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National Technical Information Service
PB80-141559
HUMPBACK WHALES IN GLACIER BAY NATIONAL MONUMENT, ALASKA
MARINE MAMMAL COMMISSION
WASHINGTON, D.C.
FEBRUARY 1980
QL 737 .C424 H86x
Humpback whales in Glacier Bay National Monument, Alaska
Report No. MMC-79/01
HUMPBACK WHALES IN GLACIER BAY NATIONAL MONUMENT, ALASKA
Marine Mammal Commission
1625 I Street, N.W.
Washington, D.C. 20006
Published February 1980
Availability Unlimited
Prepared by
U.S. Marine Mammal Commission
1625 I Street, N.W.
Washington, D.C. 20006
NOTICE
THIS DOCUMENT HAS BEEN REPRODUCED FROM THE BEST COPY FURNISHED US BY
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ARE ILLEGIBLE, IT IS BEING RELEASED IN THE INTEREST OF MAKING
AVAILABLE AS MUCH INFORMATION AS POSSIBLE.
REPORT DOCUMENTATION PAGE
+------------------------+---------------+----------------------------+
|1. Report No. |2. |3. Recipient's Accession No.|
| | | |
| MMC-79/01 | | PB 80 141559 |
+------------------------+---------------+----------------------------+
|4. Title and Subtitle |5. Report Date |
| | October 1979 |
| Humpback Whales in Glacier Bay +----------------------------+
| National Monument, Alaska |6. |
+----------------------------------------+----------------------------+
|7. Author(s) |8. Performing Organization |
| | Report No. |
| Marine Mammal Commission | |
+----------------------------------------+----------------------------+
|9. Performing Organization Name |10. Project/Task/Work |
| and Address | Unit No. |
| | |
| Marine Mammal Commission +----------------------------+
| 1625 I Street, N.W. |11. Contract or Grant No. |
| Washington, D.C. 20006 | |
| +----------------------------+
+----------------------------------------+13. Type of Report |
|12. Sponsoring Organization Name | |
| and Address | Final Report |
| | |
| Same as above. +----------------------------+
| |14. |
+----------------------------------------+----------------------------+
|15. Supplementary Notes |
| |
| |
+---------------------------------------------------------------------+
|16. Abstract |
| |
| The waters of Glacier Bay National Monument, Alaska, appear to be |
| an important humpback whale (_Megaptera novaeangliae_) summering |
| area. In 1979, fewer whales used Glacier Bay than expected, based |
| on previous observations. This report, of an Interagency Review |
| Meeting held in Seattle, Washington, on 12-13 October 1979, |
| discusses management and research activities relating to humpback |
| whales in Glacier Bay National Monument and surrounding waters. |
| |
+----------------------------------------+----------------------------+
|17. Originator's Key Words |18. Availability Statement |
| Humpback Whales | |
| (_Megaptera novaeangliae_) | |
| Glacier Bay National Monument, Alaska | Availability unlimited |
| Southeast Alaska | |
| | |
+----------------------------------------+----------------------------+
|19. U.S. Security |20. U.S. Security |21. No. of Pages |22. Price |
| Classif. of | Classif. of | | |
| the Report | This Page | | |
| | | | |
+-------------------+--------------------+-----------------+----------+
This Form may be reproduced.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
PREFACE 1
INTRODUCTION 2
BACKGROUND 2
Distribution and Abundance of Humpback Whales
in the North Pacific 2
Glacier Bay 3
Humpback Whales in Glacier Bay 7
Human Use of Glacier Bay 10
POSSIBLE CAUSE-EFFECT RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN HUMAN USE
OF GLACIER BAY AND THE DISPLACEMENT OF HUMPBACK WHALES
FROM THE BAY 13
ADEQUACY OF EXISTING DATA 21
MANAGEMENT AND RESEARCH ACTIVITIES TAKEN OR
UNDER CONSIDERATION 21
ALTERNATIVE MANAGEMENT ACTIONS 23
IDENTIFYING AND SELECTING THE MOST APPROPRIATE
RESEARCH/MANAGEMENT STRATEGY 24
AGENCY RESPONSIBILITIES AND NEED FOR COOPERATION
AND COORDINATION 26
SUMMARY 27
REFERENCES 29
APPENDICES
LIST OF TABLES
Page
1. Relative abundance and distribution of identified
humpback whales in southeast Alaskan waters 1967-79 8
2. Number of humpback whales (individual census)
entering Glacier Bay during "influxes" 9
3. Age composition of humpback whales per year in
Glacier Bay 9
4. Juraszs' description of "stress behavior" 11
5. Juraszs' vessel/aircraft classes 12
6. Number of visitors and vessels to Glacier Bay
National Monument 14
7. Number of vessel sightings per month in each
class as seen from the Juraszs' R/V GINJUR 15
8. Average vessel sightings per day in each class
as seen from the Juraszs' R/V GINJUR 16
LIST OF FIGURES
Page
1. Southeast Alaska, Alexander Archipelago 4
2. Glacier Bay, Alaska 5
3. Glacier Bay, Alaska showing former positions of
termini 1760-1966 6
4. Commercial fishing vessel visits to Glacier Bay 17
5. Commercial fishing activity Glacier Bay 18
6. Fishing charter boats and private boat visits
to Glacier Bay 1970-1977 19
PREFACE
In 1976, the National Park Service initiated a study to determine
whether increased boat traffic or boating activities were having an
adverse impact on humpback whales inhabiting Glacier Bay National
Monument during the summer months. In 1978, the whales entered the Bay
as usual, but left sooner than expected. The scientists conducting the
whale studies believed that the early departure of the whales was
precipitated by increased boat traffic in the Bay and, in 1979, the
Park Service, in consultation with the cruise ship industry, developed
and implemented operational guidelines for vessel course and speed in
designated areas, where it was felt that vessel interactions with
incoming whales could cause the most disturbance.
