MAINE, SIR HENRY JAMES SUMNER (1822-1888), English comparative jurist

and historian, son of Dr James Maine, of Kelso, Roxburghshire, was born

on the 15th of August 1822. He was at school at Christ's Hospital, and

thence went up to Pembroke College, Cambridge, in 1840. At Cambridge he

was one of the most brilliant classical scholars of his time. He won a

Craven scholarship and graduated as senior classic in 1844, being also

senior chancellor's medallist in classics. Shortly afterwards he

accepted a tutorship at Trinity Hall. In 1847 he was appointed regius

professor of civil law, and he was called to the bar three years later;

he held this chair till 1854. Even the rudiments of Roman law were not

then included in the ordinary training of English lawyers; it was

assumed at the universities that any good Latin scholar could qualify

himself at short notice for keeping up such tradition of civilian

studies as survived. Maine cannot have known much Roman law in 1847,

but in 1856 he contributed to the _Cambridge Essays_ the essay on Roman

law and legal education, republished in the later editions of _Village

Communities_, which was the first characteristic evidence of his genius.

Meanwhile he had become one of the readers appointed by the Inns of

Court, in the first of their many half-hearted attempts at legal

education, in 1852. Lectures delivered by Maine in this capacity were

the groundwork of _Ancient Law_ (1861), the book by which his reputation

was made at one stroke. Its object, as modestly stated in the preface,

was "to indicate some of the earliest ideas of mankind, as they are

reflected in ancient law, and to point out the relation of those ideas

to modern thought." Within a year of its publication the post of legal

member of council in India was offered to Maine, then a junior member of

the bar with little practice, few advantages of connexion, and no

political or official claims. He declined once, on grounds of health;

the very next year the office was again vacant. This time Maine was

persuaded to accept, not that his health had improved, but that he

thought India might not make it much worse. It turned out that India

suited him much better than Cambridge or London. His work, like most of

the work done by Englishmen in India in time of peace, was not of a

showy kind--its value is shown by the fact that he was asked to prolong

his services beyond the regular term of five years, and returned to

England only in 1869. The subjects on which it was his duty to advise

the government of India were as much political as legal. They ranged

from such problems as the land settlement of the Punjab, or the

introduction of civil marriage to provide for the needs of unorthodox

Hindus, to the question how far the study of Persian should be required

or encouraged among European civil servants. On the civil marriage

question in particular, and some years earlier on the still more

troublesome one of allowing the remarriage of native converts to

Christianity, his guidance, being not only learned but statesmanlike,

was of the greatest value. Plans of codification, moreover, were

prepared, and largely shaped, under Maine's direction, which were

carried into effect by his successors, Sir J. Fitzjames Stephen and Dr

Whitley Stokes. The results are open to criticism in details, but form

on the whole a remarkable achievement in the conversion of unwritten and

highly technical law into a body of written law sufficiently clear to be

administered by officers to many of whom its ideas and language are

foreign. All this was in addition to the routine of legislative and

consulting work and the establishment of the legislative department of

the government of India on substantially its present footing.

Maine's power of swiftly assimilating new ideas and appreciating modes

of thought and conduct remote from modern Western life came into contact

with the facts of Indian society at exactly the right time, and his

colleagues and other competent observers expressed the highest opinion

of his work. In return Maine brought back from his Indian office a store

of knowledge which enriched all his later writings, though he took India

by name for his theme only once. This essay on India was his

contribution to the composite work entitled _The Reign of Queen

Victoria_ (ed. T. H. Ward, 1887). Not having been separately published,

it is perhaps the least known of Maine's writings; but its combination

of just perception and large grasp with command of detail is not easily

matched outside W. Stubbs's prefaces to some of the chronicles in the

Rolls series, and (more lately) F. W. Maitland's monographs. As

vice-chancellor of the university of Calcutta, Maine commented, with his

usual pregnant ingenuity, on the results produced by the contact of

Eastern and Western thought. Three of these addresses were published,

wholly or in part, in the later editions of _Village Communities_; the

substance of others is understood to be embodied in the Cambridge Rede

lecture of 1875, which is to be found in the same volume. The practical

side of Maine's experience was not long lost to India; he became a

member of the secretary of state's council in 1871, and remained so for

the rest of his life. In the same year he was gazetted a K.C.S.I. In

1869 Maine was appointed to the chair of historical and comparative

jurisprudence newly founded in the university of Oxford by Corpus

Christi College. Residence at Oxford was not required, and the election

amounted to an invitation to the new professor to resume and continue in

his own way the work he had begun in _Ancient Law_. During the

succeeding years he published the principal matters of his lectures in a

carefully revised literary form: _Village Communities in the East and

the West_ (1871); _Early History of Institutions_ (1875); _Early Law and

Custom_ (1883). In all these works the phenomena of societies in an

archaic stage, whether still capable of observation or surviving in a

fragmentary manner among more modern surroundings or preserved in

contemporary records, are brought into line, often with singular

felicity, to establish and illustrate the normal process of development

in legal and political ideas.

In 1877 the mastership of Trinity Hall, Cambridge, where Maine had

formerly been tutor, became vacant. There were two strong candidates

whose claims were so nearly equal that it was difficult to elect either;

the difficulty was solved by a unanimous invitation to Maine to accept

the post. His acceptance entailed the resignation of the Oxford chair,

though not continuous residence at Cambridge. Ten years later

considerations of a somewhat similar kind led to his election to succeed

Sir William Harcourt as Whewell professor of international law at

Cambridge. His all too short performance in this office is represented

by a posthumous volume which had not received his own final revision,

_International Law_ (1888).

Meanwhile Maine had published in 1885 his one work of speculative

politics, a volume of essays on _Popular Government_, designed to show

that democracy is not in itself more stable than any other form of

government, and that there is no necessary connexion between democracy

and progress. The book was deliberately unpopular in tone; it excited

much controversial comment and some serious and useful discussion.

In 1886 there appeared in the _Quarterly Review_ (clxii. 181) an article

on the posthumous work of J. F. M'Lennan, edited and completed by his

brother, entitled "The Patriarchal Theory." The article, though

necessarily unsigned (in accordance with the rule of the _Quarterly_ as

it then stood), was Maine's reply to the M'Lennan brothers' attack on

the historical reconstruction of the Indo-European family system put

forward in _Ancient Law_ and supplemented in _Early Law and Custom_.

Maine was generally averse from controversy, but showed on this occasion

that it was not for want of controversial power. He carried the war back

into the invader's country, and charged J. F. M'Lennan's theory of

primitive society with owing its plausible appearance of universal

validity to general neglect of the Indo-European evidence and

misapprehension of such portions of it as M'Lennan did attempt to

handle.

Maine's health, which had never been strong, gave way towards the end of

1887. He went to the Riviera under medical advice, and died at Cannes on

the 3rd of February 1888. He left a wife and two sons, of whom the elder

died soon afterwards.

An excellent summary of Maine's principal writings may be seen in Sir

Mountstuart Grant Duff's memoir. The prompt and full recognition of

Maine's genius by continental publicists must not pass unmentioned even

in the briefest notice. France, Germany, Italy, Russia have all

contributed to do him honour; this is the more remarkable as one or two

English publicists of an older school signally failed to appreciate him.

Maine warned his countrymen against the insularity which results from

ignorance of all law and institutions save one's own; his example has

shown the benefit of the contrary habit. His prominent use of Roman law

and the wide range of his observation have made his works as

intelligible abroad as at home, and thereby much valuable

information--for example, concerning the nature of British supremacy in

India, and the position of native institutions there--has been made the

property of the world of letters instead of the peculiar and obscure

possession of a limited class of British public servants. Foreign

readers of Maine have perhaps understood even better than English ones

that he is not the propounder of a system but the pioneer of a method,

and that detailed criticism, profitable as it may be and necessary as in

time it must be, will not leave the method itself less valid or diminish

the worth of the master's lessons in its use. The rather small bulk of

Maine's published and avowed work may be explained partly by a fine

literary sense which would let nothing go out under his name unfinished,

partly by the drawbacks incident to precarious health. Maine's

temperament was averse from the labour of minute criticism, and his

avoidance of it was no less a matter of prudence. But it has to be

remembered that Maine also wrote much which was never publicly

acknowledged. Before he went to India he was one of the original

contributors to the _Saturday Review_, founded in 1855, and the inventor

of its name. Like his intimate friend Fitzjames Stephen, he was an

accomplished journalist, enjoyed occasional article-writing as a

diversion from official duties, and never quite abandoned it. The

practice of such writing probably counted for something in the freedom

and clearness of Maine's style and the effectiveness of his dialectic.

