriended her pupils in every way; and her heart
often turned from the weariness of Versailles or of Marly to her "little
girls" at St Cyr. It was for them that Racine wrote his _Esther_ and his
_Athalie_, and it was because he managed the affairs of St Cyr well that
Michel Chamillart became controller-general of the finances. The later
years of her power were marked by the promotion of her old pupils, the
children of the king and Mme de Montespan, to high dignity between the
blood royal and the peers of the realm, and it was doubtless under the
influence of her dislike for the duke of Orleans that the king drew up
his will, leaving the personal care of his successor to the duke of
Maine, and hampering the duke of Orleans by a council of regency. On or
even before her husband's death she retired to St Cyr, and had the
chagrin of seeing all her plans for the advancement of the duke of Maine
overthrown by means of the parliament of Paris. However, the regent
Orleans in no way molested her, but, on the contrary, visited her at St
Cyr and continued her pension of 48,000 livres. She spent her last years
at St Cyr in perfect seclusion, but an object of great interest to all
visitors to France, who, however, with the exception of Peter the Great,
found it impossible to get an audience with her. On the 15th of April
1719 she died, and was buried in the choir at St Cyr, bequeathing her
estate at Maintenon to her niece, the only daughter of her brother
Charles and wife of the maréchal de Noailles, to whose family it still
belongs.
L. A. la Beaumelle published the _Lettres de Madame de Maintenon_, but
much garbled, in 2 vols. in 1752, and on a larger scale in 9 vols. in
1756. He also, in 1755, published _Mémoires de Madame de Maintenon_,
in 6 vols., which caused him to be imprisoned in the Bastille. All
earlier biographies were superseded by Théophile Lavallée's _Histoire
de St Cyr_, reviewed in _Causeries du lundi_, vol. viii., and by his
edition of her _Lettres historiques et édifiantes_, &c., in 7 vols.
and of her _Correspondance générale_, in 4 vols. (1888), which latter
must, however, be read with the knowledge of many forged letters,
noticed in P. Grimblot's _Faux autographes de Madame de Maintenon_.
Saint-Simon's fine but biased account of the court in her day and of
her career is contained in the twelfth volume of Chéruel and Regnier's
edition of his _Mémoires_. See also Mademoiselle d'Aumale's _Souvenirs
sur Madame de Maintenon_, published by the Comte d'Haussonville and G.
Hanotaux (Paris, 3 vols., 1902-1904); an excellent account by A.
Geffroy, _Madame de Maintenon d'après sa correspondance authentique_
(Paris, 2 vols., 1887); P. de Noailles, _Histoire de Madame de
Maintenon et des principaux évènements du règne de Louis XIV._ (4
vols., 1848-1858); A. de Boislisle, _Paul Scarron et Françoise
d'Aubigné d'après des documents nouveaux_ (1894); É. Pilastre, _Vie et
caractère de Madame de Maintenon d'après les oeuvres du duc de
Saint-Simon et des documents anciens ou récents_ (1907); A. Rosset,
_Madame de Maintenon et la révocation de l'édit de Nantes_ (1897).
(H. M. S.)
MAINZ (Fr. Mayence) a city, episcopal see and fortress of Germany,
situated on the left bank of the Rhine, almost opposite the influx of
the Main, at the junction of the important main lines of railway from
Cologne to Mannheim and Frankfort-on-Main, 25 m. W. of the latter. Pop.
(1905), 91,124 (including a garrison of 7500 men), of whom two-thirds
are Roman Catholic. The Rhine, which here attains the greatest breadth
of its upper course, is crossed by a magnificent bridge of five arches,
leading to the opposite town of Castel and by two railway bridges. The
old fortifications have recently been pushed farther back, and their
place occupied by pleasant boulevards. The river front has been
converted into a fine promenade, commanding extensive views of the
Taunus range of mountains, and the "Rheingau," the most favoured wine
district of Germany. Alongside the quay are the landing-places of the
steamboats navigating the Rhine. The railway, which formerly incommoded
the bank, has been diverted, and now, following the ceinture of the new
line of inner fortifications, runs into a central station lying to the
south of the city. The interior of the old town consists chiefly of
narrow and irregular streets, with many quaint and picturesque houses.
