_Mecca_, (1).
[2] In old saj` form: 111. 107. 106. 105. 104. [103=]. 102. 101.
100. 99. 108. 96. 95. 94. 93. 92. 91. 90. 89. 88. [87=]. 86. [85=].
[84=]. 83. 82. [81.=] 80. 79. [78=]. 77. [76=]. 75. [74=]. [73=].
70. 69. 68. 114. 113. 36. 55. 54. [53=]. 52. 51. 50. 15. [22=].
[14=].
(2).
In loosened _saj`_ form: 46. 72. 45. 44. 41. 97. 40. 39. 38. 37. 36.
35. 34. 32. 31. 67. 30. [29=]. 28. 27. 26. 71. 25. 20. 23. 43. 21.
19. 1. 42. 18. 17.
_Medina._
[16=]. 13. 12. 11. 10. [7=]. 6. 98. (112. 109).
From the Flight to Badr.
[2=]. 62. 5_(15.88.108-120). 47 and some interpolations in Meccan
_suras_.
From Badr to Ohod
8. 24. 59.
From Ohod to capture of Mecca.
3. 29_(1-12). 4. 57. 64. 61. 60. 58. 65. 33. 63. 49. 110. 48.
5_(1-14). 66. 9_(1-24).
After capture of Mecca.
9_(25-124).
Theology.
On the supposition that the arrangements given above are at any rate
approximately correct, it is possible to trace a certain development in
the teaching of the Koran on some of the chief dogmas. It must, however,
be borne in mind that orthodox Islam recognizes the Koran as the work
not of Mahomet but of God. Yet Moslem theologians recognize that some
revelations are inconsistent with others, and so have developed the
doctrine of _nasikh_ and _mansukh_ ("abrogating" and "abrogated"),
whereby it is taught that in certain definite cases a later revelation
supersedes an earlier. A critical study of the Koran shows in the
earlier revelations the marks of a reflective mind trained under the
influence of Arabian education and stirred by an acquaintance (somewhat
imperfect) with Judaism and Christianity. The later revelations seem to
be influenced by the now dominant position of the Prophet and a desire
after the capture of Mecca to incorporate such heathen religious
ceremonies as are national. God is one and universal from the beginning.
His unity is emphasized as against the mistaken conception of the
Christian Trinity. At first his might is taught by the name _Rabb_
(Lord) which is generally used with an attribute as "the highest Lord,"
"Lord of the worlds," "Lord of men," "Lord of heaven and earth," "Lord
of the East and West," or "our Lord." Then he is identified with the god
Allah (see above) and the first part of the later Moslem creed is
announced--_la ilaha illa-llaha_, "there is no god but Allah." But every
act of creation is a proof not only of God's power but also of his
beneficence (xiv. 37), and so he becomes known as _ar-Rahman_, "the
Compassionate." The attributes of God may all be arranged in the three
classes of his power, unity and goodness. They are expressed by the
ninety-nine "beautiful names" applied to him in the Koran (see E. H.
Palmer, _The Quran_ in "Sacred Books of the East," vol. vi., Introd. pp.
67-68, Oxford, 1880). In the Medina period of Mahomet's life the nature
of God is not so clear, and the description of it varies according to
the moods of the Prophet.
Spirits.
Beside God are two other uncreated beings: (1) the original of the
Koran, the "mother of the Book" (xliii. 3) on a "preserved tablet"
(_lauh mahfuz_) (lxxxv. 22), in accordance with which God acts, and (2)
the throne (_kursi_) (ii. 256). When the heavens are created, God sits
on his throne in the seventh heaven; around him are angels, pure,
sexless beings, some of whom bear the throne, while some are engaged in
praising him continually. They are also his messengers and are sent to
fight with the believers against the heathen. Some are the guardian
angels of men, others are the watchmen of hell. Mediate beings between
God and man are the "word" (_amr_) and from it the "spirit" (_ruh_) or
"holy spirit" (_ruh ul-qudus_). Another manifestation of God to the
believers only is the "glory" (_sakina_).
Cosmology.
Ethics.