Researchers spent many hours looking for whales in the Bay during the
early part of the 1979 summer season, but few whales were seen.
Several interactions between vessels and those whales present in the
Bay were observed and, on one occasion, a whale known to have had an
interaction with a vessel left the Bay. Monument personnel discussed
the problem with the area office of the National Park Service. A
number of options, including emergency closure of the Bay were
considered. It was decided to provide funds for a more thorough
analysis of the available information on whale/vessel interactions,
and to consult with the National Marine Fisheries Service pursuant to
Section 7 of the Endangered Species Act.
The NMFS was advised of the situation and, on 10 August 1979, NPS and
NMFS representatives met in Seattle, Washington to review available
information concerning the nature and possible causes of the departure
of whales from the Bay. Another meeting was held in late August to
discuss the problem with members of the cruise ship industry. It was
agreed that additional research was needed to better define the nature
and possible causes of the problem and that a meeting should be held
to discuss possible research approaches with other professionals in
the marine mammal field. These decisions led to the meeting described
in this report.
Subsequent to the meeting reported here, the National Marine Fisheries
Service in a letter dated December 3, 1979, responded to the National
Park Service's request for a Section 7 consultation. A copy of the
NMFS's response is provided in Appendix D of this report.
INTRODUCTION
Humpback whales (_Megaptera novaeangliae_) inhabit the inland waters
of southeast Alaska, including Glacier Bay during the summer months
(June-August). In the years from 1967 through 1977, 20 to 25
individually recognizable whales were observed feeding in Glacier Bay.
In 1978, the whales entered the bay but left earlier than expected. In
1979, only a few humpbacks entered Glacier Bay. The limited
information available suggests that increased human activity in the
Bay may have been responsible, at least in part, for the observed
shift in distribution. Increased human use of coastal waters is not
limited to Glacier Bay and the movement of humpbacks from Glacier Bay
to areas outside the Bay may be symptomatic of a larger problem.
The purposes of this meeting were: (1) to review available information
concerning the nature and possible causes of the movement of whales
from Glacier Bay; (2) to review present and planned research and
management actions relating to humpback whales in Glacier Bay and
southeast Alaska; and (3) to identify additional research or
management actions that may be necessary to conserve and protect the
North Pacific population(s) of humpback whales.
The meeting was held on the 12th and 13th of October 1979, at the
College of Fisheries, University of Washington, Seattle. The meeting
agenda is included as Appendix A. Individuals who made formal
presentations at the meeting are identified on the agenda. A list of
the meeting attendees, their organizations, addresses, and telephone
numbers are listed in Appendix B.
BACKGROUND
=Distribution and Abundance of Humpback Whales in the North
Pacific=[1]
Humpback whales are seasonal migrants found in all of the world's
oceans. In the North Pacific, humpback whales winter in tropical
regions over the shallow coastal shelfs associated with the Hawaiian
Islands, Baja California, central Mexico, the Ryukyu Islands, Bonin
Islands, and Mariana Islands. They summer in cold temperate regions,
also over shallow coastal shelfs, from Point Conception, California,
north through Alaska, west through the Aleutians, and south to Honshu
Island, Japan. Calving and probably breeding occur on the wintering
grounds. Feeding is believed to occur primarily in the summering
grounds.
In Alaska, humpback whales are known to inhabit Prince William Sound,
the waters of the Alexander Archipelago, and the waters adjacent to
Kodiak Island and the Aleutians. Some whales may also overwinter in
the northern summering areas.
The distribution, movements, abundance, and habitat requirements of
humpback whales are not well known. Based upon Japanese catch
statistics, the pre-exploitation population of humpback whales in the
North Pacific is estimated to have been approximately 15,000. Much of
the exploitation of humpback whales occurred in the twentieth century,
especially during the early 1960's. A small number of whaling stations
established in southeast Alaska took humpbacks between 1907 and 1922.
In 1966, the International Whaling Commission imposed a worldwide ban
on the taking of humpback whales.
The present population of humpback whales in the North Pacific is
estimated to be about 1,000 animals. The number occurring in tropical
waters during the winter is thought to be about 600-700 in Hawaii,
200-300 in Mexican waters, and a "few whales" in the western North
Pacific. More than 100 individual whales have been identified in
the inland waters of southeast Alaska during the summer. Tagging
experiments with Discovery Marks indicate movement between
the Aleutian Islands and the Western North Pacific; recent
photo-identification studies have shown movement from Southeast Alaska
to both the Hawaiian Islands and Baja (and southern coastal) Mexico.
There is no substantive evidence to indicate whether the number of
humpback whales, on either summer or winter grounds, in the North
Pacific is increasing or decreasing.
[Footnote 1: This summary is based on information provided at
the meeting by Drs. Michael Tillman and Louis Herman.]
