THE AEROPLANE IN THE GREAT WAR
DURING the civil war the Federal forces used
captive balloons for the purpose of discovering
the positions of the enemy. They were of great
service at that time, although they were stationed
far within the lines to prevent hostile guns from
reaching them.
BALLOON OBSERVATIONS.--Necessarily, observations
from balloons were and are imperfect. It
was found to be very unsatisfactory during the
Russian-Japanese war, because the angle of vision
is very low, and, furthermore, at such distances the
movements, or even the location of troops is not
observable, except under the most favorable conditions.
Balloon observation during the progress of a
battle is absolutely useless, because the smoke
from the firing line is, necessarily, between the
balloon and the enemy, so that the aerial scout
has no opportunity to make any observations, even
in detached portions of the fighting zone, which
are of any value to the commanders.
CHANGED CONDITIONS OF WARFARE.--Since our
great war, conditions pertaining to guns have been
revolutionized. Now the ranges are so great that
captive balloons would have to be located far in
the rear, and at such a great distance from the
firing line that even the best field glasses would
be useless.
The science of war has also evolved another
condition. Soldiers are no longer exposed during
artillery attacks. Uniforms are made to imitate
natural objects. The khaki suits were designed
to imitate the yellow veldts of South Africa;
the gray-green garments of the German
forces are designed to simulate the green fields
of the north.
THE EFFORT TO CONCEAL COMBATANTS.--The
French have discarded the historic red trousers,
and the elimination of lace, white gloves, and
other telltale insignias of the officers, have been
dispensed with by special orders.
In the great European war armies have burrowed
in the earth along battle lines hundreds of
miles in length; made covered trenches; prepared
artificial groves to conceal batteries, and in many
ingenious ways endeavored to make the battlefield
an imitation field of nature.
SMOKELESS POWDER.--While smokeless powder
has been utilized to still further hide a fighting
force, it has, in a measure, uncovered itself, as
the battlefield is not now, as in olden times, overspread
with masses of rolling smoke.
Nevertheless, over every battlefield there is a
haze which can be penetrated only from above,
hence the possibilities of utilizing the aeroplane
in war became the most important study with all
nations, as soon as flying became an accomplished
fact.
INVENTIONS TO ATTACK AERIAL CRAFT.--Before
any nation had the opportunity to make an actual
test on the battlefield, inventors were at work to
devise a means whereby an aerial foe could be
met. In a measure the aerial gun has been successful,
but months of war has shown that the
aeroplane is one of the strongest arms of the
service in actual warfare.
It was assumed prior to the European war that
the chief function of the aeroplane would be the
dropping of bombs,--that is for service in attacking
a foe. Actual practice has not justified
this theory. In some places the appearance of
the aeroplane has caused terror, but it has been
found the great value is its scouting advantages.
FUNCTION OF THE AEROPLANE IN WAR.--While
bomb throwing may in the future be perfected,
it is not at all an easy problem for an aviator to
do work which is commensurate with the risk
involved. The range is generally too great; the
necessity of swift movement in the machine too
speedy to assure accuracy, and to attack a foe at
haphazard points can never be effectual. Even
the slowly-moving gas fields, like the Zeppelin,
cannot deliver bombs with any degree of precision
or accuracy.
BOMB-THROWING TESTS.--It is interesting, however,
to understand how an aviator knows where
or when to drop the bomb from a swiftly-moving
machine. Several things must be taken into consideration,
such as the height of the machine from
the earth; its speed, and the parabolic curve that
the bomb will take on its flight to the earth.
When an object is released from a moving machine
it will follow the machine from which it is
dropped, gradually receding from it, as it descends,
so that the machine is actually beyond
the place where the bomb strikes the earth, due
to the retarding motion of the atmosphere against
the missile.
The diagram Fig. 90 will aid the boy in grasping
the situation. A is the airship; B the path
of its flight; a the course of the bomb after it
leaves the airship; and D the earth. The question
is how to determine the proper movement
when to release the bomb.