His books are a model of scientific exposition which never ceases to be

literature.

See Sir A. Lyall and others, in _Law Quart. Rev._ iv. 129 seq. (1888);

Sir F. Pollock, "Sir Henry Maine and his Work," in _Oxford Lectures,

&c._ (1890); "Sir H. Maine as a Jurist," _Edin. Rev._ (July 1893);

Introduction and Notes to new ed. of _Ancient Law_ (1906); Sir M. E.

Grant Duff, _Sir Henry Maine: a brief Memoir of his Life, &c._ (1892);

_Notes from a Diary_, _passim_; L. Stephen, "Maine" in _Dict. Nat.

Biog._ (1893); Paul Vinogradoff, _The Teaching of Sir Henry Maine_

(1904). (F. Po.)

MAINE, an old French province, bounded N. by Normandy, E. by Orléanais,

S. by Touraine and Anjou, and W. by Brittany. Before the Roman Conquest

the region occupied by this province was inhabited by the Aulerci

Cenomanni and the Aulerci Diablintes; under the Roman empire it

consisted of two _civitates_ comprised in the Provincia Lugdunensis

Tertia--the Civitas Cenomannorum and the Civitas Diablintum, whose chief

towns were Le Mans and Jublains. These two _civitates_ were united

during the barbarian period and formed a single bishopric, that of Le

Mans, suffragan to the metropolitan see of Tours. Under the Merovingians

and Carolingians the diocese of Le Mans corresponded to the Pagus

Cenomanensis, and in the feudal period to the county of Maine. In the

16th century the county of Maine, with the addition of Perche, formed a

military government--the province of Maine. Since 1790 this province has

been represented approximately by the departments of Sarthe and Mayenne,

the respective capitals of which are Le Mans and Laval. In 1855 the

bishopric of Laval was separated from that of Le Mans. Maine was

evangelized in the 3rd century by St Julian. After forming part of the

kingdom of Syagrius, it was conquered by Clovis at the end of the 5th

century. Owing to the scarcity of documents the history of Maine until

the end of the 9th century is merged in the history of the bishops of Le

Mans, which has come down to us in the _Actus pontificum Cenomannis in

urbe degentium_ (ed. Busson-Ledru, Le Mans, 1901), composed under the

direction of Bishop Aldric (832-857). Roger (_c._ 892-_c._ 898) was

perhaps the first hereditary count of Maine; the counts whose existence

is certain are Hugh I. (_c._ 939-before 992), Hugh II. (before

992-1015), Herbert I. (1015-1032 to 1036), Hugh III. (1032 to

1036-1051), Herbert II. (1051-1062), William the Bastard (1063-1087),

Robert Curthose (1087-1091), Hugh IV. (1091-1092) and Helias

(1092-1110). Maine, which was in the vassalage of Anjou as early as the

9th century, was united to Anjou in 1110 by the marriage of Count

Helias's daughter to Fulk V., count of Anjou, and passed to the English

crown in 1154, when Henry Plantagenet (who was born at Le Mans) became

king of England. In 1204, after the confiscation of the estates of John

of England, Maine was united to France; in 1246 it was separated from

France by Louis IX., who handed it over to his brother Charles, count of

Provence. Again united to France in 1328, it was given in 1356 as an

apanage to Louis, second son of King John II., and did not definitely

return to the French crown until 1481, after the death of Charles II.,

count of Maine. During the Hundred Years' War Maine was taken in 1425 by

the English, who lost it in 1448.

See _Histoire de l'église du Mans_, by Dom Piolin (Paris, 1851-1858),

which is useful but out of date; _Revue historique et archéologique du

Maine_ (1876); _La Province du Maine_ (1893); B. Hauréau, _Histoire

littéraire du Maine_ (1870-1877).

MAINE, a North Atlantic state of the United States of America, the most

north-easterly state in the Union, and the largest of the New England

group. It lies between 43° 4´ and 47° 27´ 33´´ N., and between 66° 56´

48´´ and 71° 6´ 41´´ W. It is bounded N.W. by the Canadian province of

Quebec; N. and E. by the Canadian province of New Brunswick, from which

it is separated in part by the natural barriers of the Saint John River,

the Grand (or Schoodic) Lakes, the Saint Croix River, and Passamaquoddy

Bay; S.S.E. by the Atlantic Ocean; and W. by New Hampshire, the

Piscataqua and Salmon Falls rivers being the natural boundary lines at

the S.W. The area of the state is 33,040 sq. m., 3145 sq. m. being water

surface.

Maine attracts more summer visitors than any other state in the Union.

This is due to the cool and refreshing summer climate; the picturesque

coast and its many islands, which are favourite grounds for camps and

summer cottages; the mountains, and the beautiful lakes and rivers, many

of which afford opportunities for good fishing and canoeing. Among the

more widely known resorts are Mount Desert Island, on which is Bar

Harbor, a fashionable summer place of great beauty; Long Island, Orr's

and other islands in Casco Bay; Old Orchard, with a gently sloping white

sand sea-beach 9 m. long, Rangeley and Moosehead Lakes, favourite

resorts of fishermen and hunters; Mt Katahdin, in the heart of the moose

country; and Poland Springs (38 m. by rail from Portland) in

Androscoggin county, near lake Anasigunticook. About 1870, camps, summer

cottages, summer hotels and boarding houses began to multiply throughout

the state. The needs of this summer population gave a new impulse and a

new turn to agriculture; and the demand for souvenirs revived among the

Indians basket-weaving, moccasin-making, and such crafts.

_Physical Features._--The surface is a gently rolling upland, forming

a part of the "New England uplands," above which rise isolated

mountain peaks and clusters of peaks, and below which are cut numerous

river valleys.[1] The highest peak is Mt Katahdin (5200 ft.), a little

N.E. of the centre of the state in Piscataquis county, which rises

from a comparatively level upland. South-west of Katahdin, in Franklin

county, are most of the other high peaks of the state: Saddleback

Mountain (4000 ft.), Mt Abraham (3388 ft.), Mt Bigelow (3600 ft.), and

Mt Blue (3200 ft.). A little N. of this line of mountain peaks is the

water-parting which divides the state into a north slope and a south

slope. The north slope descends gently both to the N. and to the E.;

although quite hilly in the middle and western portions it is so

poorly drained that swamps abound in all sections. The south slope

which contains nearly all the mountains and is generally more hilly,

has a mean descent toward the sea of about 7 ft. to the mile, the fall

being greater in the W., where the mountains are high at the N. and

the shore low at the S., and less to the E., where the water-parting

is lower and the shore high and rocky.

After the uplift which caused the rivers to cut below the general

"uplands," and develop well marked valleys for themselves, came the

period of the great continental glaciation. The glacier or ice sheet

overran all Maine, irregularly scouring out the bed rock to produce

rock basins, damming up many river valleys with glacial deposits and

completely disarranging the drainage lines. When the ice melted, the

rock basins and the dammed-up valleys filled with water to produce

lakes. This is the origin of the numerous lakes of Maine, which give

it some of its most beautiful scenery, and help to make it a holiday

resort in summer. These lakes are about 1600 in number, are scattered

in all parts of the state, are especially numerous at high elevations,

and have an aggregate area of more than 2000 sq. m. Few other regions

have so many large lakes so variously situated, and with such beauty

of aspect and surroundings. They contribute largely to a constant

supply of water power for which the course of the rivers of S.W. Maine

are exceptionally well adapted, many of them abound in trout, salmon,

togue, black bass and pickerel; and near them there is still much

game. Moosehead Lake (about 120 sq. m.; 35 m. long and from 2 m. to 10

m. wide), on the boundary between Piscataquis and Somerset counties,

is the largest in Maine and the largest inland body of water wholly in

New England; the Kennebec River is its principal outlet and Mt Kineo

rises abruptly to about 1760 ft. above the sea (about 700 ft. above

the lake) on its eastern shore. Other lakes, such as the Rangeley

Lakes,[2] Chesuncook and Twin Lakes on the Penobscot, and the Grand or

Schoodic Lakes, in the western boundary at the head waters of the

Saint Croix River, equal or surpass Moosehead in picturesqueness. The

glacier or ice sheet, above referred to, deposited till or boulder

clay, which was compacted under the enormous pressure of the ice sheet

to form the "hard-pan" referred to later. The glaciation is also

responsible for the poor soil of most of the state, for, although the

rocks are the same crystallines which give good soils further south in

unglaciated regions, all the decayed portions of the Maine rocks have

been removed by glacial erosion, revealing fresh, barren rock over

great areas, or depositing the rather sterile hard-pan as a thin

coating in other places.