[Illustration: FIGURE 1. (from Jurasz and Jurasz, 1979)]
Map showing location of Glacier Bay, Lynn Canal and
Fredrick Hole in Southeast Alaska Alexander Archipelago
[Illustration: FIGURE 2. NOS Chart 17300]
Soundings in Fathoms Scale 1:209,978
[Illustration: Figure 3. GLACIER BAY, ALASKA]
SHOWING FORMER POSITIONS OF TERMINI 1760-1966
(from Hale and Wright, 1979)
=Glacier Bay=[2]
Glacier Bay is located near the north end of the Alexander Archipelago
(Figures 1 and 2). The Bay opens into Cross Sound and Icy Strait of
the Inside Passage of southeast Alaska. When Vancouver discovered the
area in 1780, glacial ice filled the Bay to its mouth (Figure 3). In
1891, when the Bay was first mapped, Muir Inlet was still filled with
ice. Today the ice has retreated up the right (Muir Inlet) arm of the
"Y" shaped Bay to tide-water levels. Recently, glacial ice has started
to readvance in the upper reaches of the west inlets of the Bay.
The Bay is defined by shallow sills at its entrance and the entrance
to Muir Inlet. Constricted channels in which tidal currents are
locally strong occur between sediment covered shores in the lower end
of the Bay and the east (Muir) inlet. Deep, unconstricted bedrock
channels and basins with weak currents occur in mid-Bay and the west
inlet. These features and the configuration of the bay produce a tidal
range of 8 meters. There is reduced mixing of waters within the Bay
and between the Bay and Cross Sound/Icy Strait. Annual precipitation
up to 4 meters, coupled with glacial melt water, create a surface
layer and flow of cold fresh water out of the Bay. Strong flood tides
push sea water into the Bay over the sills. The dynamics of the flow
may effect the behavior and timing of the movement of whales into (on
flood tides) and out of (on ebb tides) the Bay (see below).
During the winter, an increase in sea water flow and mixing occur.
Increased nutrient levels and sunlight in spring/summer provide
sufficient nutrients and energy for phytoplankton "blooms" to occur.
In turn, zooplankters appear, especially in the open areas of mid and
lower Bay (e.g., euphausiids) and along glacial ice faces (e.g.,
mysids and amphipods). By autumn, plankton concentrations diminish as
light and nutrient levels decrease. Small schooling fish, (e.g.,
capelin, _Mallotus villosus_ and Pacific sand lance, _Ammodytes
hexapterus_), feed on the plankton when it becomes available. Both
fish and plankton are consumed by humpback whales as well as by other
predators. Other marine mammal species reported in the Bay are harbor
seals (_Phoca vitulina_), harbor porpoise (_Phocoena phocoena_),
killer whales (_Orcinus orca_), and minke whales (_Balaenoptera
acutorostrata_).
[Footnote 2: This summary is based on information provided at
the meeting by Mr. Gregory Streveler.]
=Humpback Whales in Glacier Bay=[3]
The distribution in and use of Glacier Bay by humpback whales was not
well known until Charles and Virginia Jurasz began observations in
1973. Prior to this, only personal recollections of Park Service
employees of the occurrence of humpback whales in the 1950's and the
1960's exist. In 1967, 60 identifiable humpback whales were observed
in three southeast Alaskan areas, i.e., Lynn Canal, Frederick Sound,
and Glacier Bay. The number of identifiable whales remained relatively
constant until 1974 in Lynn Canal, and 1978 (July 17) in Glacier Bay
(Tables 1-3). In the respective areas, the number of identified whales
decreased from 15 and 19 to 1 and 3, respectively. Concurrently, the
number of identified whales sighted in Frederick Sound increased.
TABLE 1. Relative abundance and distribution of identified humpback
whales in southeast Alaskan waters 1967-79[a]
Year 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79
-------------------------------------------------------------------
Glacier Bay 20 20 20 20 20 20 25 25 25 25 25 19/3[b] 3
-------------------------------------------------------------------
Lynn Canal 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 1 3 3 3 1/5 5
-------------------------------------------------------------------
Frederick 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 35 40 40 40 40/50 80
Sound
-------------------------------------------------------------------
Total 60 60 60 60 60 60 65 61 68 68 68 60/58 88
-------------------------------------------------------------------
[Footnote a: Specific dates of censuses, sighting techniques and
sighting effort not given. Based on a table presented by the
Juraszs at the meeting.]
[Footnote b: First number signifies number originally counted at
beginning of season/second number after decrease in number of
whales in Glacier Bay and increase in other areas. The
identified whales that left Glacier Bay are not necessarily the
same individuals that produced the increased numbers in Lynn
Canal and Frederick Sound later.]
TABLE 2. Number of humpback whales (individual census) entering
Glacier Bay during "influxes".