The principal street of the new town is the Kaiserstrasse, leading from
the railway station to the river.
The first object of historical and architectural interest in Mainz is
the grand old cathedral, an imposing Romanesque edifice with numerous
Gothic additions and details (for plan, &c. see ARCHITECTURE:
_Romanesque and Gothic in Germany_). It was originally erected between
975 and 1009, but has since been repeatedly burned down and rebuilt, and
in its present form dates chiefly from the 12th, 13th and 14th
centuries. The largest of its six towers is 300 ft. high. The whole
building was restored by order of Napoleon in 1814, and another thorough
renovation was made more recently. The interior contains the tombs of
Boniface, the first archbishop of Mainz, of Frauenlob, the Minnesinger,
and of many of the electors. Mainz possesses nine other Roman Catholic
churches, the most noteworthy of which are those of St Ignatius, with a
finely painted ceiling, of St Stephen, built 1257-1328, and restored
after an explosion in 1857, and of St Peter. The old electoral palace
(1627-1678), a large building of red sandstone, now contains a valuable
collection of Roman and Germanic antiquities, a picture gallery, a
natural history museum, the Gutenberg Museum, and a library of 220,000
volumes. Among the other principal buildings are the palace of the grand
duke of Hesse, built in 1731-1739 as a lodge of the Teutonic order, the
theatre, the arsenal, and the government buildings. A handsome statue of
Gutenberg, by Thorwaldsen, was erected at Mainz in 1837. Mainz still
retains many relics of the Roman period, the most important of which is
the Eigelstein, a monument believed to have been erected by the Roman
legions in honour of Drusus. It stands within the citadel, which
occupies the site of the Roman castrum. A little to the south-west of
the town are the remains of a large Roman aqueduct, of which upwards of
sixty pillars are still standing. The educational and scientific
institutions of Mainz include an episcopal seminary, two gymnasia and
other schools, a society for literature and art, a musical society, and
an antiquarian society. The university, founded in 1477, was suppressed
by the French in 1798.
The site of Mainz would seem to mark it out naturally as a great centre
of trade, but the illiberal rule of the archbishops and its military
importance seriously hampered its commercial and industrial development,
and prevented it from rivalling its neighbour Frankfort. It is now,
however, the chief emporium of the Rhenish wine traffic, and also
carries on an extensive transit trade in grain, timber, flour,
petroleum, paper and vegetables. The natural facilities for carriage by
water are supplemented by the extensive railway system. Large new
harbours to the north of the city were opened in 1887. The principal
manufactures are leather goods, furniture, carriages, chemicals, musical
instruments and carpets, for the first two of which the city has
attained a wide reputation. Other industries include brewing and
printing. Mainz is the seat of the administrative and judicial
authorities of the province of Rhein-Hessen, and also of a Roman
Catholic bishop.
_History._--Mainz, one of the oldest cities in Germany, was originally a
Celtic settlement. Its strategic importance was early recognized by the
Romans, and about 13 B.C. Drusus, the son-in-law of Augustus, erected a
fortified camp here, to which the _castellum Mattiacorum_ (the modern
Castel) on the opposite bank was afterwards added, the two being
connected with a bridge at the opening of the Christian era. The Celtic
name became latinized as _Maguntiacum_, or _Moguntiacum_, and a town
gradually arose around the camp, which became the capital of Germania
Superior. During the Völkerwanderung Mainz suffered severely, being
destroyed on different occasions by the Alamanni, the Vandals and the
Huns. Christianity seems to have been introduced into the town at a very
early period, and in the 6th century a new Mainz was founded by Bishop
Sidonius. In the middle of the 8th century under Boniface it became an
archbishopric, and to this the primacy of Germany was soon annexed.