God created the world in six days according to the plan of the Book. Each
new life was created by God's breathing into it a soul. The duality of
soul and body is maintained. In each man is a good and a bad impulse. The
bad impulse which was latent in Adam was roused to action by Satan
(_Iblis_). Adam by his fall lost the grace of God, which was restored to
him solely by the gracious choice of God. Between men and angels in their
nature are the genii (_jinn_) male and female, inhabitants of desert
places, created from smokeless fire. They had been accustomed to spy
round heaven, but in Mahomet's time could learn no more of its secrets.
Some of them were converted by the Prophet's teaching. Lowest of creation
in his estate is Satan (_Shaitan_), who was an angel but was expelled
from heaven because he refused to worship Adam at his Lord's command. God
has revealed himself to man by (1) writing (_kitab_), and (2) prophets.
As he had given to the Jews the Law (_Taurat_) and to the Christians the
Gospel (_Injil_) so he revealed to Mahomet the Koran (Qur`an, known also
by other names, e.g. _al-Furqan_, _at-Tafsil_, &c.), each single
revelation being called an aya. With his revelation God has also sent an
apostle or prophet to each people. Several of these are mentioned in the
Koran, Moses the prophet of the Jews, Jesus (_Isa_) that of the
Christians. Mahomet is not only the apostle of the Moslems but the "seal
of the prophets," i.e. the final member of the class. His mission at
first was to warn men of imminent judgment. Later he became more of a
teacher. At first he seems to have relied for the salvation of men on his
natural faculties, but later announced the doctrine of God's election.
The ethics of the Koran are based on belief (_iman_) and good works, the
latter alone occurring in the early Meccan _suras_. Fear of the judgment
of God was a motive of action; this is followed by repentance and turning
to God. A complete surrender to God's will (_islam_) is the necessary
condition of religious life and is expressed in the phrase so common in
everyday speech among the Moslems--_inshallah_, "if God will." God has
full power to overlook evil deeds if he will. Unbelievers can acquire no
merit, however moral their actions. A short account of the chief ethical
requirements of the Koran is given in xvii. 23-40:--
"Put not God with other gods, or thou wilt sit despised and forsaken.
Thy Lord has decreed that ye shall not serve other than Him; and
kindness to one's parents, whether one or both of them reach old age
with thee, and say not to them, 'Fie,' and do not grumble at them, but
speak to them a generous speech. And lower to them the wing of
humility out of compassion, and say, 'O Lord! have compassion on them
as they brought me up when I was little!' Your Lord knows best what is
in your souls if ye be righteous, and, verily, He is forgiving unto
those who come back penitent.
"And give thy kinsman his due and the poor and the son of the road;
and waste not wastefully, for the wasteful were ever the devil's
brothers, and the devil is ever ungrateful to his Lord.
"But if thou dost turn away from them to seek after mercy from thy
Lord, which thou hopest for, then speak to them an easy speech.
"Make not thy hand fettered to thy neck, nor yet spread it out quite
open, lest thou shouldest have to sit down blamed and straightened in
means. Verily, thy Lord spreads out provision to whomsoever He will or
He doles it out. Verily, He is ever well aware of and sees His
servants.
"And slay not your children for fear of poverty; we will provide for
them; beware! for to slay them is ever a great sin.
"And draw not near to fornication; verily, it is ever an abomination,
and evil is the way thereof.
"And slay not the soul that God has forbidden you, except for just
cause; for he who is slain unjustly we have given his next of kin
authority; yet let him not exceed in slaying; verily, he is ever
helped.
"And draw not near to the wealth of the orphan, save to improve it,
until he reaches the age of puberty, and fulfil your compacts; verily,
a compact is ever enquired of.
"And give full measure when ye measure out, and weigh with a right
balance; that is better and a fairer determination.
"And do not pursue that of which thou hast no knowledge; verily, the
hearing, the sight and the heart, all of these shall be enquired of.
"And walk not on the earth proudly; verily, thou canst not cleave the
earth, and thou shalt not reach the mountains in height.
"All this is ever evil in the sight of your Lord and abhorred."
(E. H. Palmer's translation.)
Eschatology.