After the uplift came a period of subsidence, during which this region

sank one or more thousand feet, allowing the sea to encroach on the

land and run far inland into the previously made river valleys. This

depression probably occurred during the glacial period, perhaps toward

its close, and is responsible for the second most important feature of

Maine physiography, the embayed coast. To this subsidence are due the

picturesque coastal scenery, the numerous islands and bays, the good

harbours and the peculiar coast-line.

The shortest distance between the N.E. and the S.W. extremities of the

coast is only 225 m.; but, on account of projections and indentations,

the coast-line measures not less than 2500 m. The headlands, the deep

indentations and the numerous islands in the bays and beyond produce a

beautiful mingling of land and sea and give to the whole ocean front

the appearance of a fringed and tasselled border; west of the mouth of

the Kennebec River are a marshy shore and many low grassy islands; but

east of this river the shore becomes more and more bold, rising in the

precipitous cliffs and rounded summits of Mt Desert and Quoddy Head,

1527 and 1000 ft. high respectively. All along the coast-line there

are capacious and well-protected harbours, Casco, Penobscot,

Frenchman's, Machias and Passamaquoddy bays being especially

noteworthy.

After the subsidence came another period of uplift, possibly still in

progress. This uplift has brought up submarine deposits of sand, &c.,

to form little coastal plains at some points along the coast,

providing good land for settlement and clay for brick and pottery.

Further evidence of this uplift is found in old beach lines now well

above sea-level.

The principal river systems of Maine are the Saint John on the north

slope, and the Penobscot, the Kennebec, the Androscoggin, and the Saco

on the south slope. The mean height of the basin of the St John is

exceeded only by that of the Androscoggin, but the fall of the St John

River through the greater part of its course in Maine is only

sufficient to give a sluggish or a gentle current. The Penobscot,

Kennebec, Androscoggin and Saco have numerous falls and rapids.

_Fauna._--The animal life of Maine shows a mixture of northern and

southern forms, and very little that is peculiar as compared with

surrounding regions. The state has moose, caribou and deer, especially

in the northern part. The black bear, wolf, catamount, wolverine, wild

cat, fox, beaver, racoon, marten, sable, woodchuck, skunk, otter,

mink, rabbit and squirrel are also found. Geese, ducks and other water

fowl frequent the lakes and bays in the migratory season, and eagles,

gulls, hawks, kingfishers, owls, plover, woodcock, "partridge" (ruffed

grouse), robins, orioles, bobolinks, blue birds, swallows, sparrows,

and many other insectivorous birds are common. In the inland waters

salmon, trout, togue (_Salvelinus namaycush_), pickerel and bass

abound; along the shore there are lobsters, clams and scallops

(_Pecten irradians_); and off the shore are herring, alewives,

mackerel, cod, halibut, haddock, smelts, hake, menhaden, porgies and

porpoises. The game in the North Woods attracts large numbers of

sportsmen during the autumn season.

[Illustration: Map of Maine.]

_Flora._--Maine was formerly covered with forests, principally of

white pine and spruce, but mixed with these were some hemlock,

tamarack, cedar, and, on the south slope, birch, poplar, oak, maple

and beech. Chestnut and walnut are rare and are found only near the

south-west border. In 1900 about 21% of the state's area was cleared,

and much besides had once been cleared, but not being suited to

agriculture had become reforested. Of fruit trees the chief is the

apple. The plum, cherry and pear also thrive. The peach grows well

only in the south-west near the border. Species of grape, gooseberry

and currant are native, and others are cultivated with advantage. The

blackberry, raspberry, blueberry and strawberry grow wild in profusion

throughout the state.

_Climate._--The climate of the state is moist and, for its latitude,

cold. Extremes of temperature are not so great as farther inland in

the same latitude; for the summer heats are tempered by the sea and

the cool north winds, and the winter cold is so constant as to be less

severely felt than the changing temperature of more southern

districts. The summers are short, there being only about 4½ months

between frosts even in the southern sections, and the mean summer

temperature is about 62° F. The mean winter temperature is

approximately 20° F., and the mean annual temperature for the entire

state is 42° F., that for the north slope being about 5° F. less than

that for the south slope. Although the temperature remains pretty

steadily below the freezing point for at least three months of the

year, many of the harbours remain unobstructed; for the tides and the

prevailing off-shore winds break up and drive off the ice. The

precipitation is about 42 in. annually, and is distributed very evenly

throughout the year, 10-11 in. of rain or its equivalent in snow

falling each season. During 4½ months about 44% of the precipitation

is in the form of snow; but the snow-fall varies from about 60 in. on

the coast to more than 100 in. on the north slope. The winds are

variable; at no season of the year is it usual for them to blow from

the same direction for many days in succession. But, with the

exception of those from the west, they are maritime and consequently

moisture-bearing. In summer, especially in the latter part of it, the

cool and moist N. or N.E. winds often cause a considerable part of the

state to be enveloped in fog for several days in succession.

_Agriculture._--The soil is for the most part glacial drift,

containing a large mixture of clay with sand or gravel, and the

subsoil is mostly "hard-pan," i.e. mingled clay and boulders which

have been so much compressed by glacial action as to make the mixture

hard and ledge-like. Except in the valley of the Aroostook and along

the Kennebec, the Penobscot, and some other rivers, the soil is

generally unfit for cultivation, there being too little alluvium mixed

with it to make it fertile. In the Aroostook valley, however, is the

largest undivided area of good arable land in all New England, the

soil being a deep, porous, yellow loam well adapted to the growth of

cereals and to market gardening. The most sterile regions are on the

mountains and along the coast. Because of the cold climate, the large

areas in which there is little or no good arable land, the growing

demand for timber land, and the large and constant supply of

water-power afforded by the principal rivers, agriculture in Maine, as

in all the other New England states except Vermont, is a smaller

industry than manufacturing; in 1900 there were 87,932 people engaged

in manufacturing and only 76,932 engaged in agriculture. Only 32.9% of

the state's land area was in that year included in farms, only 37.9%

of this farm land was improved, and only 16.3% of the improved land

was in crops other than hay and forage. Nevertheless, as indicated by

the unusually large proportion of farmers who either own their farms

or pay cash rent for them, farming usually is profitable. The number

of farms in 1900 was 59,299; of these 18,644 contained between 50 and

100 acres and 17,191 contained between 100 and 175 acres, the average

size being 106.2 acres; 54,263 (or 91.5%) were operated by their

owners, 775 were operated by part owners, 2030 by cash tenants, and

only 745 by share tenants. Beginning with the middle of the 19th

century, the increasing competition of the more productive soils of

the West, the growth of urban population in the state, and the number

of summer visitors effected the reforesting of much poor land and the

more intensive cultivation of the better arable land. The cultivation

of cereals, for example, has given way to a marked extent in nearly

all the farming districts except in Aroostook county to market

gardening, dairying, and egg and poultry production. The number of

dairy cows increased from 157,240 in 1890 to 183,000 in 1908, and the

annual production of milk increased from 57,969,791 gallons in 1890 to

99,586,188 gallons in 1900. The number of other neat cattle (180,878

in 1900; 151,000 in 1908) decreased during every decade from 1860 to

1900; the number of sheep in 1900 was 427,209 (31.9% less than in

1890), and in 1908 it was 267,000; but the number of horses in 1890

and 1900 was about the same (140,310 in 1960, but only 116,000 in

1908). Hay is still by far the largest crop, the acreage of it and of

forage in 1899 being 1,270,254 acres, or 76.5% of that of all crops,

and the yield was 1,133,932 tons; in 1907 the acreage was 1,400,000

acres, and the crop was 2,100,000 tons. The acreage of cereals

decreased from 187,013 in 1880, when agriculture in Aroostook county

was little developed, to 166,896 in 1899, when the cereal acreage in

Aroostook county alone was 82,069. Maine potatoes are of a superior

quality, and the acreage of this crop increased from 49,617 in 1889 to

118,000 in 1907. Sweet Indian corn, cabbages, turnips, cucumbers and

tomatoes are grown in large quantities. The fruit crop consists very

largely of apples and strawberries (1,421,773 bushels of apples and

1,066,860 quarts of strawberries in 1899). The output of eggs

increased from 9,369,534 dozen in 1889 to 13,304,150 dozen in 1899.