Charlemagne, who had a palace in the neighbourhood, gave privileges to
Mainz, which rose rapidly in wealth and importance, becoming a free city
in 1118. During the later middle ages it was the seat of several diets,
that of 1184 being of unusual size and splendour. In 1160 the citizens
revolted against Archbishop Arnold, and in 1163 the walls of the city
were pulled down by order of the emperor Frederick I. But these events
did not retard its progress. In 1244 certain rights of self-government
were given to the citizens; and in 1254 Mainz was the centre and
mainspring of a powerful league of Rhenish towns. Owing to its
commercial prosperity it was known as _goldene_ Mainz, and its
population is believed to have been as great as it is at the present
day. But soon a decline set in. In 1462 there was warfare between two
rival archbishops, Diether or Dietrich II. of Isenburg (d. 1463) and
Adolph II. of Nassau (d. 1475). The citizens espoused the cause of
Diether, but their city was captured by Adolph; it was then deprived of
its privileges and was made subject to the archbishop. Many of the
inhabitants were driven into exile, and these carried into other lands a
knowledge of the art of printing, which had been invented at Mainz by
Johann Gutenberg in 1450. During the Thirty Years' War Mainz was
occupied by the Swedes in 1631 and by the French in 1644, the
fortifications being strengthened by the former under Gustavus Adolphus;
in 1688 it was captured again by the French, but they were driven out in
the following year. In 1792 the citizens welcomed the ideas of the
French Revolution; they expelled their archbishop, Friedrich Karl Joseph
d'Erthal, and opened their gates to the French troops. Taken and retaken
several times during the next few years, Mainz was ceded to France by
the treaty of Campo Formio in 1797, and again by the Treaty of Lunéville
in 1801. In 1814 it was restored to Germany and in 1816 it was handed
over to the grand duke of Hesse; it remained, however, a fortress of the
German confederation and was garrisoned by Prussian and Austrian troops.
Since 1871 it has been a fortress of the German Empire. There were
disturbances in the city in 1848.
See Brühl, _Mainz, geschichtlich, topographisch und malerisch_ (Mainz,
1829); C. A. Schaab, _Geschichte der Stadt Mainz_ (Mainz, 1841-1845);
K. Klein, _Mainz und seine Umgebungen_ (1868); C. G. Bockenheimer,
_Beiträge zur Geschichte der Stadt Mainz_ (1874); Neeb, _Führer durch
Mainz und Umgebung_ (Stuttgart, 1903); and O. Beck, _Mainz und sein
Handel_ (Mainz, 1881).
The ARCHBISHOPRIC OF MAINZ, one of the seven electorates of the Holy
Roman Empire, became a powerful state during the middle ages and
retained some of its importance until the dissolution of the empire in
1806. Its archbishop was president of the electoral college,
arch-chancellor of the empire and primate of Germany. Its origin dates
back to 747, when the city of Mainz was made the seat of an archbishop,
and a succession of able and ambitious prelates, obtaining lands and
privileges from emperors and others, made of the district under their
rule a strong and vigorous state. Among these men were Hatto I. (d.
913), Siegfried III. of Eppstein (d. 1249), Gerhard of Eppstein (d.
1305), and Albert of Brandenburg (d. 1545), all of whom played important
parts in the history of Germany. There were several violent contests
between rivals anxious to secure so splendid a position as the
electorate, and the pretensions of the archbishops occasionally moved
the citizens of Mainz to revolt. The lands of the electorate lay around
Mainz, and were on both banks of the Rhine; their area at the time of
the French Revolution was about 3200 sq. m. The last elector was Karl
Theodor von Dalberg. The archbishopric was secularized in 1803, two
years after the lands on the left bank of the Rhine had been seized by
France. Some of those on the right bank of the river were given to
Prussia and to Hesse; others were formed into a grand duchy for Dalberg.
The archbishopric itself was transferred to Regensburg.
For the history of the electorate see the _Scriptores rerum
moguntiacarum_, edited by G. C. Joannis (Frankfort, 1722-1727);
Schunk, _Beiträge zur Mainzer Geschichte_ (Frankfort, 1788-1791);
Hennes, _Die Erzbischöfe von Mainz_ (Mainz, 1879); Ph. Jaffé,
_Monumenta moguntina_ (Berlin, 1866), and J. F. Böhmer and C. Will,
_Regesta archiepiscoporum moguntinensium_ (Innsbruck, 1877-1886).