The eschatology of the Koran is especially prominent in its earlier
parts. The resurrection, last judgment, paradise and hell are all
described. At death the body again becomes earth, while the soul sinks
into a state of sleep or unconsciousness. At a time decreed, known as
"the hour" (_as-Sa`a_), "the day of resurrection" (_yaum ul-qiyyama_),
"day of judgment" (_yaum-ud-din_), &c., an angel will call or will sound
a trumpet, the earth will be broken up, and the soul will rejoin the
body. God will appear on his throne with angels. The great book will be
opened, and a list of his deeds will be given to every man, to the good
in his right hand, to the evil in his left (_sura 69_). A balance will
be used to weigh the deeds. The _jinn_ will testify against the
idolaters. The righteous will then obtain eternal peace and joy in the
garden (_al-janna_) and the wicked will be cast into the fiery ditch
(_Jahannam_), where pains of body and of soul are united.
2. The _Tradition._--The revelation of God is twofold--in a writing and
by a prophet. The former was contained in the Koran, the latter was
known from the actions of Mahomet in the different circumstances of
life. The manner of life of the Prophet (_sunna_) was contained in the
tradition (_al-hadith_). The information required was at first naturally
obtained by word of mouth from the companions and helpers of Mahomet.
These in turn bequeathed their information to their younger companions,
who quoted traditions and gave decisions in their names.
For long these traditions circulated orally, the authority of each
depending on the person who first gave it and the reliability of the
chain (_isnad_) of men who had passed it on from him. At first this
tradition was regarded as explanatory of, or at the most supplementary
to, the teaching of the Koran. Early Moslem teachers pointed to the
Jews as having two law-books--the _Taurat_ and the _Mishna_--while
Islam had only one--the Koran. But opinion changed, the value of
tradition as an independent revelation came to be more highly esteemed
until at last it was seriously discussed whether a tradition might not
abrogate a passage of the Koran with which it was at variance. The
writing of traditions was at first strongly discouraged, and for more
than a century the stories of the Prophet's conduct passed from mouth
to mouth. Had all the narrators been pious men, this might have been
tolerable, but this was not the case. The Omayyad dynasty was not a
pious one. Men who were not religious but wished to appear so invented
traditions to justify their manner of life. The sectarians did not
hesitate to adopt the same means of spreading their own teaching. Many
Moslem writers testify to the fact that forged traditions were
circulated, and that religious opinion was confused thereby. The need
for some sort of authoritative collection seems to have been felt by
the one pious Omayyad caliph, Omar II. (717-720), who is said to have
ordered Ibn Shihab uz-Zuhri to make such a collection. Of this work,
if it was carried out, we know nothing further. It was, however, by a
man born during this reign that the first systematic collection of
traditions was made--the _Muwatta`_ of Malik ibn Anas (q.v.). Yet this
work is not a book of tradition in the religious sense, it is really a
corpus juris and not a complete one. The object of Malik was simply to
record every tradition that had been used to give effect to a legal
decision. The work of sifting the vast mass of traditions and
arranging them according to their relation to the different parts of
religious life and practice was first undertaken in the 3rd century of
Islam (A.D. 815-912). In this century all the six collections
afterwards regarded as canonical by the Sunnites (orthodox) were made.
By this time an immense number of traditions was in circulation.
Bukhari in the course of sixteen years' journeying through Moslem
lands collected 600,000, and of these included 7275 (or, allowing for
repetitions, 4000) in his work. The six collections of tradition
received by the Sunnites as authoritative are: (i) The _Kitab ul-jami`
us-Sahih_ of Bukhari (q.v.) (810-870). This is the most respected
throughout the Moslem world and most carefully compiled (ed. L. Krehl
and T. W. Juynboll, Leiden, 1862--and frequently in the East; also
with many commentaries. French translation by O. Houdas and W.
Marcais, Paris, 1903 sqq.). (ii) The _Sahih_ of Muslim (817-875) with
an introduction on the science of tradition (ed. Calcutta, 1849, &c.).