METHOD FOR DETERMINING MOVEMENT OF A
BOMB.--Lieut. Scott, U. S. A., of the Coast Survey
Artillery, suggested a method for determining
these questions. It was necessary to ascertain,
first, the altitude and speed. While the barometer
is used to determine altitudes, it is
obvious that speed is a matter much more difficult
to ascertain, owing to the wind movements,
which in all cases make it difficult for a flier to
determine, even with instruments which have
been devised for the purpose.
_Fig. 90. Course of a Bomb._
Instead, therefore, of relying on the barometer,
the ship is equipped with a telescope which may
be instantly set at an angle of 45 degrees, or vertically.
Thus, Fig 91 shows a ship A, on which is
mounted a telescope B, at an angle of 45 degrees.
The observer first notes the object along the line
of 45 degrees, and starts the time of this observation
by a stop watch.
The telescope is then turned so it is vertical,
as at C, and the observer watches through the
telescope until the machine passes directly over
the object, when the watch is stopped, to indicate
the time between the two observations.
_Fig. 91. Determining Altitude and Speed._
The height of the machine along the line D is
thus equal to the line E from B to C, and the time
of the flight from B to a being thus known, as
well as the height of the machine, the observer
consults specially-prepared tables which show
just what kind of a curve the bomb will make at
that height and speed.
All that is necessary now is to set the sighter
of the telescope at the angle given in the tables,
and when the object to be hit appears at the sight,
the bomb is dropped.
THE GREAT EXTENT OF MODERN BATTLE LINES.--
The great war brought into the field such stupendous
masses of men that the battle lines have
extended over an unbroken front of over 200
miles.
In the battle of Waterloo, about 140,000 men
were engaged on both sides, and the battle front
was less than six miles. There were, thus massed,
along the front, over 20,000 men every mile of
the way, or 10,000 on each side.
In the conflict between the Allies and the Germans
it is estimated that there were less than
7500 along each mile. It was predicted in the
earlier stages of the war that it would be an easy
matter for either side to suddenly mass such an
overwhelming force at one point as to enable the
attacking party to go through the opposing force
like a wedge.
Such tactics were often employed by Napoleon
and other great masters of war; but in every effort
where it has been attempted in the present
conflict, it was foiled.
The opposing force was ready to meet the attack
with equal or superior numbers. The eye
of the army, the aeroplane, detected the movements
in every instance.
THE AEROPLANE DETECTING THE MOVEMENTS OF
ARMIES.--In the early stages of the war, when
the Germans drove the left of the French army
towards Paris, the world expected an investment
of that city. Suddenly, and for no apparent
reason, the German right was forced back and
commenced to retreat.
It was not known until weeks afterwards that
the French had assembled a large army to the
west and northwest of Paris, ready to take the
Germans in flank the moment an attempt should
be made to encircle the Paris forts.
The German aviators, flying over Paris, discovered
the hidden army, and it is well they did
so, for it is certain if they had surrounded the
outlying forts, it would have been an easy matter
for the concealed forces to destroy their communications,
and probably have forced the surrender
of a large part of the besiegers.
The aeroplane in warfare, therefore, has constantly
noted every disposition of troops, located
the positions and judged the destination of convoys;
the battery emplacements; and the direction
in which large forces have been moved from
one part of the line to the other, thus keeping the
commanders so well informed that few surprises
were possible.
THE EFFECTIVE HEIGHT FOR SCOUTING.--It has
been shown that aeroplane scouting is not effective
at high altitudes. It is not difficult for aviators
to reach and maintain altitudes of five thousand
feet and over, but at that elevation it is impossible
to distinguish anything but the movement
of large forces.
