[1] _Experimental Researches_, Series 19.
[2] _Comptes rendus_, 88, p. 709.
[3] _Wied. Ann._ 6, p. 332; 8, p. 278; 10, p. 257.
[4] _Wied. Ann._ 23, p. 228; 27, p. 191.
[5] _Wied. Ann._ 31, p. 941.
[6] _Phil. Trans._, A. 1885, Pt. 11, p. 343.
[7] _Wied. Ann._ 26, p. 456.
[8] _Phil. Trans._, A. 1895, Pt. 17, p. 621.
[9] _Wied. Ann._ 24, p. 161.
[10] _Wied. Ann._ 31, p. 970.
[11] _Comptes rendus_, 57, p. 670.
[12] _Comptes rendus_, 43, p. 529; 44, p. 1209.
[13] _Journ. Chem. Soc._ 1884, p. 421; 1886, p. 177; 1887, pp. 362
and 808; 1888, p. 561; 1889, pp. 680 and 750; 1891, p. 981; 1892, p.
800; 1893, pp. 75, 99 and 488.
[14] _Wied. Ann._ 44, p. 377.
[15] _Wied. Ann._ 43, p. 280.
[16] _Zeitschrift f. physikal. Chem._ 11, p. 753.
[17] _Phil. Mag._ [5] 3, p. 321.
[18] _Ann. de chim. et de phys._ [6] 4, p. 433; 9, p. 65; 10, p. 200.
[19] _Wied. Ann._ 23, p. 228; 27, p. 191.
[20] _Wied. Ann._ 39, p. 25.
[21] _Wied. Ann._ 42, p. 115.
[22] _Phil. Mag._ [5] 12, p. 171.
[23] _Journ. de Phys._ 1884, p. 360.
[24] _Beiblätter zu Wied. Ann._ 1885, p. 275.
[25] _Messungen über d. Kerr'sche Erscheinung._ Inaugural Dissert.
Leiden, 1893.
[26] _Phil. Mag._ [5] 5, p. 161.
[27] _Phil. Mag._ [3] 28, p. 469.
[28] _Die Magn. Drehung d. Polarisationsebene des Lichts_, Halle,
1863.
[29] _Electricity and Magnetism_, chap. xxi.
[30] _Phil. Trans._ 1880 (2), p. 691.
[31] _Phil. Mag._ (5) 11, p. 254, 1881.
[32] _Arch. Néerl._ 19, p. 123.
[33] _Wied. Ann._ 23, p. 493; 67, p. 345.
[34] _Wied. Ann._ 24, p. 119.
[35] _Wied. Beiblätter_, 8, p. 869.
[36] _Comptes rendus_, 108, p. 510.
[37] _Phil. Trans._ 182, A. p. 371, 1892; _Physical Optics_, p. 393.
[38] _Wied. Ann._ 46, p. 71; 47, p. 345; 48, p. 740; 50, p. 722.
[39] _Wied. Ann._ 46, p. 353; 48, p. 122; 49, p. 690.
[40] _Recent Researches_, p. 489 et seq.
[41] _Phil. Trans._, A. 1897, p. 89.
[42] _Brit. Assoc. Report_, 1893.
[43] _Comptes rendus_, 127, p. 548.
[44] _Bull. de l'Acad. des Sciences Belg._ (3) 9, pp. 327, 381, 1885;
12 p. 30, 1886.
[45] _Communications from the Physical Laboratory_, Leiden, No. 33,
1896; Phil. Mag. 43, p. 226; 44, pp. 55 and 255; and 45, p. 197.
[46] _Arch. Néerl._ 25, p. 190.
[47] _Phil. Mag._ 45, p. 325; 47, p. 165.
[48] _Comptes rendus_, 126, p. 181.
[49] _Phil. Mag._ 46, p. 187.
[50] _Phil. Mag._ 45, p. 348.
[51] _Comptes rendus_, 125, p. 865.
[52] _Comptes rendus_, pp. 748 and 949, 1897.
[53] _Comptes rendus_, 127, p. 216; 128, p. 45.
(J. J. T.)
MAGNOLIA, the typical genus of the botanical order Magnoliaceae, named
after Pierre Magnol (1638-1715), professor of medicine and botany at
Montpellier. It contains about twenty species, distributed in Japan,
China and the Himalayas, as well as in North America.
Magnolias are trees or shrubs with deciduous or rarely evergreen
foliage. They bear conspicuous and often large, fragrant, white, rose or
purple flowers. The sepals are three in number, the petals six to
twelve, in two to four series of three in each, the stamens and carpels
being numerous. The fruit consists of a number of follicles which are
borne on a more or less conical receptacle, and dehisce along the outer
edge to allow the scarlet or brown seeds to escape; the seeds however
remain suspended by a long slender thread (the funicle). Of the
old-world species, the earliest in cultivation appears to have been _M.