(modified from Jurasz and Jurasz, 1979)
------------------------------------------------------
Year 1976 1977 1978
First Influx 9 7 7
Second Influx 11 17 16
Seasonal Maximum 20 24 23
------------------------------------------------------
TABLE 3. Age composition of humpback whales per year in Glacier Bay
(modified from Jurasz and Jurasz, 1979)
----------------------------------------------------------
YEAR 1976 1977 1978
----------------------------------------------------------
NO. OF CALVES 1 2 4
NO. OF IDENTIFIED ADULTS 14 14 18
NO. OF JUVENILES 6 1
TOTAL NO. OF ADULTS 19 19 18
----------------------------------------------------------
Identifiable humpback whales were sighted in Glacier Bay each year,
1976-1977, for a six to twelve week period. In 1978, all but three
whales departed the Bay after 16 days. In the summers of 1976-1978 two
influxes of whales occurred (Table 2). The Juraszs' define an influx
of whales as those whales that enter and remain in the Bay for a
minimum of three weeks. The second influx arrived 7-14 days after
extreme low tides occurred in late June-early July and presumably
moved into the Bay on flood tides. In 1979, a single influx comprised
of 3 whales entered the Bay. The age composition of identified whales
using Glacier Bay was categorized by the Juraszs' for 1976-1978 (Table
3).
During the period spent in the Bay, humpback whales have been observed
to feed on capelin, euphausiids (_Euphausia pacifica_), and pandalid
shrimp (_Pandulus borealis_). There appear to be three generalized
feeding relationships: 1) early-season feeding on shrimp in the upper
Bay; 2) mid-season feeding by concentrations of whales on capelin in
the lower Bay; and 3) late-season feeding (around August 5) by
concentrations of whales on euphausiids in mid-Bay.
Behaviorally, humpback whales appear to lunge up through concentrated
schools of prey during mid-season and use "bubble-netting" as a means
of concentrating less dense and/or numerically fewer prey earlier and
later in the season. In other areas of southeast Alaska, humpbacks are
reported to also feed on herring (_Clupea harengus pallasi_), shrimp,
and possibly other small schooling (swarming) prey. The Juraszs'
believe that humpbacks establish feeding territories in the Bay, and
have described eight "stress behaviors" associated with violations of
those territories (Table 4). The data collected by the Juraszs are
extensive (including human use of Glacier Bay) but have not yet been
completely analyzed.
[Footnote 3: This summary is based on information provided at
the meeting by Charles and Virginia Jurasz.]
=Human Use of Glacier Bay=[4]
John Muir popularized Glacier Bay, leading to tourist activity into
the early 1900's, when loose ice resulting from earthquake activity
prevented cruise vessels from operating within the Bay. Glacier Bay
was designated a National Monument February 26, 1925, the area being
added to April 18, 1939.
Vessel and tourist numbers remained low until the late 1960's-early
1970's. Close to 100 percent of the visitors to the Bay use vessels,
either entering the Bay aboard them or making use of them to tour the
Bay after arriving by aircraft. The Juraszs' developed a
classification scheme for vessels and aircraft based upon activities
of the craft in the Bay, their size, hull design, and engine
characteristics (Table 5).
TABLE 4. Juraszs' description of "stress behavior" (Progressing from
the least "stressful" to the most "stressful")
(modified from Jurasz and Jurasz, 1979.)
---------------------------------------------------------------------
Mode Description
---------------------------------------------------------------------
Vocalization Bellowing or trumpeting noise produced by a whale
and heard above and below the water. Emanates from
the blowhole at the time of the expiration.
Bubbling Premature or underwater release of breath in a
straight line or as a single "belch" allowing the
whale to avoid having a visible blow. Bubbles
released usually 2-3 m below the water's surface.
Finning Flipper slapping; the striking of the water's
surface with the pectoral fins.
Tail Lobbing Raising the flukes well out of the water and
crashing or slapping them back flat against the
water's surface producing a loud sound.
Tail Rake A subset of the tail lobbing is the rake in which
the flukes are raked laterally across the water's
surface.
Half or Full A leap from the water in which a portion of the
Bodied Breach whale's body emerges from the water only to reenter
with a large splash.
Avoidance The temporary leaving of an area or a change in the
direction of travel.
Abandonment Leaving an area prematurely and not being seen
again for at least one season in that area.
---------------------------------------------------------------------
TABLE 5. Juraszs' vessel/aircraft classes
(after Jurasz and Jurasz, 1979)
--------------------------------------------------------------------
Class 1 Touring Vessel Over 10k Tons
Class 2 Touring Vessel 5k-10k tons
Class 3 Commercial Fishing/Crabbing
Class 4 Charter & Pleasure
Class 5 Cabined High RPM Outdrive Units
Class 6 Sailboat Using Aux. Power
Class 7 Utility Craft, Outboard Engine
Class 8 Kayak, Sailboat (no engines)
Class 9 Aircraft, Fixed
Class 10 Aircraft, Rotor
Class 11 Aircraft, Jet
Class 12 Hydrofoil
Class 13 Another Humpback
Class 14 Killer whales
Class 15 Minke Whales
Class 16 R/V GINJUR (Juraszs' research vessel)
Class 17 Wake Only
The increase in visitors and vessels to Glacier Bay is presented in
Tables 6-8. (Data included in Table 6 cannot be compared to data
presented in Table 7 because of difference in methods of data
collection, sample area, time, effort, etc.)
Commercial fishing vessel activity in the Bay was probably low until
the 1970's. Since 1972 (it is not known whether data are available
prior to 1972) commercial fishing vessel visits have fluctuated
(Figure 4), but fishing activity has been greatest during the summer
months (Figure 5). Sport fishing visits have increased during the same
time period (Figure 6).
[Footnote 4: This summary is based on information presented at
the meeting by Mr. John Chapman and Charles and Virginia
Jurasz.]