SIZES OF OBJECTS AT GREAT DISTANCES.--At a
distance of one mile an automobile, twenty feet
in length, is about as large as a piece of pencil
one inch long, viewed at a distance of thirty-five
feet. A company of one hundred men, which in
marching order, say four abreast, occupies a space
of eight by one hundred feet, looks to the aviator
about as large as an object one inch in length, four
and a half feet from the eye.
The march of such a body of men, viewed at
that distance, is so small as almost to be imperceptible
to the eye of an observer at rest. How
much more difficult it is to distinguish a movement
if the observer is in a rapidly-moving machine.
For these reasons observations must be made
at altitudes of less than a mile, and the hazard
of these enterprises is, therefore, very great,
since the successful scout must bring himself
within range of specially designed guns, which
are effective at a range of 3000 yards or more,
knowing that his only hope of safety lies in the
chance that the rapidly-moving machine will avoid
the rain of bullets that try to seek him out.
SOME DARING FEATS IN WAR.--It would be impossible
to recount the many remarkable aerial
fights which have taken place in the great war.
Some of them seem to be unreal, so startling are
the tales that have been told. We may well imagine
the bravery that will nerve men to fight
thousands of feet above the earth.
One of the most thrilling combats took place
between a Russian aeroplane and a Zeppelin, over
Russian Poland, at the time of the first German
invasion. The Zeppelin was soaring over the
Russian position, at an altitude of about a mile.
A Russian aviator ascended and after circling
about, so as to gain a position higher than the
airship, darted down, and crashed into the great
gas field.
The aviator knew that it meant death to him,
but his devotion led him to make the sacrifice.
The Zeppelin, broken in two, and robbed of its
gas, slowly moved toward the earth, then gradually
increased the speed of its descent, as the
aeroplane clung to its shattered hulk, and by the
time it neared the earth its velocity was great
enough to assure the destruction of all on board,
while the ship itself was crushed to atoms.
One of the most spectacular fights of the war
occurred outside Paris, when one of the German
Taubes attempted to make its periodical tour
of observation. One of the French aeroplanes,
which had the advantage of greater speed,
mounted to a greater altitude, and circled about
the Taube.
The latter with its machine gun made a furious
attack, during these maneuvers, but the French
ship did not reply until it was at such an elevation
that it could deliver the attack from above.
Then its machine gun was brought into play. As
was afterwards discovered, the wings and body
of the Taube were completely riddled, and it was
a marvel how it was possible for the German aviator
to remain afloat as long as he did.
Soon the Taube was noticed to lurch from side
to side, and then dart downwardly. The monoplane,
in the pursuit, gradually descended, but it
was not able to follow the destroyed Taube to the
earth, as the latter finally turned over, and went
swirling to destruction.
The observer, as well as the aviator, had both
been killed by the fire from the monoplane.
In the trenches on the Marne, to the northeast
of Paris, where the most stubborn conflict raged
for over a week, the air was never clear of aeroplanes.
They could be seen in all directions, and
almost all types of machines were represented.
The principal ones, however, were monoplanes.
THE GERMAN TAUBE.--The German Taube is a
monoplane, its main supporting surfaces, as well
as the tail planes, are so constructed that they
represent a bird. Taube means dove. It would
have been more appropriate to call it a hawk.
On the other hand, the French monoplane, of
which the Bleriot is the best known example, has
wings with well rounded extremities, and flaring
tail, so that the two can be readily distinguished.
On one occasion, during the lull in the battle,
two of the Taubes approached the area above the
French lines, and after ascending to a great
height, began the volplane toward their own lines.
Such a maneuver was found to be the most advantageous,
as it gave the scouting aeroplane the
advantage of being able to discover the positions
and movements with greater ease, and at the same
time, in case of accident to the machine, the impetus
of the flight would be to their own lines.
Three of the French aeroplanes at once began
their circling flight, mounting higher and higher,
but without attempting to go near the Taubes.
When the French ships had gained the proper
altitude, they closed in toward the German ships,
before the latter could reach their own lines in
their volplaning act.