(iii) The _Kitab us-Sunan_ of Abu Da`ud (817-888) (ed. Cairo, 1863,
Lucknow, 1888, Delhi, 1890). (iv) The _Jami` us-Sahih_ of Tirmidhi
(q.v.). (v) _The Kitab us-Sunan_ of Nasa` i (830-915) (ed. Cairo,
1894). (vi) The _Kitab us-Sunan_ of Ibn Maja (824-866) (ed. Delhi,
1865 and 1889). The last four are not held in the same repute as the
first two.
3. _Ijma`_ is the universal consent which is held to justify practices
or beliefs, although they are not warranted by the Koran or tradition,
and may be inconsistent with the apparent teaching of one or both of
these. These beliefs and practices, which had often come from the
pre-Islamic customs of those who had become believers, seem to have
escaped notice until the Abbasid period. They were too deeply rooted in
the lives of men to be abolished. It became necessary either to find a
tradition to abrogate the earlier forbidding one, or to acknowledge that
_ijma`_ is higher than the tradition. The former expedient was resorted
to by some later theologians (e.g. Nawawi) by a fiction that such a
tradition existed though it was not found now in writing. But in earlier
times some (as Ibn Qutaiba) had adopted the latter alternative, saying
that the truth can be derived much earlier from the _ijma`_ than from
the tradition, because it is not open to the same chances of corruption
in its transmission as the latter. Tradition itself was found to confirm
this view, for the Prophet is related to have said, "My people does not
agree to an error."
But _ijma`_ itself has been used in different senses: (i) The _ijma`_
of Medina was used to indicate the authority coming from the practices
of the people of Medina (see below). (ii) The _ijma`_ of the whole
community of Moslems is that most commonly recognized. It was used to
support fealty to the Abbasid dynasty. By it the six books of
tradition mentioned above are recognized as authoritative, and it is
the justification of the conception of Mahomet as superhuman. (iii)
Some of the more thoughtful theologians recognize only the _ijma`_ of
the doctors or the teachers of Islam (the _mujtahidun_), these being
restricted by the orthodox to the first few generations after Mahomet,
while the Shi`ites allow the existence of such up to the present time.
4. The fourth basis of Islam is _qiyas_, i.e. analogy. It is that
process by which a belief or practice is justified on the ground of
something similar but not identical in the Koran, the tradition or
_ijma`_. Originally it seems to have been instituted as a check upon the
use of private opinion (_ra'y_) in the teaching of doctrine. The extent
to which it may be used is a subject of much discussion among
theologians. Some would apply it only to a "material similarity," others
to similarity of motive or cause as well.
_Worship and Ritual._--The acts of worship required by Islam are five in
number: (i) the recital of the creed; (ii.) observance of the five daily
prayers; (iii) the fast in the month of Ramadhan; (iv) giving of the
legal alms; (v) the pilgrimage to Mecca.
Creed.
i. The creed is belief--"la ilaha illa-llahu, Muhammad rasul allahi,"
"there is no god but God (Allah), Mahomet is the apostle of God." It
is required that this shall be recited at least once in a lifetime
aloud, correctly, with full understanding of its meaning and with
heartfelt belief in its truth. It is to be professed without
hesitation at any time until death.
Prayer.
ii. Every man who professes Islam is required in ordinary life to pray
five times in each day. In the Koran these prayers are commanded,
though four only are mentioned. "Wherefore glorify God, when the
evening overtaketh you, and when ye rise in the morning, and unto Him
be praise in Heaven and earth; and in the evening and when ye rest at
noon" (xxx. 16-17), but commentators say the "evening" includes the
sunset and after sunset. The five times therefore are: (1) Dawn or
just before sunrise, (2) just after noon, (3) before sunset, (4) just
after sunset, and (5) just after the day has closed. Tradition decides
within what limits the recitals may be delayed without impairing their
validity. Prayer is preceded by the lesser ablution (_wadu_)
consisting in the washing of face, hands (to the elbows) and feet in
prescribed manner. Complete washing of the body (_ghusl_) is required
only after legal pollution. In prayer the worshipper faces the _qibla_
(direction of prayer), which was at first Jerusalem, but was changed
by the Prophet to Mecca. In a mosque the _qibla_ is indicated by a
niche (_mihrab_) in one of the walls. The prayers consist of
prescribed ejaculations, petitions, and the recital of parts of the
Koran, always including the first _sura_, accompanied by prostrations
of the body. Detailed physical positions are prescribed for each part
of the worship; these vary slightly in the four orthodox schools (see
below). On a journey, in time of war or in other special
circumstances, the set form of prayers may be modified in accordance
with appointed rules. Besides these private prayers, there is the
prayer of the assembly, which is observed on a Friday (_yaum
ul-jam'a_, "the day of assembly") in a mosque, and is usually
accompanied by an address or declamation (_khutba_) delivered from a
step of the pulpit (_minbar_). Special prayers are also prescribed for
certain occasions, as on the eclipse of the sun or the moon, &c. Among
the Sufis special attention is given to informal prayer, consisting
chiefly in the continual repetition of the name of God (_dhikr_) (see
SUFI'ISM). This is still a characteristic of some of the dervish
(q.v.) communities.