POSSIBLE CAUSE-EFFECT RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN HUMAN USE OF GLACIER BAY
AND THE DISPLACEMENT OF HUMPBACK WHALES FROM THE BAY[5]
The meeting participants agreed that the observed decrease in the
number of whales in Lynn Canal in 1974 and Glacier Bay in 1978 may be
attributable to a number or combination of factors. Available evidence
suggests human activity was at least one of the causes, or served to
trigger otherwise "natural events". In Lynn Canal, humpback whales
were known to feed on herring (_Clupea harengus pallasi_). In 1974,
the year a herring fishery began, the number of humpback whales
dropped to one (Table 1). Between 1974 and 1978 fishing continued.
There was no fishing in 1979.
Use of the Canal by Class 5 vessels (cabin cruisers with high RPM
outdrive units) increased by 15-20 percent each year after 1970
(Jurasz and Jurasz, 1979, p. 85). Three humpback whales were seen in
Lynn Canal during the 1975-1977 seasons, the number increasing to five
in 1978-1979. The relationship between vessel activity, fishing
effort, fish take, fish abundance, and the presence and activity of
whales in Lynn Canal does not appear to be documented.
In Glacier Bay, increased vessel traffic may be one of the factors
responsible for the movement of humpback whales from the Bay in 1978
and 1979. The Juraszs' data, while not evaluated fully, suggest that
there has been a general increase in avoidance by humpback whales of
Class 1 through 5 vessels over the three year period, 1976-1978.
TABLE 6. Number of visitors and vessels to Glacier
Bay National Monument.[a]
---------------------------------------------------------------------
Cruise Ships Private Vessels
Juraszs' (incomplete count)
Year Visitation Increase Classes 1-2 Juraszs' Classes 4-8
---------------------------------------------------------------------
1965 1,800
---------------------------------------------------------------------
1969 16,000 789% over 1965 450
---------------------------------------------------------------------
1970 29,700 86% over 1969
---------------------------------------------------------------------
1972 33
---------------------------------------------------------------------
1978 109,500 269% over 1970 123 1800
584% over 1969
---------------------------------------------------------------------
1979 123
---------------------------------------------------------------------
[Footnote a: Based on a table and information provided at the
meeting by Mr. John Chapman, National Park Service.
(Modified by adding Juraszs' classes of vessels.)]
TABLE 7. Number of vessel sightings per month in each class as seen
from the Juraszs' R/V GINJUR. (from Jurasz and Jurasz, 1979)
---------------------------------------------------------------------
1977 1978
---------------------------- -------------------------------
Vessel
Class June July August TOTAL June July August TOTAL
---------------------------------------------------------------------
1 20 22 11 53 17 25 8 50
3 67 18 6 91 62 31 64 157
4 37 42 30 109 29 125 64 218
5 38 45 17 100 27 61 24 112
6 3 14 0 17 0 29 19 48
7 6 4 6 16 8 4 5 17
8 7 2 7 16 2 12 3 17
12 4 3 7
TABLE 8. Average vessel sightings per day in each class as seen from
the Juraszs' R/V GINJUR. (Modified from Jurasz and
Jurasz, 1979)
-----------------------------------------------------------
Vessel Percent Percent
Class 1977 1978 Decrease Increase
1 3.90 3.20 18%
3 5.74 13.47 135%
4 8.38 16.87 101%
5 6.93 8.19 18%
6 1.11 3.99 259%
7 1.21 1.38 14%
8 1.24 1.18 5%
-----------------------------------------------------------
[Illustration: Figure 4. COMMERCIAL FISHING VESSEL VISITS TO
GLACIER BAY (from Hale and Wright, 1979)]
[Illustration: Figure 5. COMMERCIAL FISHING ACTIVITY GLACIER BAY
(from Hale and Wright, 1979)]
J F M A M J J A S O N D
=SALMON=
King L L L L M H H H M L L L
|--------------------------------------------------------|
Red L M M M L
|---------------------|
Coho H H H H
|----------------|
Pink L H H H M
|---------------------|
Chum L H H M M
|---------------------|
=HALIBUT= |---------------------|
=CRAB=
Tanner ------------------| |--------
King -------| |---------------
Dungeness |----------------|
Key
|---------| commercial fishing occurs
L Low level
M Medium level
H High level
[Illustration: Figure 6. FISHING CHARTER BOATS AND PRIVATE
BOAT VISITS TO GLACIER BAY 1970-1977
(from Hale and Wright, 1979)]
Natural changes in the environment and/or in the behavior of whales
have occurred concurrently with increased human/vessel activity in
Glacier Bay. Such natural changes include spatial and temporal trends
or cycles in the physical (temperature, tides, currents, turbidity,
etc.), chemical (salinity, dissolved gases, inorganic/organic
substances--nutrients, etc.) or biological (primary productivity,
zooplankton, nekton, benthic species, predators, etc.) properties or
characteristics of the waters within and outside the Bay. Temporal
and/or spatial differences in relative abundance of three different
prey species within and outside the Bay may have occurred and been
responsible, at least in part, for the movement of humpbacks from
Glacier Bay. At this time, data are inadequate to relate the movement
of humpback whales from Glacier Bay in 1978 and 1979 to physical,
chemical, or biological factors. Meeting participants felt that
physical and chemical factors were unlikely to have changed
sufficiently between 1976 and 1978 to affect humpback whales, while
biological factors, perhaps as a result of physio-chemical changes,
could have changed sufficiently to have caused or contributed to the
movement.