This meant that they must retreat or fight, and
the crack of the guns showed that it meant a
struggle. The monoplanes circled about with
incredible skill, pouring forth shot after shot.
Soon one of the Taubes was seen to flutter.
This was the signal for a more concentrated attack
on her.
The army in the trenches, and on the fields below,
witnessed the novel combat. The flying
ships were now approaching the earth, but the
gunners below dared not use their guns, because
in the maneuvers they would be as likely to strike
friend as foe.
The wounded Taube was now shooting to the
earth, and the two monoplanes began to give their
attention to the other ship, which was attempting
to escape to the north. The flash of the guns of
all the fliers could be plainly seen, but the sounds
were drowned by the roar of the great conflict all
about them.
The Taube could not escape the net around her.
She, too, was doomed. A shot seemed to strike
the gasoline tank, and the framework was soon
enveloped in flames. Then she turned sidewise,
as the material on one side burned away, and
skidding to the left she darted to the earth,
a shapeless mass.
It was found that the aviator was not hurt by
the shot, but was, undoubtedly, killed by the impact
with the earth. The observer was riddled
with bullets, and was likely dead before the ship
reached the earth.
In the western confines of Belgium, near Ypres,
the British employed numerous aircraft, many of
them biplanes, and at all times they were in the
air, reporting observations. Many of the flying
fights have been recorded, and the reports when
published will be most thrilling reading.
HOW AEROPLANES REPORT OBSERVATIONS.--It
may be of some interest to know how aeroplanes
are able to report observations to the commanders
in the field, from the airship itself. Many
ingenious devices have been devised for this purpose.
SIGNAL FLAGS.--The best known and most universally
used method is by the use of signaling
flags. Suppose the commander of a force is desirous
of getting the range of a hidden battery,
or a massed force in his front. The observer in
the aeroplane will sail over the area at an understood
altitude, say one mile in height.
The officer in charge of the battery, knowing
the height of the airship, is able, by means of
the angle thus given him, to get the distance between
his battery and the concealed point beneath
the airship. The observer in the airship, of
course, signals the engineer officer, the exact point
or time when the airship is directly above, and
this gives him the correct angle.
The guns of the battery are then directed and
fired so as to reach the concealed point. It is
now important to be able to send intelligible signals
to the officer in charge of the battery. If the
shot goes beyond the mark, the observer in the
airship raises the flag above his head, which indicates
that it was too high.
HOW USED.--If the shot fell short he would
lower the flag. If the shot landed too far to the
right, this would be indicated by the flag, and if
too far to the left, the signal would, in like manner,
be sufficient to enable the gunners to correct
the guns.
When the exact range is obtained the observer
in the ship waves the flag about his head, in
token of approval. All this work of noting the
effect of the shots must be taken while the airship
is under fire, and while circling about within
visual range of the concealed object below.
The officer in charge of the battery, as well as
the observer on the flying craft, must be equipped
with powerful glasses, so the effect of the shots
may be noted on the one hand, and the signals
properly read by the officer on the other hand.
It may be said, however, that air battles have
not been frequent and that they have been merely
incidents of the conditions under which they were
operated. The mission of the aeroplane is now
conceded to be purely one of observation, such as
we have described.
Both French and German reports are full of
incidents showing the value of observations, and
also concerning the effects of bombs. Extracts
from the diaries of prisoners gave many interesting
features of the results of aeroplane work.
CASUALTIES DUE TO AEROPLANES.--In the diary
of one was found the remark: "I was lucky to
escape the bomb thrown by a French aviator at
Conrobet, which killed eight of my companions."
Another says: "The Seventh Company of the
Third Regiment of the Guard had eight killed and
twenty-two wounded by bomb from a French aeroplane."
Another: "An officer showed us a torn coat
taken from one of sixty soldiers wounded by a
bomb from an aeroplane."