Fasting.
iii. The command to fast begins with the words, "O ye who believe!
There is prescribed for you the fast, as it was prescribed for those
before you." The expression "those before you" has been taken to refer
to the Jews, who fasted on the day of atonement, but more probably
refers to the long fast of thirty-six days observed by the Eastern
Christians. In the passage of the Koran referred to (ii. 179-181)
Moslems are required to fast during the month of Ramadhan, "wherein
the Koran was revealed," but if one is on a journey or sick he may
fast "another number of days," and if he is able to fast and does not,
"he may redeem it by feeding a poor man," but "if ye fast, it is
better for you." This fast was probably instituted in the second year
at Medina. At that time the corrected lunar year was in use and
Ramadhan, the ninth month, was always in the winter. A few years later
Mahomet decreed the use of the uncorrected lunar year, which remains
the standard of time for the Moslem world, so that the month of
fasting now occurs at all seasons of the year in turn. The fast is
severe, and means entire abstinence from food and drink from sunrise
to sunset each day of the month. The fast is associated with the
statement that in this month God sent down the Koran from the seventh
heaven to Gabriel in the lowest that it might be revealed to the
Prophet.
Alms.
iv. Alms are of two kinds: (1) the legal and determined (_zakat_), and
(2) voluntary (_sadaqat_). The former were given in cattle, grain,
fruit, merchandise and money once a year after a year's possession.
For cattle a somewhat elaborate scale is adopted. Of grain and fruit a
tenth is given if watered by rain, a twentieth if the result of
irrigation. Of the value of merchandise and of money a fortieth is
prescribed. In the early days of Islam the alms were collected by
officials and used for the building of mosques and similar religious
purposes. At the present time the carrying of these prescriptions is
left to the conscience of the believers, who pay the alms to any needy
fellow-Moslem. A good example of a _sadaqa_ is found in a gift to an
unbeliever (see C. M. Doughty, _Arabia deserta_, i. 446, ii. 278,
Cambridge, 1888).
Pilgrimage.
v. The fifth religious duty of the Moslem is the pilgrimage (_hajj_)
to Mecca, which should be performed once by every Moslem "if he is
able," that is if he can provide or obtain the means to support
himself on pilgrimage and his family during his absence, and if he is
physically capable. The pilgrimage is made at one time of the (Moslem)
year, namely, from the 7th to the 10th of the month Dhu'l-Hijja. For
the arrangements for the journey from various countries to Mecca see
CARAVAN. When the pilgrim arrives within five or six miles of the holy
city he puts off his ordinary dress after ablution and prayer, and
puts on the two seamless wrappers which form the dress of the pilgrim
(the _ihram_), who goes without head-covering or boots or shoes. He
must not shave at all, or trim the nails or anoint the head during the
ceremonial period. The chief parts of the ceremonial are the visit to
the sacred mosque (_masjid ul-haram_), the kissing of the black stone,
the compassing of the Ka`ba (the _Tawaf_) seven times, three times
running, four times slowly, the visit to the Maqam Ibrahim, the ascent
of Mount Safa and running from it to Mount Marwa seven times, the run
to Mount `Arafat, hearing a sermon, and going to Muzdalifa, where he
stays the night, the throwing of stones at the three pillars in Mina
on the great feast day, and the offering of sacrifice there (for the
localities see MECCA). After the accomplishment of these ceremonies
the ordinary dress is resumed, the pilgrimage is finished, but the
pilgrim usually remains another three days in Mecca, then visits
Medina to pay his respects to the tomb of Mahomet. Beside the _hajj_
(great pilgrimage) Islam also recognizes the merit of the _`umra_ (or
lesser pilgrimage), i.e. a religious visit to Mecca at any time
accompanied by most of the ceremonies of the _hajj_.