The most productive dairy section of the state is a belt extending

from the south-west corner N.E. entirely across the state and

embracing the whole or parts of the counties of York, Oxford,

Cumberland, Androscoggin, Kennebec, Penobscot and Aroostook.

_Lumber Industry._--Except in the remote parts, the valuable white

pine, for which Maine was long noted, has been cut; but the woodland

of the state was estimated in 1900 at 23,700 sq. m. or 79% of its

area. The tendency is for this area to increase, for the establishment

between 1890 and 1900 of large paper and pulp mills on some of the

principal rivers of the south slope greatly increased the value of

forests, especially those of spruce and poplar. The state makes large

appropriations for preventing and extinguishing forest fires, and in

1903 established a department of forestry in the university of Maine.

Good spruce, which is by far the most valuable timber in the state and

is used most largely for the manufacture of paper and pulp, stands in

large quantities in the St John, Penobscot, Androscoggin and Kennebec

basins. Poplar, also used for the manufacture of paper, abounds in

several sections of the south slope, but is most abundant in the basin

of the Kennebec. White birch, used largely for the manufacture of

spools, is found throughout a wide belt extending across the middle of

the state. There is much cedar on the north slope. Oak, maple and

beech are rather scarce. A new growth of white pine and other timber

is gradually becoming valuable. The value of the timber product

increased from $11,849,654 in 1890 to $13,489,401 in 1900, and to

$17,937,683 in 1905.

_Fisheries._--Fishing has always been an important industry in Maine.

From 1901 to 1904 inclusive, the average annual catch amounted to

195,335,646 lb., and its average value was $5,557,083. In 1908,

according to state reports, the catch was 185,476,343 lb., valued at

$3,849,900. Herrings are caught in largest quantities (in 1908,

according to state reports, 68,210,800 lb., valued at $450,665), and

Maine is noted for the canning of the smaller herrings under the name

of "sardines." In 1908, according to state reports, the take of

lobsters was 17,635,980 lb. valued at $1,558,252. Maine markets more

clams than any other state in the Union, and the catches of cod, hake,

haddock, smelt, mackerel, swordfish, shad, pollock, cusk, salmon,

alewives, eels and halibut are of importance. The scallop fishery is

becoming more and more valuable. For the protection and promotion of

the lobster fishery the United States government has established a

lobster hatchery at Boothbay Harbor; and the state legislature enacted

a law in 1895 prohibiting the taking of lobsters less than 10-1/2 in.

in length (one effect of this law being to drive the lobster-canning

industry from the state) and another law in 1903 for the protection of

lobsters with eggs attached. This latter law directs the state fish

commissioner to purchase such lobsters whenever caught and either to

liberate them or to sell them to the United States for keeping in a

fish hatchery.

_Minerals._--The principal mineral products are granite, limestone,

slate, clay products and mineral waters. In 1905 Maine held first rank

among the states of the Union as a producer of granite, the value of

the output being $2,713,795. In 1907 Maine's granite was valued at

$2,146,420, that of Massachusetts at $2,328,777, and that of Vermont

at $2,693,889. The stone is of superior quality, and the largest part

of it is used for building purposes; much of it is used as paving

blocks and some for monuments. It abounds all along the coast east of

the Kennebec and on the adjacent islands, and is found farther inland,

especially about the Rangeley lakes in Franklin and Oxford counties,

and, near Mt Katahdin, in Penobscot and Piscataquis counties. The

principal quarries, however, are situated in positions most convenient

for shipment by water, in the vicinity of Penobscot bay and in

Kennebec county, and these have supplied the bulk of the material used

in the construction of many prominent buildings and monuments in the

United States. The Fox Island granite comes from the quarries on

Vinalhaven Island and the surrounding islands, and on Vinalhaven were

quarried monolithic columns 51.5 to 54 ft. long and 6 ft. in diameter

for the Cathedral of St John the Divine in New York City. Black

granite was quarried in 1907 at 12 quarries, in York, Lincoln, Waldo,

Penobscot and Washington counties. Limestone abounds, especially in

the south-east part of the state, but it is quarried chiefly in Knox

county. As its colour--blue and blue-black streaked with

white--renders it undesirable for building purposes, nearly all of it

is burned into lime, which has become a very important article of

manufacture in the city of Rockland; the industry dates back to 1733

in Knox county. In 1907 the quantity of lime burned in Maine was

159,494 tons and its value was $747,947. Slate is quarried chiefly in

Piscataquis county, most of it being used for roofing, but some for

blackboards; in 1907 the amount quarried in Maine was valued at

$236,106. About 1896 some remarkably white and pure feldspar began to

be quarried in Androscoggin, Oxford and Sagadahoc counties, but

afterwards the spar mined in Maine was of less excellent quality; in

1907 the production in Maine was valued at $157,334, the total for the

entire country being $499,069. Clay is obtained in various places, and

in 1905 the total value of the clay products was $619,294. In Oxford

county tourmaline, spodumene (or kunzite) and beryl occur, the

tourmaline crystals being notably large and beautiful. Mineral water

occurs in many localities, particularly in Androscoggin, York,

Cumberland and Oxford counties; the most famous springs are the Poland

Springs in Androscoggin county. Most of the mineral waters bottled in

the state are chalybeate and slightly alkaline--saline; their average

temperature is about 43°. In 1908 27 springs were reported, their

aggregate sales amounting to 1,182,322 gallons. Copper, gold alloyed

with platinum, iron ore, barytes, graphite and lead occur in small

quantities in the state. In 1908 the total mineral product of the

state was valued at $7,044,678.

_Manufactures._--Although Maine has no coal and only a very small

amount of iron ore within her borders for the encouragement of

manufacturing, yet the abundance of fine timber and the numerous

coves, bays and navigable streams along or near the coast promoted

ship-building from the first, and this was the leading industry of the

state until about the middle of the 19th century, when wooden ships

began to be supplanted by those of iron and steel. Until about the

same time, when the Maine liquor law was passed, the manufacture of

rum from molasses, received in exchange for lumber and fish in the

West Indies, was also an important industry. It was not until early in

the 19th century that the large and constant supply of water power

afforded by the rivers began to be used to any considerable extent.

The first cotton mill was built at Brunswick on the Androscoggin about

1809, and from 1830 the development of cotton manufacturing was rapid;

woollen mills followed, and late in the 19th century were erected some

of the largest paper and pulp mills in the country, which are run by

water power from the rivers, and use the spruce and poplar timber in

the river basins. The total value of the manufactures of the state

increased from $95,689,500 in 1890 to $127,361,485 in 1900; and in

1905 the value of factory-made products alone was $144,020,197, or

27.5% greater than their value in 1900.[3] Measured by the value of

the output, paper and wood pulp rose from fifth among the state's

manufactures in 1890 to third in 1900 and to first in 1905; from

$3,281,051 in 1890 to $13,223,275 in 1900, an increase of 303% within

the decade, and to $22,951,124 in 1905, a further increase of 73.6% in

this period. Lumber and timber products ranked second

(1905)--$11,849,654 in 1890, $13,489,401 in 1900, and $17,937,683 in

1905. Cotton goods ranked third (1905) in value--$15,316,909 in 1890,

$14,631,086 in 1900, and $15,404,823 in 1905. Woollen goods ranked

fourth (1905)--$8,737,653 in 1890, $13,744,126 in 1900, an increase of

57.3% within the decade; and the value of the factory-made product

alone in 1905 was $13,969,600, or 20.1% greater than in 1900. Boots

and shoes ranked fifth (1905)--$12,295,847 in 1900, and $12,351,293 in

1905. Fish, canned and preserved, followed next, $1,660,881 in 1890

and $4,779,773 in 1900, an increase within the decade of 187.8%, most

of which was in one branch--the canning of small herring under the

name "sardines"; from 1900 to 1905 the increase was slight, only

$275,358, or 5.8%. In the value of its manufactures as compared with

those of the other states of the Union, in wooden ships and boats,

Maine in 1900 and in 1905 was outranked by New York only; in canned

and preserved fish by Washington only (the value of fish canned and

preserved in Maine in 1900 was 21.7% of the total for the United

States, and in 1905 19.2%); in the output of woollen mills by

Massachusetts and Pennsylvania only; in the output of paper mills by

New York and Massachusetts only. It ranked ninth in 1900 and tenth in

1905 in the value of its cotton goods. Portland, Lewiston, Biddeford,

and Auburn are the leading manufacturing cities, and in 1905 the total

value of their manufactures was 21.5% of those of the entire state.