A prisoner says: "Near Neuville an aeroplane
bomb dropped on a supply train, killed four men,
wounded six, and killed a considerable number of
horses."
The Belgians, after their defeat and the capture
of Antwerp, were forced to the west along
the coast. In some way they learned that the
Kaiser was about to occupy a chateau near Dixmunde.
Several aviators flew above the position
and dropped a number of bombs on the building,
completely wrecking it, and it was fortunate that
the Emperor left the building only twenty minutes
before, as several of his aides and soldiers
on duty were killed.
On numerous occasions the headquarters of the
different commanders have been discovered and
had to be moved to safer places.
During all these wonderful exploits which will
live in history because men had the opportunity
during the war to use them for the first time in
actual conflict, the official reports have not
mentioned the aviators by name. The deaths of the
brave men have brought forth the acknowledgments
of their services. During the first three
months of the war it is estimated that over sixty
aviators and aides had lost their lives in the conflict
on the two great battle lines. This does not
take into account those who met death on the
Zeppelins, of which five had been destroyed during
that time.
THE END
GLOSSARY OF WORDS USED IN TEXT OF THIS VOLUME
Where a word has various meanings, that definition is given
which will express the terms used by the author in explaining
the mechanism or subject to which it refers.
Aviation. The art of flying.
Altitude. Height; a vertical distance above any point.
Attraction. The art or process of drawing towards.
Allusion. Referring to a certain thing.
Assume. Taking it for granted.
Accentuated. To lay great stress upon a thing.
Angle of Movement. Any direction which is upwardly or downwardly,
as distinguished from the direction of movement which is either
to the right or to the left.
Acquire. To obtain; to recover; to procure.
Analogous. Corresponding to or resembling some other thing or
object.
Air Hole. A term used to express a condition in flying where the
machine while in horizontal flight takes a sudden drop, due to
counter currents.
Ailerons. Literally, small planes. Used to designate the small
planes which are designed to stabilize a machine.
Angle. A figure, or two straight lines which start at the same
point. The sides of these lines are termed the angle.
Analysis. To separate; to take apart and examine the various
parts or elements of a thing.
Aeroplane. Any form of machine which has planes, and is heavier
than air. Usually a flying structure which is propelled by some
motive power.
Accumulation. Adding to; bringing together the same or unlike
articles.
Ascribable. A reference to some antecedent source.
Aeronautics. The science of flying.
Anterior. Meaning the front or forward margin or portion of a
body.
Artifices. Any artificial product, or workmanship.
Axially. Through the central portion. Thus, the shaft which goes
through a cylinder is axially arranged.
Automatic. A thing which operates by its own mechanism; a
contrivance which is made in such a manner that it will run
without manual operation or care.
Alertness. Quick; being active.
Apex. The point at which two lines meet; also the extreme pointed
end of a conical figure.
Ascension. Moving upwardly.
Accessories. The parts of a machine, or artielee which may ha
used in connection therewith.
Anemometer. An instrument for measuring the force or the velocity
of wind.
Anemograph. An instrument that usually traces a curved line OH
paper to make a record of the force or direction, or velocity of
the wind.
Anemometrograph. A device which determines the force, velocity
and direction of the wind.
Accretion. Adding to little by little.
Accelerated. Quiekening; hurrying the process.
Abridged. Partly taken away from; shortened.
Abrogate. To dispense with; to set aside.
Abnormal Not in the usual manner; not in a regular way.
Alternate. First one and then another; going from one side to the
other.
Ancient Lights. An old English law which prevents a neighbor from
shutting off sunlight.
Angularly. A line which runs out from another so that the two are
not parallel.
Aneroid. Not wet. Applied to the type of barometer where the
medium for determ,ining the pressure is not made of mercury.
Aspirate. A term given by the French to that peculiar action of
wing, or other body, which, when placed in certain positions,
relative to a current of air, will cause it to be drawn into the
current.