MAIRET, JEAN DE (1604-1686), French dramatist, was born at Besançon, and
baptized on the 10th of May 1604. His own statement that he was born in
1610 has been disproved. He went to Paris to study at the Collège des
Grassins about 1625, in which year he produced his first piece
_Chriséide et Arimand_, followed in 1626 by _Sylvie_, a "pastoral
tragi-comedy." In 1634 appeared his masterpiece, _Sophonisbe_, which
marks, in its observance of the rules, the beginning of the "regular"
tragedies. Mairet was one of the bitterest assailants of Corneille in
the controversy over _The Cid_. It was perhaps his jealousy of Corneille
that made him give up writing for the stage. He was appointed in 1648
official representative of the Franche-Comté in Paris, but in 1653 he
was banished by Mazarin. He was subsequently allowed to return, but in
1668 he retired to Besançon, where he died on the 31st of January 1686.
His other plays include _Silvanire ou la Morte-vive_, published in 1631
with an elaborate preface on the observance of the unities, _Les
Galanteries du duc d'Orsonne_ (1632), _Virginie_ (1633), _Marc-Antoine_
(1635), and _Le Grand et dernier Solyman_ (1637).
See G. Bizos, _Étude sur la vie et les oeuvres de Jean de Mairet_
(1877). _Sophonisbe_ was edited by K. Vollmöller (Heilbronn, 1888),
and _Silvanire_ by R. Otto (Bamberg, 1890).
MAISTRE, JOSEPH DE (1754-1821), French diplomatist and polemical writer,
was born at Chambéry on the 1st of April 1754. His family was an ancient
and noble one, enjoying the title of count, and is said to have been of
Languedocian extraction. The father of Joseph was president of the
senate of Savoy, and held other important offices. Joseph himself, after
studying at Turin, received various appointments in the civil service of
Savoy, finally becoming a member of the senate. In 1786 he married
Françoise de Morand. The invasion and annexation of Savoy by the French
Republicans made him an exile. He did not take refuge in that part of
the king of Sardinia's domains which was for the time spared, but betook
himself to the as yet neutral territory of Lausanne. There, in 1796, he
published his first important work (he had previously written certain
discourses, pamphlets, letters, &c.), _Considérations sur la France_. In
this he developed his views, which were those of a Legitimist, but a
Legitimist entirely from the religious and Roman Catholic point of view.
The philosophism of the 18th century was Joseph de Maistre's lifelong
object of assault.
After the still further losses which, in the year of the publication of
this book, the French Revolution inflicted on Sardinia, Charles Emmanuel
summoned Joseph de Maistre to Turin, and he remained there for the brief
space during which the king retained a remnant of territory on the
mainland. Then he went to the island of Sardinia, and held office at
Cagliari. In 1802 he was appointed envoy extraordinary and minister
plenipotentiary at St Petersburg, and journeyed thither the next year.
Although his post was no sinecure, its duties were naturally less
engrossing than the official life, with intervals of uneasy exile and
travelling, which he had hitherto known, and his literary activity was
great. He only published a single treatise, on the _Principe générateur
des Constitutions_; but he wrote his best and most famous works, _Du
Pape_, _De L'église gallicane_ and the _Soirées de St Pétersbourg_, the
last of which was never finished. _Du Pape_, which the second-named book
completes, is a treatise in regular form, dealing with the relations of
the sovereign pontiff to the Church, to temporal sovereigns, to
civilization generally, and to schismatics, especially Anglicans and the
Greek Church. It is written from the highest possible standpoint of
papal absolutism. The _Soirées de St Pétersbourg_, so far as it is
anything (for the arrangement is somewhat desultory), is a kind of
_théodicée_, dealing with the fortunes of virtue and vice in this world.
It contains two of De Maistre's most famous pieces, his panegyric on the
executioner as the foundation of social order, and his acrimonious, and
in part unfair, but also in part very damaging, attack on Locke. The _Du
Pape_ is dated May 1817; on the _Soirées_ the author was still engaged
at his death. Besides these works he wrote an examination of the
philosophy of Bacon, some letters on the Inquisition (an institution
which, as may be guessed from the remarks just noticed about the
executioner, was no stumbling-block to him), and, earlier than any of
these, a translation of Plutarch's "Essay on the Delay of Divine
Justice," with somewhat copious notes. After 1815 he returned to Savoy,
and was appointed to high office, while his _Du Pape_ made a great
sensation. But the world to which he had returned was not altogether in
accordance with his desires. He had domestic troubles; and chagrin of
one sort and another is said to have had not a little to do with his
death by paralysis on the 26th of February 1821 at Turin. Most of the
works mentioned were not published till after his death, and it was not
till 1851 that a collection of _Lettres et opuscules_ appeared, while
even since that time fresh matter has been published.