But from 1900 to 1905 the value of manufactures grew most rapidly in

Rockland (especially noted for lime), the increase being from

$1,243,881 to $1,822,591 (46.5%), and in Waterville, where the

increase was from $2,283,536 to $3,069,309 (34.4%). Among the largest

paper mills are those at Millinocket, in Penobscot county, at Madison

on the Kennebec river, and at Rumford Falls on the Androscoggin river.

Lewiston leads in the manufacture of cotton goods; Auburn, Bangor and

Augusta, in the manufacture of boots and shoes; Bath, in ship and boat

building; Eastport and Lubec, in canning "sardines."

_Transportation and Commerce._--The south-western part of the state,

including the manufacturing, the quarrying, and much of the older

agricultural district, early had fairly satisfactory means of

transportation either by water or by rail; for the coast has many

excellent harbours, the Kennebec river is navigable for coast vessels

to Augusta, the Penobscot to Bangor, and railway service was soon

supplied for the villages of the south-west, but it was not until the

last decade of the 19th century that the forests, the farming lands,

and the summer resorts of Aroostook county were reached by a railway,

the Bangor & Aroostook. The first railway in the state, from Bangor to

Old Town, was completed in 1836, and the state's railway mileage

increased from 12 m. in that year to 245 m. in 1850, to 1377.47 m. in

1890, and to 2210.79 in January 1909. The principal railway systems

are the Maine Central, which enters every county but one, the Boston &

Maine, the Bangor & Aroostook, the Grand Trunk and the Canadian

Pacific. Lines of steamboats ply regularly between the largest cities

of the state and Boston, between Portland and New York, and between

Portland and several Canadian ports.

The foreign trade, especially that with the West Indies and with Great

Britain, decreased after 1875, and yet much trade from the West that

goes to Montreal during the warmer months passes through Portland

during the winter season. The chief exports to foreign countries are

textile fabrics, Indian corn, meat, dairy products, apples, paraffin,

boards and shooks; the chief imports from foreign countries are sugar,

molasses and wool. Fish, canned goods, potatoes, granite, lime, paper,

and boots and shoes are also exported to foreign countries to some

extent, but they are shipped in larger quantities to other states of

the Union, from which Maine receives in return cotton, coal, iron,

oil, &c. The ports of entry in Maine are Bangor, Bath, Belfast,

Castine, Eastport, Ellsworth, Houlton, Kennebunk, Machias, Portland,

Wiscasset and York.

_Population._--The population in 1880 was 648,936; in 1890, 661,086; in

1900, 694,466; and in 1910, 742,371.[4] From 1880 to 1900 there was an

increase of only 7%, a percentage which was exceeded in every other

state in the Union except Nevada and Vermont. Of the total population of

1900, 599,291, or 86.3%, were native whites, 93,330 were foreign-born,

1,319 were negroes, 798 were Indians, 119 were Chinese, and 4 were

Japanese. Of the inhabitants born in the United States, 588,211, or

97.8%, were natives of New England and 560,506 were natives of Maine,

and of the foreign-born 67,077, or 71.8%, were natives of Canada (36,169

English and 30,908 French), and 10,159, or 10.8%, were natives of

Ireland. Of the total population, 199,734 were of foreign

parentage--i.e. either one or both parents were foreign-born--and 89,857

were of Canadian parentage, both on the father's and on the mother's

side (41,355 English and 48,502 French). The French-speaking inhabitants

probably number considerably more than 50,000. They are of two quite

distinct classes. One, numbering about 15,000, includes those who became

citizens by the establishment of the northern boundary in 1842 and their

descendants. They are largely of Acadian stock. The state has

established among them a well-appointed training school for teachers,

conducted in the English language, the graduates of which render

excellent service in the common schools. The other class is of

French-Canadian immigrants, who find profitable employment in the

manufacturing centres. The colony of Swedes established by the state

near its north-eastern border in 1870 has proved in every way

successful. The Indians are remnants of the Penobscot and Passamaquoddy

tribes, the Passamaquoddies being a little the more numerous. The

Penobscots' chief gathering places are on the islands of the Penobscot

river north of Old Town; the Passamaquoddies', on the shores of

Passamaquoddy Bay and the banks of the Saint Croix river.

Roman Catholics are more numerous than all the Protestant sects taken

together, having in 1906 a membership of 113,419 out of a total of

212,988 in all denominations. In the last decade of the 19th century the

urban population (i.e. population of places having 4,000 inhabitants or

more) increased from 226,268 to 251,685, or 11.2%; the semi-urban

population (i.e. population of incorporated places, or the approximate

equivalent, having less than 4,000 inhabitants) increased from 14,221 to

26,674, or 87.5%; while the rural population (i.e. population outside of

incorporated places) decreased from 420,597 to 416,134, or 1%. The

principal cities of the state are: Portland, pop. (1910), 58,571;

Lewiston, 26,247; Bangor, 24,803; Biddeford, 17,079; Auburn, 15,064;

Augusta (the capital), 13,211; Waterville, 11,458; Bath, 9,396;

Westbrook, 8,281; and Rockland, 8,174.

_Administration._--Maine has had but one state constitution; this was

ratified in December 1819, about three months before the admission of

the state into the Union. It admits of amendment by a two-thirds vote of

both houses of the legislature followed by a majority vote of the

electorate at the next September election; or, as provided by an

amendment adopted in 1875, the legislature may by a two-thirds vote of

each house summon a constitutional convention. From 1819 to 1875 twelve

amendments were adopted; in 1875, after nine more were added, the

twenty-one were incorporated in the text; and between 1875 and 1899 nine

more were adopted. Suffrage is conferred by the constitution on all male

citizens of the United States who are at least twenty-one years of age

and have, for some other reason than because of being in the military,

naval or marine service of the United States, or of being students at

college, lived in the state for three months next preceding any

election; the following classes, however, are excepted: paupers, persons

under guardianship, Indians not taxed, and, as provided by an amendment

adopted in 1892, persons intellectually incapable of reading the state

constitution in the English language or of writing their names. State

elections were annual until 1897 when they were made biennial; they are

held on the second Monday in September in even numbered years, Maine

being one of the few states in the Union in which they are not held in

November.

The governor is the only executive officer of the state elected by

popular vote. There is no lieutenant-governor, the president of the

Senate succeeding to the office of governor in case of a vacancy, but

there is a council of seven members elected by the legislature (not

more than one from any one senatorial district), whose sole function

is to advise the governor. The governor's term of office is two years

(before 1879 it was one year); and the constitution further directs

that he shall be at least thirty years of age at the beginning of his

term, that he shall be a native-born citizen of the United States,

that when elected he shall have been a resident of the state for five

years, and that he shall reside in the state while in office. His

power of appointment is unusually extensive and the advice and consent

of the council (instead of that of the Senate as in other states) are

required for his appointments. He appoints all judges, coroners and

notaries public, besides all other civil and military officers for

whose appointment neither the constitution nor the laws provide

otherwise. The governor is commander-in-chief of the state militia.

Any bill of which he disapproves he can within five days after its

passage prevent from becoming a law unless it is passed over his veto

by a two-thirds vote of each house of the legislature. He and the

council examine and pass upon election returns; he may summon extra

sessions of the legislature, and he may grant pardons, reprieves, and

commutations in all cases except impeachment, but the manner of

hearing applications for pardon is in a measure prescribed by statute,

and he must present to the legislature an account of each case in

which he grants a pardon. His salary is $2,000 a year. The seven

members of the council, the secretary of state, the treasurer, the

attorney general and the commissioner of agriculture are elected

biennially by a joint ballot of the two houses of the legislature,

which also elects, one every two years, the three state assessors,

whose term is six years.

The legislature meets biennially at Augusta, the capital, and is

composed of a Senate of thirty-one members and a House of

Representatives of one hundred and fifty-one members. Members of each

house are elected for a term of two years: one senator from each

senatorial district and one to seven representatives (one for a

population of 1,500, and seven for a population of 26,250) from each

township, or, where the township or plantation has less than 1,500

inhabitants, from each representative district, according to its

population. There is a new reapportionment every ten years, counting

from 1821. Every senator and every representative must at the

beginning of his term have been for five years a citizen of the United

States, for one year a resident of the state, and for three months

next preceding his election, as well as during his term of office, a

resident of the township or district which he represents; and every

senator must be at least twenty-five years of age. All revenue bills

must originate in the House of Representatives, but to such bills the

Senate may propose amendments provided they relate solely to raising

revenue. Other bills may originate in either house. In September 1908

a constitutional amendment was adopted providing for referendum and

initiative by the people. Any bill proposed in the legislature or

passed by it must be referred to popular vote before becoming law, if

there is a referendum petition therefor signed by 10,000 voters; and a

petition signed by 12,000 voters initiates new legislation.