Yulan_ (or _M. conspicua_) of China, of which the buds were preserved,
as well as used medicinally and to season rice; together with the
greenhouse species, _M. fuscata_, it was transported to Europe in 1789,
and thence to North America, and is now cultivated in the Middle States.
There are many fine forms of _M. conspicua_, the best being
_Soulangeana_, white tinted with purple, _Lenné_ and _stricta_. Of the
Japanese magnolias, _M. Kobus_ and the purple-flowered _M. obovata_ were
met with by Kaempfer in 1690, and were introduced into England in 1709
and 1804 respectively. _M. pumila_, the dwarf magnolia, from the
mountains of Amboyna, is nearly evergreen, and bears deliciously scented
flowers; it was introduced in 1786. The Indian species are three in
number, _M. globosa_, allied to _M. conspicua_ of Japan, _M.
sphenocarpa_, and, the most magnificent of all magnolias, _M.
Campbellii_, which forms a conspicuous feature in the scenery and
vegetation of Darjeeling. It was discovered by Dr Griffith in Bhutan,
and is a large forest tree, abounding on the outer ranges of Sikkim, 80
to 150 ft. high, and from 6 to 12 ft. in girth. The flowers are 6 to 10
in. across, appearing before the leaves, and vary from white to a deep
rose colour.
The first of the American species brought to Europe (in 1688 by John
Banister) was _M. glauca_, a beautiful evergreen species about 15 ft.
high with obtuse leathery leaves, blue-green above, silvery underneath,
and globular flowers varying from creamy white to pale yellow with age.
It is found in low situations near the sea from Massachusetts to
Louisiana--more especially in New Jersey and the Carolinas. _M.
acuminata_, the so-called "cucumber tree," from the resemblance of the
young fruits to small cucumbers, ranges from Pennsylvania to Carolina.
The wood is yellow, and used for bowls; the flowers, 3 to 4 in. across,
are glaucous green tinted with yellow. It was introduced into England
from Virginia about 1736. _M. tripetala_ (or _M. umbrella_), is known as
the "umbrella tree" from the arrangement of the leaves at the ends of
the branches resembling somewhat that of the ribs of an umbrella. The
flowers, 5 to 8 in. across, are white and have a strong but not
disagreeable scent. It was brought to England in 1752. _M. Fraseri_ (or
_M. auriculata_), discovered by John Bartram in 1773, is a native of the
western parts of the Carolinas and Georgia, extending southward to
western Florida and southern Alabama. It grows 30 to 50 ft. high, has
leaves a foot or more long, heart-shaped and bluntly auricled at the
base, and fragrant pale yellowish-white flowers, 3 to 4 in. across. The
most beautiful species of North America is _M. grandiflora_, the "laurel
magnolia," a native of the south-eastern States, and introduced into
England in 1734. It grows a straight trunk, 2 ft. in diameter and
upwards of 70 ft. high, bearing a profusion of large, powerfully
lemon-scented creamy-white flowers. It is an evergreen tree, easily
recognized by its glossy green oval oblong leaves with a rusty-brown
under surface. In England it is customary to train it against a wall in
the colder parts, but it does well as a bush tree; and the original
species is surpassed by the Exmouth varieties, which originated as
seedlings at Exeter from the tree first raised in England by Sir John
Colliton, and which flower much more freely than the parent plant. Other
fine magnolias now to be met with in gardens are _M. cordata_, a North
American deciduous tree 40 to 50 ft. high, with heart-shaped leaves,
woolly beneath, and yellow flowers lined with purple; _M. hypoleuca_, a
fine Japanese tree 60 ft. high or more, with leaves a foot or more long,
6 to 7 in. broad, the under surface covered with hairs; _M.
macrophylla_, a handsome deciduous North American tree, with smooth
whitish bark, and very large beautiful green leaves, 1 to 3 ft. long, 8
to 10 in. broad, oblong-obovate and heart-shaped at the base; the open
sweet-scented bell-shaped flowers 8 to 10 in. across, are white with a
purple blotch at the base of the petals; _M. stellata_ or _Halleana_, a
charming deciduous Japanese shrub remarkable for producing its pure
white starry flowers as early as February and March on the leafless
stems; and _M. Watsoni_, another fine deciduous Japanese bush or small
tree with very fragrant pure white flowers 5 to 6 in. across.
[Illustration: _Magnolia grandiflora_, shoot with flower; rather less
than ½ nat. size.
1. Flower after removal of the sepals and petals, showing the
indefinite stamens, s, and carpels, c.
2. Fruit--the ripe carpels are splitting, exposing the seeds, some of
which are suspended by the long funicle.