Human activity may have caused changes in the physical, chemical, or
biological environment, effecting humpbacks directly or indirectly.
Human and vessel activities may have occurred such that the space
(vertical and/or horizontal) available to whales for normal activities
was less than that necessary (below some threshold level or value).
"Too many" vessels may have transited an area and/or approached whales
"too closely" for "too long" a period of time, producing visual,
acoustic, tactile, chemical, or other as yet unknown stimuli at levels
or values (magnitude, intensity, duration, frequency, interval, etc.)
greater than the whales would tolerate. The physical-acoustic
environment may have changed as a result of sounds produced by
vessels. Vessel sounds may be modified, amplified, intensified, etc.,
as a result of the geological/topographical features of Glacier Bay
(and perhaps Lynn Canal as well). Direct interference with the whales'
own sounds may have occurred or "environmental" sound levels may have
exceeded certain thresholds. Basic data on the acoustic properties and
characteristics of Glacier Bay with and in the absence of vessels are
lacking.
Changes in water quality may have occurred through pollution. Data are
insufficient to document the past or present levels of pollution, but
they were thought by meeting participants to be relatively low.
Changes in the biological environment induced by human activity may be
contributory to the movement of whales. Movement from Lynn Canal may
have resulted from direct competition for the same resource at the
same time, by depletion of the resource below levels sufficient to
support humpbacks or as a result of noise or the presence of fishing
vessels. Fishing activity or overharvesting (depletion of resource) of
other species at other trophic levels may indirectly impact humpbacks
through the food web/chains. There are insufficient data to prove or
disprove such hypotheses at this time.
In summary, a best interpretation of the available data is that
uncontrolled increase of vessel traffic, particularly of erratic
charter/pleasure craft, may have adversely altered the behavior of
humpback whales in Glacier Bay and thus may be implicated in their
departure from the Bay the past two years. The causal mechanism of
this adverse reaction to increased vessel traffic remains unknown. The
effects of increasing vessel traffic apparently are exacerbated by the
narrow physical confines of Glacier Bay. This analysis is not
clear-cut, however, and may be confounded, at least in 1979, by
possible shifts in the occurrence and availability of preferred prey
species of humpback whales.
[Footnote 5: This summary is based on information presented at
the meeting and resulting discussions.]
ADEQUACY OF EXISTING DATA
In the Background and Possible Cause and Effect sections it
was stated that insufficient data exist to indicate cause and effect
relationships. Data are not sufficient in many areas, e.g.:
1) environmental baseline data (biological, chemical, and
physical) are inadequate;
2) data available (i.e., Juraszs') have not been analyzed fully;
3) changes in human use of areas are not adequately quantified
(e.g., for fishing, cruising, touring, pleasure boating); and
4) data on the acoustic characteristics of Glacier Bay or the
vessels occurring in the Bay are not available.
MANAGEMENT AND RESEARCH ACTIVITIES
TAKEN OR UNDER CONSIDERATION[6]
The National Park Service (NPS) is responsible for managing and
overseeing the use of Glacier Bay National Monument in support of the
objectives defined for the Service, when it was established in 1916;
an excerpt from the Act creating the Service in 1916 states that the
purpose of the Service is:
"To conserve the scenery and the natural and historic objects
and the wildlife therein and to provide for the enjoyment of the
same in such manner and by such means as will leave them
unimpaired for the enjoyment of future generations."
The intent in establishing the Monument is defined in the
Proclamations of 1925 and 1939, sections of which are excerpted and
presented below.
"Whereas, there are around Glacier Bay ... a number of
tide-water glaciers of the first rank in a magnificent setting
of lofty peaks, and more accessible to ordinary travel than any
similar regions of Alaska,
"And, Whereas, the region is said by the Ecological Society of
America to contain a great variety of forest covering consisting
of mature areas, bodies of youthful trees which have become
established since the retreat of the ice which should be
preserved in absolutely natural condition, and great stretches
now bare that will become forested in the course of the next
century,
"And, Whereas, this area presents a unique opportunity for the
scientific study of glacial behavior and of resulting movements
and development of flora and fauna and of certain valuable
relics of ancient interglacial forests." (Proclamation
establishing Glacier Bay National Monument, February 26, 1925.)
"Whereas, it appears that certain public lands, part of which
are within the Tongass National Forest ... have situated thereon
glaciers and geologic features of scientific interest; and
"Whereas, a portion of the aforesaid public lands ... are
necessary for the proper care, management, and protection of the
objects of scientific interest situated on the lands...."
(Proclamation of April 18, 1939, adding lands to the Monument.)
The management plans developed by the National Park Service for the
Glacier Bay National Monument did not anticipate, and apparently have
not been adequate to deal with, the increased visitor and vessel
traffic and their use of the marine environment in the 1970's. Title
36 of the Code of Federal Regulations, under which the National Park
Service operates, contains a section requiring any commercial business
conducted or operating within the boundaries of Service area to have a
permit issued by the Service. The cruise ship industry companies have
not as yet been placed under a permit system. However, it is the
intent of the Service to establish a regular system in the future. All
other commercial ventures operating on lands and waters of the
Monument are under contract or permit. Fishing vessel activity is
unregulated although the take of Pacific halibut, (_Hippoglossus
stenolepis_) is regulated by the International Pacific Halibut
Commission, and the take of salmon and other finfish and shellfish is
regulated by the Alaska Department of Fish and Game (ADFG). The need
for additional resource/use plans and regulatory programs is
recognized by the National Park Service.