At the head of the department of justice is the supreme judicial

court, which consists of a chief justice and seven associate justices

appointed by the governor and council for a term of seven years. When

it sits as a law court, at least five of its justices must be present,

and it holds three such sessions annually: one at Augusta, one at

Bangor, and one at Portland. But only one of its justices is required

for a trial court, and trial courts are held two or three times a year

in each county for the trial of both civil and criminal cases which

come before it in the first instance or upon appeal. In Cumberland and

Kennebec counties there is a superior court presided over by one

justice and having extensive civil and criminal jurisdiction; and in

each of the counties there are a probate court for the settlement of

the estates of deceased persons and courts of the trial justice and

the justice of the peace for the trial of petty offences and of civil

cases in which the debt or damage involved does not exceed $20.

The principal forms of local government are the town (or township),

the plantation, the county and the city. As in other parts of New

England, the town is the most important of these. At the regular town

meeting held in March the electorate of the town assembles, decides

what shall be done for the town during the ensuing year, elects

officers to execute its decisions with limited discretion, and votes

money to meet the expenses. The principal officers are the selectmen

(usually three), town clerk, assessors, collector, treasurer, school

committee and road commissioner. A populous section of a town, in

order to promote certain financial ends, is commonly incorporated as a

village without however becoming a governing organization distinct

from the town. Maine is the only state in the Union that retains what

is known as the organized plantation. This is a governmental unit

organized from an unincorporated township having at least 200

inhabitants,[5] and its principal officers are the moderator, clerk,

three assessors, treasurer, collector, constable and school committee.

The county is a sort of intermediate organization between the state

and the towns to assist chiefly in the administration of justice,

especially in the custody of offenders, and in the making and care of

roads. Its officers are three commissioners, a treasurer, a register

of deeds, a judge and a register of probate, and a sheriff. They are

all elected: the commissioners for a term of six years, one retiring

every two years, the register of deeds and the judge and the register

of probate for a term of four years, and the others for two years.

Among other duties the commissioners care for county property, manage

county business and take charge of county roads. Maine has no general

law under which cities are chartered, and does not even set a minimum

population. A town may, therefore, be incorporated as a city whenever

it can obtain from the legislature a city charter which a majority of

its electorate prefers to a continuance under its town government;

consequently there is much variety in the government of the various

cities of the state.

By the laws of Maine the property rights of a wife are approximately

equal to those of a husband. A woman does not lose nor a man acquire

right to property by marriage, and a wife may manage, sell, or will her

property without the assent of her husband. She may even receive as her

own the wages of her personal labour which was not performed for her own

family. In the absence of a will, bar or release, there is no legal

distinction between the rights of a widower in the estate of his

deceased wife and those of a widow in the estate of her deceased

husband. The grounds for divorce in the state are adultery, impotence,

extreme cruelty, desertion for three consecutive years next preceding

the application, gross and confirmed habits of intoxication, cruel and

abusive treatment, or a husband's gross or wanton refusal or neglect to

provide a suitable maintenance for his wife.

Under the laws of Maine a householder owning and occupying a house and

lot may hold the same, or such part of it as does not exceed $500 in

value, as a homestead exempt from attachment, except for the

satisfaction of liens for labour or material, by filing in the registry

of deeds a certificate stating his desire for such an exemption,

provided he is not the owner of an exempted lot purchased from the

state; and the exemption may be continued during the widowhood of his

widow or the minority of his children. A considerable amount of personal

property, including apparel, household furniture not exceeding $100 in

value, a library not exceeding $150 in value, interest in a pew in a

meeting-house, and a specified amount of fuel, provisions, tools or

farming implements, and domestic animals, and one fishing boat, is also

exempt from attachment.

Maine was the first state in the Union to enact a law for prohibiting

the sale of intoxicating liquors. An act for restricting the sale of

such liquors was passed in 1846; the first prohibitory act was passed,

largely through the influence of Neal Dow, in 1851; this was frequently

amended; and in 1884 an amendment to the constitution was adopted which

declares the manufacture of intoxicating liquors and their sale, except

"for medicinal and mechanical purposes and the arts," forever

prohibited. By the law enacted for enforcing this prohibition the

governor and council appoint a state liquor commissioner from whom alone

the selectmen of a town, the mayor or aldermen of a city, are authorized

to receive the liquors which may be sold within the exceptions named in

the amendment, and the selectmen, mayor or aldermen appoint an agent who

alone is authorized to sell any of these liquors within their

jurisdiction and who is forbidden to sell any whatever to minors,

Indians, soldiers and drunkards. But the law labours under the

disadvantage of all laws not vigorously sustained by general public

sentiment, and is grossly violated. For the most part it is executed to

the degree demanded by local sentiment in the several municipalities,

thus operating in practice much the same as a "local option" law. The

law looks to checking the demand by preventing the supply; and since

habitual reliance on the stringency of law tends to the neglect of other

influences for the removal of evils from the community, the citizens

seem to absolve themselves from personal responsibility, both for the

execution of the law and for the existence of the evil itself. There has

been a strong movement for the repeal of the law, and the question of

prohibition has long been an important one in state politics.

The death penalty was abolished in Maine in 1876, restored in 1883, and

again abolished in 1887.

_Penal and Charitable Institutions._--The state penal and reformatory

institutions consist of the state prison at Thomaston, the state

(reform) school for boys at South Portland, and a state industrial

school for girls at Hallowell, established in 1875 and taken over by

the state in 1899. The two schools are not places of punishment, but

reformatory schools for delinquent boys (from 8 to 16 years of age)

and girls (from 6 to 16 years), who have been committed by the courts

for violations of law, and, in the case of girls, who, by force of

circumstances or associations, are "in manifest danger of becoming

outcasts of society." The prison is in charge of a board of three

inspectors and a warden, and each of the other two institutions is in

charge of a board of trustees; the inspectors, warden, and trustees

are all appointed by the governor and council. Convicts in the prison

are usually employed in the manufacture of articles that are not

extensively made elsewhere in the state, such as carriages, harness,

furniture and brooms. The inmates of the state school for boys receive

instruction in farming, carpentry, tailoring, laundry work, and

various other trades and occupations; and the girls in the state

industrial school are trained in housework, laundering, dressmaking,

&c. Paupers are cared for chiefly by the towns and cities, those

wholly dependent being placed in almshouses and those only partially

dependent receiving aid at their homes. The charitable institutions

maintained by the state are: the military and naval orphan asylum at

Bath, the Maine institution for the blind at Portland, the Maine

school for the deaf (established in 1876, and taken over by the state

in 1897) at Portland, the Maine insane hospital at Augusta, the

Eastern Maine insane hospital at Bangor, and a school for the

feeble-minded (established in 1907) at West Pownal, each of which is

governed by trustees appointed by the governor and council, with the

exception of a part of those of the orphan asylum, who are appointed

by the corporation. Besides the strictly state institutions, there are

a number of private charitable institutions which are assisted by

state funds; among these are the eye and ear infirmary at Portland,

the Maine state sanatorium at Hebron for the treatment of

tuberculosis, and various hospitals, orphanages, &c. The national

government has a branch of the national home for disabled volunteer

soldiers at Togus, and a marine hospital at Portland.

_Education._--The school-district system was established in 1800 while

Maine was still a part of Massachusetts and was maintained by the

first school law passed, in 1821, by the state legislature; but,

beginning in the next year, one town after another received the

privilege of abolishing its districts, and in 1893 the system was

abolished by act of the legislature. A state board of education,

composed of one member from each county, was established in 1846, but

for this was substituted, in 1852, a commissioner of schools for each

county, appointed by the governor, and two years later a state

superintendent of schools was substituted for the county

commissioners. County supervision by county supervisors was tried in

1869-1872. Since these several changes the common school system has

been administered by towns and cities subject to an increasing amount

of control through enactments of the state legislature and the general

supervision of the state superintendent. The town officers are a

superintending school committee of three members and a superintendent.