The ceremonies of the _hajj_ have been described by several European
travellers who have witnessed them, such as J. L. Burckhardt in 1814,
Sir Richard Burton in 1853 (see bibliography to MECCA). A concise
account of them is given in T. P. Hughes, _Notes on Muhammadanism_
(3rd ed., London, 1894). Details in vol. i. of Bukhari's traditions
(Houdas and Marcais's French translation, i. 493-567).
_The Development of Islam._--The battle of Siffin (657) between `Ali and
Moawiya was the occasion of the first breach in the unity of Islam, and
the results remain to this day. The occasion was in the first case
political, but politics were at that time too intimately connected with
religion to be considered apart from it. After the battle (see
CALIPHATE) `Ali was practically compelled to submit his claims to
arbitration, whereupon a number of his supporters broke away from him,
saying that there should have been no appeal save to the Book of God.
These men were for the most part country Arabs, and, inspired by the
free spirit of the desert, were democratic, claiming that the caliph
should be elected by the whole community from any family (and not from
the Koreish alone), and that the caliph might be deposed for sin. A few
extremists were republicans and would do without a caliph altogether.
The whole party was known as the Kharijites (Kharijiyya or Khawarij).
The Moslems who disagreed with them were regarded by them as renegades
and were to be put to death. They were soon divided into extremists and
moderates. The former put to death the children of unbelievers and
refused to hold intercourse in daily life with unbelievers. The
moderates, who came to be known as Ibadites (from their leader `Abdallah
ibn `Ibad), would allow the children of unbelievers to grow up, and
would then deal with them according to their choice. In ordinary life
they would mix with all men, but marriage with other Moslems outside
their own ranks was forbidden. These still remain in Oman, parts of
Algeria and East Africa.
Another party, consisting mainly of city Arabs infected with Persian
ideas as to the divinity of the ruler, clung to `Ali with inconvenient
affection. They regarded `Ali and his descendants as the only legitimate
caliphs, and came to be known as Shi`ites (q.v.). They remain to-day the
largest part of Islam outside orthodoxy. During the Omayyad caliphate
(661-750) there were three centres of religious thought and influence;
students and teachers often passed from one to the other, thus making
universal the teachings which in their origin were due to local
circumstances. These centres were Damascus (the seat of the caliphate),
Medina and the East (Irak, &c.). In Damascus the court was worldly and
indifferent to the interests of Islam. The early Omayyads were
distinguished for their striving after dominion (_mulk_). Instead of
attempting to propagate Islam, they tolerated other religions and
favoured Christians who were distinguished as poets (e.g. Akhtal) or
officials (John of Damascus), or men likely to be of use to them in any
way. The doctrines of Christianity began to influence even serious
Moslems and to affect their way of stating Moslem belief. John of
Damascus (d. before 767), the Greek theologian, and his pupil, Theodorus
Abucara (d. 826), have written controversial works on Islam, from which
it seems probable that disputations on subjects pertaining to religion
were held between Christians and Moslems. Two schools of heretical
Moslem sects arose under these influences--that of the Murjiites and
that of the Qadarites. The Murjiites ("postponers") were so called
because they postponed the judgment of human actions until the Day of
Judgment. In politics they accepted the Omayyads as _de facto_ rulers,
since they were Moslems, and left the judgment of their actions to God.
As theologians they taught that religion consists in belief (_iman_) in
the unity of God and in his apostle, and in that alone, consequently no
one who held this faith would perish eternally, though he had been a
sinner. This was opposed to the Kharijite doctrine that the unrepentant
sinner would perish eternally, even though he had professed Islam.