Joseph de Maistre was one of the most powerful, and by far the ablest,
of the leaders of the neo-Catholic and anti-revolutionary movement. The
most remarkable thing about his standpoint is that, layman as he was, it
was entirely ecclesiastical. Unlike his contemporary Bonald, Joseph de
Maistre regarded the temporal monarchy as an institution of altogether
inferior importance to the spiritual primacy of the pope. He was by no
means a political absolutist, except in so far as he regarded obedience
as the first of political virtues, and he seldom loses an opportunity of
stipulating for a tempered monarchy. But the pope's power is not to be
tempered at all, either by councils or by the temporal power or by
national churches, least of all by private judgment. The peculiarity of
Joseph de Maistre is that he supports his conclusions, or if it be
preferred his paradoxes, by the hardest and heaviest argument. Although
a great master of rhetoric, he never makes rhetoric do duty for logic.
Every now and then it is possible to detect fallacies in him, but for
the most part he has succeeded in carrying matters back to those
fundamental differences of opinion which hardly admit of argument, and
on which men take sides in consequence chiefly of natural bent, and of
predilection for one state of things rather than for another. The
absolute necessity of order may be said to have been the first principle
of this thinker, who, in more ways than one, will invite comparison with
Hobbes. He could not conceive such order without a single visible
authority, reference to which should settle all dispute. He saw that
there could be no such temporal head, and in the pope he thought that he
saw a spiritual substitute. The anarchic tendencies of the Revolution in
politics and religion were what offended him. It ought to be added that
he was profoundly and accurately learned in history and philosophy, and
that the superficial blunders of the 18th-century _philosophes_
irritated him as much as their doctrines. To Voltaire in particular he
shows no mercy.
Of the two works named as his masterpieces, _Du Pape_ and the _Soirées
de St Pétersbourg_, editions are extremely numerous. No complete
edition of his works appeared till 1884-1887, when one was published
at Lyons in 14 volumes. This had been preceded, and has been followed,
by numerous biographies and discussions: C. Barthélemy, _L'Esprit de
Joseph de Maistre_ (1859); R. de Sézeval, _Joseph de Maistre_ (1865),
and J. C. Glaser, _Graf Joseph Maistre_ (same year); L. I. Moreau,
_Joseph de Maistre_ (1879); F. Paulhan, _Joseph de Maistre et sa
philosophie_ (1893); L. Cogordan, "Joseph de Maistre" in the _Grands
écrivains français_ (1894); F. Descostes, _Joseph de Maistre avant la
révolution_ (1896), and other works by the same writer; J. Mandoul,
_Un Homme d'état italien: Joseph de Maistre et la politique de la
maison de Savoie_ (1900); and E. Grasset, _Joseph de Maistre_ (1901).
(G. Sa.)
MAISTRE, XAVIER DE (1763-1852), younger brother of Joseph de Maistre,
was born at Chambéry in October 1763. He served when young in the
Piedmontese army, and wrote his delightful fantasy, _Voyage autour de ma
chambre_ (published 1794) when he was under arrest at Turin in
consequence of a duel. Xavier shared the politics and the loyalty of his
brother, and on the annexation of Savoy to France, he left the service,
and took a commission in the Russian army. He served under Suvarov in
his victorious Austro-Russian campaign and accompanied the marshal to
Russia. He shared the disgrace of his general, and supported himself for
some time in St Petersburg by miniature painting. But on his brother's
arrival in St Petersburg he was introduced to the minister of marine. He
was appointed to several posts in the capital, but also saw active
service, was wounded in the Caucasus, and attained the rank of
major-general. He married a Russian lady and established himself in his
adopted country, even after the overthrow of Napoleon, and the
consequent restoration of the Piedmontese dynasty. For a time, however,
he lived at Naples, but he returned to St Petersburg and died there on
the 12th of June 1852. He was only once in Paris (in 1839), when
Sainte-Beuve, who has left some pleasant reminiscences of him, met him.