The members of the committee are elected for a term of three years,

one retiring every year, and women as well as men are eligible for the

office. The superintendent may be elected by the town or appointed by

the committee, or towns having not less than twenty or more than fifty

schools may unite in employing a superintendent. In cities the

committee is usually larger than in towns and is commonly elected by

wards. Since 1889 each town and city has been required to furnish

textbooks, apparatus and supplies, without cost to the pupils. The

minimum length of the school year is fixed by a statute of 1893 at

twenty weeks; the average length is about twenty-eight weeks. A

compulsory education law, enacted in 1901, requires the attendance at

some public or approved private school of each child between the ages

of seven and fifteen during all the time that school is in session,

except that necessary absences may be excused. For the maintenance of

the common schools each town is required (since 1905) to raise

annually at least fifty-five cents _per capita_, exclusive of what may

be received from other sources, and to this is added the proceeds of a

state tax of one and a half mills on a dollar, one-half the proceeds

of the tax on savings banks, a 6% income from the permanent school

fund (derived mainly from the sale of school lands), and state

appropriations for the payment in part of the superintendence in towns

that have united for that purpose. Any section of a town may establish

and maintain a high school provided there be not more than two such

schools in one town, and the state makes appropriations for the

support of such schools equal to one-half the cost of instruction, but

the maximum grant to any one such school is $250.

The state maintains five normal schools: that at Farmington

(established 1864), that at Castine (1866), that at Gorham (1879);

that at Presque Isle (the Aroostook state normal school, 1903), and

the Madawaska training school at Fort Kent, each of which is under the

direction of a board of trustees consisting of the governor, the state

superintendent of schools, and five other members appointed by the

governor and council for not more than three years. At the head of the

public school system is the university of Maine, near the village of

Orono in Orono township (pop. in 1900, 3257), Penobscot county. This

institution was founded in 1865 as the state college of agriculture

and the mechanic arts; in 1897 the present name was adopted. It

embraces a college of arts and sciences, a college of agriculture, a

college of technology (including a department of forestry), a college

of law (at Bangor), and a college of pharmacy. The most conspicuous of

its twenty-five buildings is the library, built with funds contributed

by Andrew Carnegie. In 1908-1909 the university had 104 instructors

and 884 students, of whom 113 were in the college of law at Bangor and

420 in the college of technology. The university is maintained with

the proceeds of an endowment fund derived chiefly from public lands

given by the national government in accordance with the land grant, or

Morrill, Act of 1862 (see Morrill, Justin S.) and from the bequest

($100,000) of Abner Coburn (1803-1885); by appropriations of Congress

under the second Morrill Act (1890), and under the Nelson Amendment of

1907, by appropriations of the state legislature, and by fees paid by

the students. Connected with the university is an agricultural

experiment station, established and maintained under the Hatch Act

(1887) and the Adams Act (1906) of the national Congress. The

government of the university is entrusted, subject to inspection of

the governor and council, to a board of eight trustees. Among the

important institutions of learning which have no official connexion

with the state are Bowdoin College (opened in 1802), at Brunswick;

Colby College (Baptist, opened in 1818), at Waterville; and Bates

College (originally Free Baptist but now unsectarian; opened in 1863),

at Lewiston. In 1900 5.1% of the state's inhabitants ten years of age

and over were illiterate (i.e. could neither read nor write, or could

read but not write); of the native whites within this age limit 2.4%

were illiterate, of the foreign whites, 19.4%. Of the foreign-born

whites 15.7% were unable to speak English.

_Finance._--The chief sources of the state's revenue are a general

property tax and taxes on the franchises of corporations, especially

those of railway and insurance companies and savings banks; among the

smaller sources are licences or fees, a poll tax, and a collateral

inheritance tax. The general property tax for state and local purposes

is assessed by local assessors, but their work is reviewed for the

purpose of equalization among the several towns and counties by a

board of state assessors, which also assesses the corporations. This

board of three members (not more than two of whom may be of the same

political party) is elected by a joint ballot of the two houses of the

legislature for a term of six years, one member retiring every two

years. The state is prohibited by the constitution from creating a

debt exceeding $300,000 except for the suppression of a rebellion, for

repelling an invasion, or for war purposes; and every city and town is

forbidden by an amendment adopted in 1877 from creating one exceeding

5% of the assessed value of its property. But the state was authorized

by an amendment adopted in 1868 to issue bonds for the reimbursement

of the expenses incurred by its cities, towns, and plantations on

account of the Civil War, and these bonds, with those issued by the

state itself during the Civil War, constituted the largest part of the

state's bonded indebtedness. The bonded debt, however, is rapidly

being paid; in January 1901 it was $2,103,000, and in January 1909

only $698,000.

_History._--During the 16th century and the early part of the 17th, the

coast of Maine attracted various explorers, among them Giovanni da

Verrazano (1524), Estéban Gomez (1525), Bartholomew Gosnold (1602),

Martin Pring (1603), Pierre du Guast, Sieur De Monts (1604), George

Weymouth (1605), and John Smith (1614), who explored and mapped the

coast and gave to the country the name New England; but no permanent

English settlement was established within what are now the borders of

the state until some time between 1623 and 1629. In 1603 De Monts

received from Henry IV. of France a charter for all the region between

40° and 46° N. under the name of Acadie, or Acadia, and in 1604 he built

a fort on Neutral Island at the mouth of the Saint Croix river. This he

abandoned in 1605, but some of his followers were in the vicinity a few

years later. In the same year George Weymouth explored the south-west

coast, kidnapped five Indians, and carried them to England, where three

of them lived for a time in the family of Sir Ferdinando Gorges, who

soon became the leader in founding Maine. In 1607 the Plymouth Company,

of which he was an influential member and which had received a grant of

this region from James I. of England in the preceding year, sent out a

colony numbering 120 under George Popham (c. 1550-1608), brother of Sir

John Popham, and Raleigh Gilbert, son of Sir Humphrey Gilbert. The

colony established itself at the mouth of the Kennebec river in August,

but, finding its supplies insufficient, about three-fifths of its number

returned to England in December; a severe winter followed and Popham

died; then Gilbert, who succeeded to the presidency of the council for

the colony, became especially interested in his claim to the territory

under his father's charter,[6] and in 1608 the colony was abandoned. In

1609 the French Jesuits Biard and Masse established a fortified mission

station on the island of Mount Desert, and although this as well as the

remnant of De Monts' settlement at the mouth of the Saint Croix was

taken in 1613 by Sir Samuel Argall (d. 1626), acting under the

instructions of the English at Jamestown, Virginia, some of these

colonists returned later. In 1620 the Council for New England, the

successor of the Plymouth Company, obtained a grant of the country

between latitude 40° and 48° N. extending from sea to sea, and two years

later Gorges and John Mason (1586-1635) received from the Council a

grant of the territory between the Merrimac and the Kennebec rivers for

60 m. inland under the name of the Province of Maine. In 1629 they

divided their possession, Gorges taking the portion between the

Piscataqua and the Kennebec. Numerous grants of land in this vicinity

followed within a few years; and in the meantime permanent settlements

at York, Saco, Biddeford, Port Elizabeth, Falmouth (now Portland) and

Scarborough were established in rapid succession. The Council for New

England surrendered its charter in 1635. In the division of its

territory Gorges retained the portion previously granted to him, and the

region between the Kennebec and the Saint Croix north to the Saint

Lawrence, though still claimed by the French as part of Acadia, was

conveyed to Sir William Alexander (1567?-1640); later, in 1664, this was

conveyed to the duke of York, afterwards James II. of England.

Gorges named his tract the County of New Somersetshire, and immediately

began the administration of government, setting up in 1635 or 1636 a

court at Saco under the direction of his kinsman William Gorges. In 1639

he procured for his province a royal charter modelled after that of

Maryland, which invested him with the feudal tenure of a county palatine

and vice-regal powers of government. He called into existence a

formidably large number of officers to govern it, but his charter was in

conflict with the other (mutually conflicting) grants of the Council for

New England, east of the Piscataqua; and Gorges and his agents met with

a determined opposition under the leadership of George Cleeve, the

deputy-president of the Lygonia, or "Plough" Patent, which extended

along the coast from Cape Porpoise to Casco, and in issuing which the

Council for New England had granted governmental as well as territorial

rights. Moreover, Puritan Massachusetts, which was naturally hostile to

the Anglicanism of Gorges and his followers, interpreted her charter so

as to make her northern boundary run east and west from a point 3 m.

north of the source of the Merrimac river, and on this basis laid claim

to practically the whole of Maine then settled. The factional quarrels

there, together with the Commonwealth government in England, made it

easy for Massachusetts to enforce this claim at the time, and between

1652 and 1658 Maine was gradually annexed to Massachusetts. In 1672

Massachusetts extended her boundary eastward as far as Penobscot Bay.