The Qadarites were concerned with the doctrine of predestination and
free-will. So long as Moslems were fighting the battles of Islam they
naturally paid most attention to those revelations which laid stress on
the absolute determination of a man's destiny by God. They fought with
great bravery because they believed that God had foreordained their
death or life and they could not escape His will. In the quieter realm
of town and court life and in their disputations with Christians they
were called upon to reconcile this belief with the appeals made in the
Koran to man's own self-determination to good, to courage, &c. Mahomet
was not a systematic theologian and had done nothing to help them. The
Qadarites declared that man had power over his own actions. But the
teaching of predestination had gained too great a hold on Moslems to be
thus displaced. The teaching of the Qadarites was held to be heresy, and
one of its first professors, Ma`bad ul-Juhani, was put to death in
699.[3] During this period Medina was the home of tradition. Those who
had been in closest relation with the Prophet dwelt there. The very
people of the city derived a certain splendour and authority from the
fact that Mahomet had lived and was buried there. Free thought in
religion had little chance of arising, less of expressing itself, in the
holy city. But the Koran was diligently studied, traditions were
collected (and invented) though not yet written in books, and innovation
(_bid`a_) was resolutely avoided. At the same time it really did
contribute a new element to religious practice, for the custom (_ijma`_,
see above) of Medina gained a certain authority even in Syria and the
East.
In the East, on the other hand, there was more mental activity, and the
religious teachers who came from Medina had to be prepared to meet with
many questions. The wits of the Moslems were sharpened by daily contact
with Christians, Buddhists, Manichaeans and Zoroastrians. Hasan ul-Basri
(q.v.), who has been claimed as one of the first mystics, also as one of
the first systematic theologians of Islam, was remarkable alike for his
personal piety and his orthodoxy. Yet it was among his pupils that the
great rationalist movement originated. Its founder was Wasil ibn `Ata,
who separated himself (whence his followers were called Motazilites,
strictly Mu`tazilites, "Separatists") from his teacher and founded a
school which became numerous and influential. The Mu`tazilites objected
to the attributes of God being considered in any way as entities beside
God; they explained away the anthropomorphisms used in speaking of the
deity; they regarded the Koran as created and as a product of Mahomet
writing under the divine influence. Briefly, they asserted the supremacy
of reason (_`aql_) as distinct from faith received by tradition
(_naql_). They also called themselves "the people of justice and unity"
(_Ahl ul-`adl wat-tauhid_). Such a faith as this naturally found favour
rather with the thinking classes than with the uneducated multitude, and
so went through many vicissitudes. At the time of its appearance and
until the reign of Ma`mun its adherents were persecuted as heretics.
After discussions among the theologians Ma`mun took the decided step of
proclaiming that the Koran was created, and that a belief in this dogma
was necessary. Other Mu`tazilite doctrines were proclaimed later.
Mu`tazilites were appointed to official posts, and an inquisition
(_mihna_) was appointed to enforce belief in their doctrines. This
movement was strongly opposed by the orthodox and especially by Ahmad
ibn Hanbal (q.v.). By him the founding of theology on reason was
rejected, and he suffered persecution for his faith (see W. N. Patton,
_Ahmed ibn Hanbal and the Mihna_, Leiden, 1897). Mu`tazilism retained
its sway until 849, when the caliph Motawakkil again declared the Koran
uncreate and restored orthodoxy. It was during the early years of the
Abbasid rule that the four legal schools of Abu Hanifa (d. 767), Malik
ibn Anas (d. 795), ash-Shafi'i (d. 819) and Ibn Hanbal (d. 855) came
into existence (see MAHOMMEDAN LAW). As the bases of religion and law
were the same, so the methods applied in the treatment of the one
affected the other. Abu Hanifa depended little on tradition, but
referred back to the Koran, making use of individual opinion (_ra`y_) as
controlled by analogy (_qiyas_) with a written ordinance. Malik Ibn Anas
supplemented the Koran and Sunna by customary law founded largely on the
custom (_ijma`_) of Medina, and by what he conceived to be for the
public good (_istislah_). Shafi`i recognized tradition as equal to the
Koran, and even as being able to supersede its ordinances, while he also
recognized the universal custom (_ijma`_) of the Moslem world as divine
and binding. His four bases of religion--Koran, sunna, qiyas and
ijma`--have been generally accepted in Islam (see above). Ibn Hanbal's
position has been already mentioned. All these four schools are reckoned
orthodox, and all orthodox Moslems belong to one or another of them.