Besides the _Voyage_ already mentioned, Xavier de Maistre's works (all
of which are of very modest dimensions) are _Le Lépreux de la cité
d'Aoste_ (1811), a touching little story of human misfortune; _Les
Prisonniers du Caucase_, a powerful sketch of Russian character, _La
Jeune Sibérienne_, and the _Expédition nocturne_, a sequel to the
_Voyage autour de ma chambre_ (1825). His style is of remarkable ease
and purity.
His works, with the exception of some brief chemical tractates, are
included in the collections of Charpentier, Garnier, &c. See
Sainte-Beuve's _Portraits contemporains_, vol. iii.
MAITLAND, EDWARD (1824-1897), English humanitarian writer, was born at
Ipswich on the 27th of October 1824, and was educated at Caius College,
Cambridge. The son of Charles David Maitland, perpetual curate of St
James's Chapel, Brighton, he was intended for the Church, but his
religious views did not permit him to take holy orders. For some years
he lived abroad, first in California and then as a commissioner of
Crownlands in Australia. After his return to England in 1857 he took up
an advanced humanitarian position, and claimed to have acquired a new
sense by which he was able to discern the spiritual condition of other
people. He was associated with Mrs Anna Kingsford (1846-1888), the
lady-doctor and supporter of vegetarianism and anti-vivisectionism, who,
besides being one of the pioneers of higher education for women, had
become a devotee of mystical theosophy; with her he brought out _Keys of
the Creeds_ (1875), _The Perfect Way: or the Finding of Christ_ (1882),
and founded the Hermetic Society in 1884. After her death he founded the
Esoteric Christian Union in 1891, and wrote her _Life and Letters_
(1896). He died on the 2nd of October 1897.
MAITLAND, FREDERIC WILLIAM (1850-1906), English jurist and historian,
son of John Gorham Maitland, was born on the 28th of May 1850, and
educated at Eton and Trinity, Cambridge, being bracketed at the head of
the moral sciences tripos of 1872, and winning a Whewell scholarship
for international law. He was called to the bar (Lincoln's Inn) in 1876,
and made himself a thoroughly competent equity lawyer and conveyancer,
but finally devoted himself to comparative jurisprudence and especially
the history of English law. In 1884 he was appointed reader in English
law at Cambridge, and in 1888 became Downing professor of the laws of
England. Though handicapped in his later years by delicate health, his
intellectual grasp and wide knowledge and research gradually made him
famous as a jurist and historian. He edited numerous volumes for the
Selden Society, including _Select Pleas for the Crown, 1200-1225_,
_Select Pleas in Manorial Courts_ and _The Court Baron_; and among his
principal works were _Gloucester Pleas_ (1884), _Justice and Police_
(1885), _Bracton's Note-Book_ (1887), _History of English Law_ (with Sir
F. Pollock, 1895; new ed. 1898; see also his article ENGLISH LAW in this
encyclopaedia), _Domesday Book and Beyond_ (1897), _Township and
Borough_ (1898), _Canon Law in England_ (1898), _English Law and the
Renaissance_ (1901), the _Life of Leslie Stephen_ (1906), besides
important contributions to the _Cambridge Modern History_, the _English
Historical Review_, the _Law Quarterly Review_, _Harvard Law Review_ and
other publications. His writings are marked by vigour and vitality of
style, as well as by the highest qualities of the historian who
recreates the past from the original sources; he had no sympathy with
either legal or historical pedantry; and his death at Grand Canary on
the 19th of December 1906 deprived English law and letters of one of
their most scholarly and most inspiring representatives, notable alike
for sweetness of character, acuteness in criticism, and wisdom in
counsel.
See P. Vinogradoff's article on Maitland in the _English Historical
Review_ (1907); Sir F. Pollock's in the _Quarterly Review_ (1907); G.
T. Lapsley's in _The Green Bag_ (Boston, Mass., 1907); A. L. Smith,
_F. W. Maitland_ (1908); H. A. L. Fisher, _F. W. Maitland_ (1910).