The NPS funded field studies of humpback whales by the Juraszs in
1976-1979, analysis of some of the Juraszs' data, and Hale's and
Rice's (of the NPS Alaska area office) report, "The Glacier Bay Marine
Ecosystem--A Conceptual, Ecological Model" completed in April 1979.
The movement of humpback whales in 1978 from Glacier Bay to
surrounding waters and the suggestion by the Juraszs' field
observations, that there may be a cause and effect relationship
between vessel activity and the whales' movement, led the NPS to
restrict some vessel activities in the 1979 season, and to seek
Endangered Species Act Section 7 consultations with the National
Marine Fisheries Service in August 1979. The Section 7 consultations
were not completed at the beginning of the meeting. Based in part upon
NMFS's recommendations, the NPS will consider various future
management alternatives. Restrictions imposed in 1979 were temporary
(emergency closure authority under Title 36 C.F.R.). Any regulations
imposed for 1980 cannot be under emergency closure authority (unless
an emergency does arise which was unforeseen in setting up regulatory
systems). Regulations which can be foreseen at this time as being
necessary would have to proceed through the normal Federal Register
publication process. Enforcement of all Federal laws and regulations
within Glacier Bay is considered to be the responsibility of the NPS.
The National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) has overall
responsibility, under the Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972, for
the conservation and protection of all whales including humpback
whales. The National Marine Fisheries Service in cooperation with the
Juraszs has conducted censuses of humpback whales in southeast Alaskan
waters in 1975 and 1976, used radio tags to follow individual whales
in Alaskan waters in 1976-78, maintains a catalogue of humpback
whale photographs and has developed a computerized retrieval
photo-identification system. No research was conducted by NMFS in
1979. NMFS enforcement of laws and regulations is conducted by a few
people responsible for large areas in southeast Alaska. A contract
with the State of Alaska until August 1, 1979, provided a broader
presence of enforcement personnel. That contract was not renewed. The
NMFS is now fully responsible for enforcement activities relating to
humpback whales except in areas such as Glacier Bay where the
responsibility is shared.
[Footnote 6: This summary is based on information presented at
the meeting by National Park Service and National Marine
Fisheries Service Personnel.]
ALTERNATIVE MANAGEMENT ACTIONS
Based on available information, vessel activity may have been a factor
contributing to the movement of whales from Glacier Bay in 1978 and
1979. Alternatives available to manage vessel traffic (assuming
increased traffic has had or will have an adverse effect on humpback
whales) include:
1. Total closure of Glacier Bay to all vessels.
2. Closure to all vessels during the whale season.
3. Closure to all vessels during part of the whale season.
4. Total closure to all but certain classes of vessels--e.g.,
cruise vessels
charter vessels
fishing vessels
5. Seasonal closure to all but certain classes of
vessels--e.g.,
cruise vessels
charter vessels
fishing vessels
6. Partial season closure to all but certain classes of
vessels--e.g.
cruise vessels
charter vessels
fishing vessels
7. Alternatives 4, 5, or 6 with limitations on total numbers of
vessels of various classes given access
8. Alternatives 4, 5, 6 or 7 with restrictions applying only to
certain areas of the Bay
9. Establishment of a ceiling for all vessels or certain classes of
vessels during all or part of the whale season
10. No restrictions on access but certain activities prohibited or
limited to certain areas or vessel classes--e.g.: establish
traffic lanes and permit "deliberate" whale-watching only by a
few trained and licensed charter-boat operators.
11. No restrictions.
IDENTIFYING AND SELECTING THE MOST APPROPRIATE
RESEARCH/MANAGEMENT STRATEGY
Factors that should be considered in making research/management
decisions include (1) that the humpback whale is an endangered
species; (2) that there are statutory requirements to protect the
whales and their habitats; (3) that the cause of the present problem
is uncertain; (4) that the purpose of the Monument is to provide for
educational, recreational, and scientific experiences; and (5) that
limiting access or restricting or closing the Monument to some or all
vessel activity could affect commercial and private enterprises,
including fishing.
Additionally, there are a number of types and possible consequences of
decision errors that should also be considered--e.g.,
1. If Glacier Bay is a critical habitat, and if the movement of
humpbacks is in response to whale watching vessels, pleasure
boats, cruise vessels, etc., and if the movement is or will be
irreversible; then the humpback whale population will be adversely
impacted (e.g., carrying capacity reduced) if no action is taken.
2. If Glacier Bay is not a critical habitat, and if movement is due
to whale watching vessels, etc., and it is or will be irreversible;
then only the quality of visitor experience/value of monument is
decreased if no action is taken. The impact on the population of
humpbacks is not critical so long as suitable habitat is available
elsewhere. However, the NPS mandate established in the 1916 Act
still would not be fulfilled.
3. If all, or a specific type of, vessel traffic is prohibited or
regulated, and the movement from the Bay is not caused, directly
or indirectly by such traffic; then there will be decreased
opportunity for human activity within the Bay, and increased
economic impacts on fishermen and commercial operators that may
have been unnecessarily restricted.