Another teacher of this time, who founded a school which did not succeed
in being recognized as orthodox, was Da`ud uz-Zahiri. Trained as a
Shafi`ite, he became too strict for this school, rejected analogy,
restricted _ijma`_ to the agreement or custom of the companions of
Mahomet, and accepted the whole of the Koran and tradition in the most
literal and external sense. His followers were called Zahirites (i.e.
externalists). After Ash`ari's time these principles were applied to
theology by Ibn Hazm (q.v.) see I. Goldziher, _Die Zahiriten, ihr
Lehrsystem und ihre Geschichte_ (Leipzig, 1884).
Before turning to the reform of Ash`ari and the introduction into
orthodox theology of scholastic philosophy it is necessary to notice
another phase of religious life which became the common property of
orthodox and heretics. This was the introduction of asceticism in
religions practice and of mysticism in religious thought. Sufi`ism
(q.v.), which combined these two, is rightly not counted among the sects
of Islam. Asceticism seems to have won a certain amount of approval from
Mahomet himself, who much respected the Christian monks. The attention
paid in early Islam to the joys and punishments of the future life led
to self-denial and simple living in this world. An Arabian writer,
speaking of the simplicity of manners of the first four caliphs, says
that their affairs were conducted with more consideration of the future
life than of this world. Many Moslems went even farther than these
caliphs, and gave up all concern as far as possible with the affairs of
this world and lived in poverty, in wanderings or in retirement (see
DERVISH). For the historical development of this movement, with its
accompanying mysticism, see SUFI`ISM. Ash`ari (d. before 942) was for
forty years a Mu`tazilite, then became orthodox (see ASH`ARI), and at
once applied rational methods for the support and interpretation of the
orthodox faith. Before him, reason had not been allowed any scope in
orthodox theology. He was not the first to use it; some teachers (as
al-Junaid) had employed it in teaching, but only in secret and for the
few. The methods of scholastic philosophy were now introduced into
Moslem theology. The chief characteristic of his religious teaching was
the adoption of the _via media_ between materialistic grossness and the
ideas of pure speculative philosophy. Thus he taught, as to the
attributes of God, that they exist, but are not to be compared with
human attributes; as to His visibility, that He can be seen but without
the limitations of human sight. As to the great question of free will,
he denied man's power but asserted his responsibility. So he passed in
review the doctrines of God, faith, the Koran, sin, intercession, &c.,
and for the first time in the history of Islam produced a systematic
theology. The teaching of Ash`ari was taken up and propagated by the
Buyids soon after his death, and was developed and perfected by Abu Bekr
ul-Baqilani, the Cadi (d. 1012), but up to the middle of the 5th century
of Islam (c. A.D. 1058) was suspected elsewhere and confounded with
Mu`tazilism. The Ash`arite al-Juwaini (known as Imam ul-Haramain) was
persecuted under Toghrul Beg (c. 1053) and exiled, but was restored
under Alp Arslan by the vizier Nizam ul-Mulk, who founded an Ash`arite
college (the Nizamiyya). In the West, Ibn Hazm (q.v.) fiercely opposed
the system, but Ghazali established its orthodoxy in the East, and it
spread from Persia to Syria and Egypt under the Ayyubites and Mamelukes
and thence to the Almohades in Africa under Ibn Tumart (1130). It
remains the predominating influence to the present day, its only serious
rival being the theological system of al-Mataridi, a Hanifite (d. 945),
whose creed as represented in that of an-Nasafi is still used largely by
the Turks. Since the 12th century no great theological movement has been
made in Islam. The quiet of religious life has twice been broken, once
by Wahhabism (q.v.) in Arabia, once by Babism (q.v.) in Persia.