MAITLAND, SIR RICHARD (LORD LETHINGTON) (1496-1586), Scottish lawyer,
poet, and collector of Scottish verse, was born in 1496. His father, Sir
William Maitland of Lethington and Thirlestane, fell at Flodden; his
mother was a daughter of George, Lord Seton. He studied law at the
university of St Andrews, and afterwards in Paris. His castle at
Lethington was burnt by the English in 1549. He was in 1552 one of the
commissioners to settle matters with the English about the debateable
lands. About 1561 he seems to have lost his sight, but this did not
render him incapable of attending to public business, as he was the same
year admitted an ordinary lord of session with the title of Lord
Lethington, and a member of the privy council; and in 1562 he was
appointed keeper of the Great Seal. He resigned this last office in
1567, in favour of John, prior of Coldingham, his second son, but he sat
on the bench till he attained his eighty-eighth year. He died on the
20th of March 1586. His eldest son, by his wife Mary Cranstoun of
Crosbie, was William Maitland (q.v.): his second son, John (c.
1545-1595), was a lord of session, and was made a lord of parliament in
1590, with the title of Lord Maitland of Thirlestane, in which he was
succeeded by his son John, also for some time a lord of session, who was
created earl of Lauderdale in 1624. One of Sir Richard's daughters,
Margaret, assisted her father in preparing his collection of old Scots
verse.
The poems of Sir Richard Maitland, none of them lengthy, are for the
most part satirical, and are principally directed against the social and
political abuses of his time. He is chiefly remembered as the industrial
collector and preserver of many pieces of Scots poetry. These were
copied into two large volumes, one in folio and another in quarto, the
former written by himself, and the latter by his daughter. After being
in the possession of his descendant the duke of Lauderdale, these
volumes were purchased at the sale of the duke's library by Samuel
Pepys, and have since been preserved in the Pepysian Library, Magdalene
College, Cambridge. They lay there unnoticed for many years till Bishop
Percy published one of the poems in his _Reliques of English Poetry_.
Several of the prices were then transcribed by John Pinkerton, who
afterwards published them under the title of _Ancient Scottish Poems_ (2
vols., 1786.)
For an account of the Maitland Folio MS. see Gregory Smith's
_Specimens of Middle Scots_, 1902 (p. lxxiii.). The Scottish Text
Society has undertaken an edition of the entire manuscript. Maitland's
own poems were reprinted by Sibbald in his _Chronicle of Scottish
Poetry_ (1802), and in 1830 by the Maitland Club, named after him, and
founded for the purpose of continuing his efforts to preserve the
remains of early Scots literature. Sir Richard left in manuscript a
history of the family of Seton, and a volume of legal decisions
collected by him between the years 1550 and 1565. Both are preserved
in the Advocates' Library, Edinburgh; the former was published by the
Maitland Club, in 1829.
MAITLAND (MAITLAND OF LETHINGTON), WILLIAM (c. 1528-1573), Scottish
statesman, eldest son of the preceding, was educated at St Andrews. At
an early age he entered public life and began in various ways to serve
the regent, Mary of Lorraine, becoming her secretary of state in 1558.
In 1559, however, he deserted her and threw in his lot with the lords of
the congregation, to whom his knowledge of foreign, and especially of
English, politics and his general ability were assets of the highest
value. The lords sent him to England to ask for assistance from
Elizabeth, and his constant aim throughout his political career was to
bring about a union between the two crowns. He appears to have feared
the return of Mary Queen of Scots to Scotland, but after her arrival in
1561 he was appointed secretary of state, and for about six years he
directed the policy of Scotland and enjoyed the confidence of the queen.