Ferdinando Gorges, a grandson of the original proprietor, brought before

parliament his claim to Maine and in 1664 a committee of that body

decided in his favour; but Massachusetts successfully resisted until

1677, when the king in council decided against her. She then quietly

purchased the Gorges claim for £1,250 and held the province as a

proprietor until 1691, when by the new Massachusetts charter Maine was

extended to the Saint Croix river, and was made an integral part of

Massachusetts.

The French still claimed all territory east of the Penobscot, and not

only was Maine an exposed frontier and battleground during the long

struggle of the English against the Indians and the French, but its

citizens bore a conspicuous part in the expeditions beyond its borders.

Port Royal was taken in May 1690 by Sir William Phipps and Louisburg in

June 1745 by Sir William Pepperell, both these commanders being from

Maine. These expeditions were such a drain on Maine's population that

Massachusetts was called upon to send men to garrison the little forts

that protected the homes left defenceless by men who had gone to the

front. During the War of Independence, the town of Falmouth (now

Portland), which had ardently resisted the claims of the British, was

bombarded and burned, in 1775; in the same year Benedict Arnold followed

the course of the Kennebec and Dead rivers on his expedition to Quebec;

and from 1779 to 1783 a British force was established at Castine. The

embargo and non-intercourse laws from 1807 to 1812 were a severe blow to

Maine's shipping, and in the War of 1812 Eastport, Castine, Hampden,

Bangor and Machias fell into the hands of the British.

Maine was in general well governed as a part of Massachusetts, but a

geographical separation, a desire to be rid of the burden of a large

state debt, and a difference of economic interests as well as of

politics (Maine was largely Democratic and Massachusetts was largely

Federalist) created a desire for an independent commonwealth. This was

felt before the close of the War of Independence and in 1785-1787

conventions were held at Falmouth (Portland) to consider the matter, but

the opposition prevailed. The want of protection during the War of 1812

revived the question, and in 1816 the General Court in response to a

great number of petitions submitted to a vote in the towns and

plantations of the District the question: "Shall the legislature be

requested to give its consent to the separation of the District of Maine

from Massachusetts, and the erection of said District into a separate

state?" The returns showed 10,393 yeas to 6501 nays, but they also

showed that less than one-half the full vote had been cast. Acting upon

these returns the legislature passed a bill prescribing the terms of

separation, and directed another vote of the towns and plantations upon

the question of separation and the election of delegates to a convention

at Brunswick which should proceed to frame a constitution in case the

second popular vote gave a majority of five to four for separation; but

as that vote was only 11,969 yeas to 10,347 nays the advocates of

separation were unsuccessful. But a large source of opposition to

separation was removed in 1819 when Congress, dividing the east coast of

the United States into two great districts, did away with the regulation

which, making each state a district for entering and clearing vessels,

would have required coasting vessels from the ports of Maine as a

separate state to enter and clear on every trip to or from Boston; as a

consequence, the separation measures were carried by large majorities

this year, a constitution was framed by a convention which met at

Portland in October, this was ratified by town meetings in December, and

Maine applied for admission into the Union. Owing to the peculiar

situation at the time in Congress, arising from the contest over the

admission of Missouri, the question of the admission of Maine became an

important one in national politics. By an Act of the 3rd of March 1820,

however, Maine was finally admitted into the Union as a separate state,

her admission being a part of the Missouri compromise (q.v.).

The boundary on the north had not yet been ascertained, and it had long

been a subject of dispute between the United States and Great Britain.

The treaty of 1783 (Article II.) had defined the north-east boundary of

the United States as extending along the middle of the river St Croix

"from its mouth in the bay of Fundy to its source" and "due north from

the source of St Croix river to the highlands; along the said highlands

which divide those rivers that empty themselves into the river St

Lawrence from those which fall into the Atlantic Ocean, to the

north-westernmost head of Connecticut river; thence down along the

middle of that river to the forty-fifth degree of north latitude." Great

Britain claimed that the due north line was 40 m. long and ran to Mars

Hill in Aroostook county, and that the highlands ran thence westerly 115

m. to the source of the Chaudière; the United States, on the other hand,

claimed that the northerly line was 140 m. long, running to highlands

dividing the Ristigouche and the tributaries of the Metis; and there was

a further disagreement with regard to the side of the highlands on which

the boundary should be, and as to what stream was the "north-westernmost

head of Connecticut river." The fifth article of the Jay treaty of 1794

provided for a commission to decide what the St Croix river actually

was, and this commission in 1798 defined the St Croix, saying that its

mouth was in Passamaquoddy bay and that the boundary ran up this river

and the Cheputnatecook to a marked monument. The treaty of Ghent in 1814

(Article IV.) referred the question of the ownership of the islands in

Passamaquoddy bay to a commission which gave Moose, Dudley and Frederick

islands to the United States; and the same treaty by Article V. provided

for the survey (which was made in 1817-1818) of a part of the disputed

territory, and for a general commission. The general commissioners met

at St Andrews, N.B., in 1816, and in New York City in 1822, only to

disagree; and when the king of the Netherlands, chosen as arbitrator in

1829 (under the Convention of 1827) rendered in 1831 a decision against

which the state of Maine protested, the Federal Senate withheld its

assent to his decision. In 1838-1839 the territory in dispute between

New Brunswick and Maine became the scene of a border "war," known as the

"Aroostook disturbance"; Maine erected forts along the line she claimed,

Congress authorized the president to resist any attempt of Great Britain

to enforce exclusive jurisdiction over the disputed territory, and an

armed conflict seemed imminent. General Winfield Scott was sent to take

command on the Maine frontier, and on the 21st of March 1839 he arranged

a truce and a joint occupancy of the territory in dispute until a

satisfactory settlement should be reached by the United States and Great

Britain. The Webster-Ashburton treaty of 1842 was a compromise, which

allowed Maine about 5500 sq. m. less than she had claimed and allowed

Great Britain about as much less than her claim; all grants of land

previously made by either party within the limits of the territory which

by this treaty fell within the dominions of the other party were to be

"held valid, ratified and confirmed to the persons in possession under

such grants, to the same extent as if such territory had ... fallen

within the dominions of the party by whom such grants were made"; and

the government of the United States agreed to pay to Maine and

Massachusetts[7] "in equal moieties" the sum of $300,000 as

compensation for the lands which they had claimed and which under the

treaty they were called upon to surrender. The long controversy, which

is known in American history as "The North-East boundary dispute," was

not finally settled however until 1910.

It was the Democratic majority in the district of Maine that effected

the separation from Massachusetts, and from the date of that separation

until 1853 Maine was classed as a Democratic state, although it elected

a Whig governor in 1838 and in 1840, and cast its electoral vote for

John Quincy Adams in 1824 and 1828 and for W. H. Harrison in 1840. As a

result of the slavery question, there was a party disintegration between

1850 and 1855, followed by the supremacy of the Republican party from

1856 to 1878. In 1878, of the 126,169 votes cast in the election for

governor, Selden Connor (b. 1839), re-nominated by the Republicans,

received 56,554; Joseph L. Smith ("National" or "Greenback"), 41,371;

Alonzo Garcelon (1813-1906) (Democratic), 28,218; as no candidate

received a majority of the votes, the election was left to the

legislature.[8] The vote of the House eliminated Connor, and Garcelon

was chosen in the Senate by a Democratic-National fusion. Again there

was no election by popular vote in 1879, and Garcelon and his council,

to secure the election of a fusion government, counted-in a fusion

majority in the legislature by evident falsification of the returns. On

the 3rd of January 1880 the Supreme Court declared the governor and

council in error in counting in a fusion majority, but on the 7th the

governor swore in a legislature with 78 fusion and only two Republican

members, and, the governor's term having expired, the president of the

Senate, James D. Lamson, became governor, ex-officio. On the 12th the

legislative chambers were seized by the Republicans, whose organized

legislature was declared legal by the Supreme Court, and who chose as

governor Daniel Franklin Davis (1843-1897); whereupon, on the 17th,

Joshua L. Chamberlain, to whom the peaceful solution of the difficulty

had largely been due, retired from the task assigned him by Garcelon on

the 5th of January "to protect the public property and institutions of

the state" until Garcelon's successor should be duly qualified. In 1880

the Democrats and Greenbacks united and elected their candidate, but

after 1883 Maine was strongly Republican until 1910.