The optimal short-term research/management strategy would minimize the
risks associated with the kinds of errors discussed above, and include
actions such as the following:
1) by early 1980, compile and complete the analysis and evaluation of
all existing and relevant data;
2) based upon the evaluation of the best available data, promulgate
temporary (one season) whale watching regulations and/or restrict
access by all or certain classes of vessels or the number,
frequency, or duration of visits of all or certain classes of
vessels to certain areas at certain times of the year, as may be
appropriate;
3) continue and, if appropriate expand, surveys of whale/vessel
numbers, distribution, movements, behavior and interactions in and
outside Glacier Bay;
4) identify and initiate additional research that is needed to
identify and mitigate the cause or causes of the observed humpback
whale movement from the Bay, e.g.,
a. characterize the acoustical environment of Glacier Bay and
other areas in which humpbacks occur;
b. characterize the sounds generated by various classes of vessels
and aircraft;
c. design and conduct sound playback experiments to test hypotheses
concerning the possible effects of vessel activities on humpback
whale movements and behavior; and
d. assess and monitor the physical, chemical, and biological
characteristics of Glacier Bay, especially the distribution and
abundance of prey species upon which humpback whales feed.
The optimal long-range research/management strategy would include:
1) the development and implementation of a humpback whale recovery
plan to include humpback whales in all of Glacier Bay, all of
southeast Alaska and the North Pacific in general, including: the
identification, designation and protection of critical humpback
whale habitat;
2) the development of a universal and/or site-specific definition
of "harassment" to apply to humpback whales in Glacier Bay,
southeast Alaska and the North Pacific in general;
3) the development and implementation of a long-range
research/management plan for the Monument including whale and
environmental monitoring;
4) a determination as to the direct and indirect effects of
incidental take, whale watching, fishing activity, etc. on humpback
whales in Glacier Bay, Southeast Alaska and the North Pacific in
general; and
5) a determination as to the long-term cumulative impacts of the
degradation and destruction of habitat on the survival of the
humpback whale throughout its range in the North Pacific.
AGENCY RESPONSIBILITIES AND NEED FOR
COOPERATION AND COORDINATION
There are many individuals, groups and organizations interested or
involved in finding solutions to problems associated with humpback
whales and human activities in Glacier Bay. The need for management
planning and research programs has been identified. The
identification of interested and responsible organizations is
necessary so that cooperative, coordinated planning and research can
occur. Hopefully, by developing such plans or projects, minimum
resources will be expended to obtain satisfactory solutions. In
addition, by involving all interested and responsible individuals,
groups, or organizations at an early stage, cooperative efforts can be
maximized and disagreements identified and minimized.
The prime responsibilities of the National Marine Fisheries Service
and the National Park Service have been identified. Other Federal
agencies that should or might profitably be involved include the
Bureau of Land Management, the Office of Coastal Zone Management, Sea
Grant, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, the U.S. Geological Survey,
the U.S. Coast Guard, the Environmental Protection Agency, and the
Army Corps of Engineers. State agencies that should or might be
profitably involved include the Alaska Department of Fish and Game,
the State Coastal Zone Management Commission, and the Alaska
Department of Natural Resources. Commercial and recreational companies
that organize fishing, tour, and charter activities, private boaters,
academic/scientific communities, and environmental organizations are
also important. Some of these organizations have on-going, or plan to
initiate, research projects, which may provide data and information of
importance to the problems discussed in this report.
The Bureau of Land Management, New York Outer Continental Shelf (OCS)
Office, is presently initiating noise effects studies on marine
mammals. The U.S. Geological Survey at Tacoma, Washington and Menlo
Park, California is describing and mapping marine sediment
distribution, thickness and characteristics within Glacier Bay. J. P.
Mathews, of the Institute of Marine Science, University of Alaska, is
summarizing the physical characteristics, especially water mass
characteristics and dynamics, of Glacier Bay. If possible, these
studies should be coordinated such that a maximum amount of
information can be obtained and used in the management and research
activities related to Glacier Bay National Monument and the humpback
whale.
SUMMARY
Humpback whales in the North Pacific are migratory, spending the
summer months in northern waters including the inland waters of
southeast Alaska. Records have been maintained on the number of
identifiable humpbacks seen in these waters including Glacier Bay. In
1978, humpbacks departed Glacier Bay after being "in residence" for a
far shorter time period than recorded previously; all but three whales
left the Bay within 24 hours of entering in 1979.
There has been an increase in vessel traffic and activity within
Glacier Bay during the 1970's. Such activity may have been a factor in
the movement of humpbacks from Glacier Bay. Other factors which may
have been at least contributing but for which no known information
exists, or is inadequate at best, include: natural environmental
changes (chemical, physical, biological) or natural changes in the
movement of the whales.
Present management and research plans and activities did not
anticipate and, therefore, are inadequate to deal effectively with
present day problems associated with a rapidly growing influx of
people and vessels/aircraft into any environment with limited space
and resources. Some human activities and the activities and behavioral
patterns of humpback whales may be mutually exclusive.
The most apparent important short-term research need is to analyze and
evaluate all available data, in order to develop short and long term
management plans and research programs.
REFERENCES
Hale, L. Z. and R. G. Wright, 1979. The Glacier Bay Marine
Ecosystem. A Conceptual Ecological Model. U.S. Department of the
Interior, NPS, Anchorage Office. 177 pp.