His principal antagonist was John Knox; there were several tussles
between them, the most famous, perhaps, being the one in the general
assembly of 1564, and on the whole Maitland held his own against the
preachers. He was doubtless concerned in the conspiracy against David
Rizzio, and after the favourite's murder he was obliged to leave the
court and was himself in danger of assassination. In 1567, however, he
was again at Mary's side. He was a consenting party to the murder of
Darnley, although he had favoured his marriage with Mary, but the enmity
between Bothwell and himself was one of the reasons which drove him into
the arms of the queen's enemies, among whom he figured at Langside. He
was one of the Scots who met Elizabeth's representatives at York in
1568; here he showed a desire to exculpate Mary and to marry her to the
duke of Norfolk, a course of action probably dictated by a desire to
avoid all revelations about the Darnley murder. But this did not prevent
him from being arrested in September 1569 on account of his share in the
crime. He was, however, delivered from his captors by a ruse on the part
of his friend, Sir William Kirkcaldy of Grange, and was brought into
Edinburgh Castle, while his trial was put off because the city was
thronged with his adherents. Maitland now became the leader of the
remnant which stood by the cause of the imprisoned queen. Already a
physical wreck, he was borne into Edinburgh Castle in April 1571 and
with Kirkcaldy he held this fortress against the regent Morton and his
English auxiliaries. The castle surrendered in May 1573 and on the 7th
or the 9th of June following Maitland died at Leith, there being very
little evidence for the theory that he poisoned himself. "Secretary
Maitland" was a man of great learning with a ready wit and a caustic
tongue. He was reputed to be the most versatile and accomplished
statesman of his age, and almost alone among his Scottish contemporaries
he placed his country above the claims of either the Roman Catholic or
the Protestant religions. Among the testimonies to his great abilities
are those of Queen Elizabeth, of William Cecil and of Knox. By his
second wife, Mary Fleming, one of Queen Mary's ladies, whom he married
in 1567, he had a son and daughter. His son James died without issue
about 1620.
See John Skelton, _Maitland of Lethington_ (1894); A. Lang, _History
of Scotland_, vol. ii. (1902).
MAITLAND, EAST and WEST, adjoining municipalities in Northumberland
county, New South Wales, Australia, 120 m. by rail N. of Sydney. Pop.
(1901), West Maitland, 6798; East Maitland, 3287. These towns are
situated in a valley on the Hunter River, which is liable to sudden
floods, to guard against which the river is protected by stone
embankments at West Maitland, while there are flood-gates at East
Maitland. Maitland is the centre of the rich agricultural district of
the Hunter Valley, which produces maize, wheat and other cereals,
lucerne, tobacco, fruit and wine; excellent coal also is worked in the
vicinity. East Maitland is the see of a Roman Catholic bishop, whose
cathedral (St John's), however, is situated in the larger town. Besides
this, West Maitland contains several handsome public and commercial
buildings.
MAITREYA, the name of the future Buddha. In one of the works included in
the Pali canon, the _Digha Nikaya_, a prophecy is put into the Buddha's
mouth that after the decay of the religion another Buddha, named
Metteyya, will arise who will have thousands of followers instead of the
hundreds that the historical Buddha had. This is the only mention of the
future Buddha in the canon. For some centuries we hear nothing more
about him. But when, in the period just before and after the Christian
era, some Buddhists began to write in Sanskrit instead of Pali, they
composed new works in which Maitreya (the Sanskrit form of Metteyya) is
more often mentioned, and details are given as to his birthplace and
history. These are entirely devised in imitation of the details of the
life of the historical Buddha, and have no independent value. Only the
names differ. The document in which the original prophecy occurs was put
together at some date during the 1st century after the Buddha's death
(see NIKAYA). It is impossible to say whether tradition was, at that
time, correct in attributing it to the Buddha. But whoever chose the
name (it is a patronymic or family, not a personal name), had no doubt
regard to the etymological connexion with the word for "love," which is
Metta in Pali. This would only be one of those punning allusions so
frequent in Indian literature.
Long afterwards, probably in the 6th or 7th century, a reformer in south
India, at a time when the incoming flood of ritualism and superstition
threatened to overwhelm the simple teaching of the earlier Buddhism,
wrote a Pali poem, entitled the _Anagata Vamsa_. In this he described
the golden age of the future when, in the time of Metteyya, kings,
ministers and people would vie one with the other in the maintenance of
the original simple doctrine, and in the restoration of the good times
of old. The other side also claimed the authority of the future Buddha
for their innovations. Statues of Maitreya are found in Buddhist
temples, of all sects, at the present day; and the belief in his future
advent is universal among Buddhists.
Authorities.--_Digha Nikaya_, vol. iii., edited by J. E. Carpenter,
(London, 1908); "_Anagata Vamsa_," edited by J. Minayeff in _Journal
of the Pali Text Society_ (1886); _Watters on Yuan Chwang_, edited by
Rhys Davids and S. W. Bushell (London, 1904-1905). (T. W. R. D.)