Assemblage. The bringing together of the parts or elements of a
machine.
Augment. To aid; to add to or increase.
Banked. The term used in aviation which indicates that the
machine is turned up so that its supporting surfaces
rest against the air, as in alighting.
Barometer. An instrument for determining the air pressure, and
thereby indicating altitudes.
Bevel Pinion. A toothed wheel driven by a larger wheel.
Bi-Plane. Two planes. In aviation that type which has two planes,
similar in size, usually, and generally placed one above the
other so they are separated the same distance from each other, as
the width of each of the planes.
Bulge. A hump; an enlargement beyond the normal at any point.
Camber, also Cambre. The upward curve in a plane.
Catapult. A piece of mechanism for projecting or throwing a
missile.
Carbureter. The device which breaks up the fuel oil, and mixes
the proper quantity of air with it before it is drawn into the
engine.
Catastrophe. A calamity; a sad ending; loss of life or of
property.
Cellular. Made up of small hollows, or compartments; filled with
holes.
Celestial. Pertaining to the heavens.
Centrifugal. That force which throws outwardly from a rotating
body.
Centripetal. That force, like the attraction of gravity, which
draws a body to the center.
Characteristic. Striking; that which is peculiar to some thing or
object.
Commensurate. Sufficient; in proper proportion; sufficient for
the occasion.
Commercially. Pertaining to the nature of trade; the making of
money.
Complicated. Not easily explainable; not easy to separate.
Comparatively. Judged by something else; taken with reference to
another object or thing.
Compression. The drawing together; forcing into a smaller
compass, or space.
Composition. Made up of different elements, or things.
Conceivable. Made up from the imagination.
Concaved. Hollowed: In aviation it has reference to the underside
of the plane, which is usually provided, structurally, with a
hollow or trough formation.
Conforming. To make alike in form; to bring into harmony.
Conjunction. In eonneetion with; joining together.
Convex. A rounded surface; a bulging out.
Conclusion. The end; a finding in law; a reasoning from a certain
condition.
Conductivity. The property of materials whereby they will
transmit heat along from one part to another, also electricity.
Concentrated. Brought together; assembled in a smaller space.
Conclusive. A positive ending; decisive of the matter at issue.
Concentrically. A line which is at all points at the same
distance from one point.
Condensation. The act or process of making denser, or being
brought together.
Contemplate. To consider; to judge.
Convoys. A protecting force which aeeompanies the transfer of
property.
Convection. The diffusion of heat through a liquid or gas.
Consistent. A state of harmony; the same at &11 times.
Constant. In mathematics, a figure which never changes; or a
figure used as a fixed valuation in a problem.
Controllable. Held within bounds; that which can be within the
power to accomplish.
Correctional. The means whereby a fault may be made right.
Consequence. The result; that which flows from a preceding
action.
Counterforce. An action contrary or opposite to the main force.
Counter-balance. Any power equally opposing another.
Counteract. A force acting in opposition to another.
Countercurrent. An air current which sets up in an opposite
direction in the path of a moving aeroplane.
Cushioned. An action which takes place against a moving
aeroplane, by a sudden gust of air or countercurrent.
Dedicated. To set apart for some special purpose.
Degree. An interval; a grade; a stage; a certain proportion.
Deltoid. Shaped like the Greek letter delta.
Density. Closeness of parts.
Demonstration. Making clear; showing up; an exhibition or
expression.
Deceptive. The power or tendency to give a false impression.
Deterrent. To hold back; to prevent action.
Detracting. The tendency to take away; to belittle.
Depressed. To move downwardly.
Destination. The place set for the end of the journey.
Despoiling. To take away from; robbing or taking from another
by force or by stealth.
Dependant. Hanging below; projecting from the lower side.
Dexterity. Agility; smartness in action.
Deranged. Put out of order; wrongly arranged.
Develop. Brought out; to put into a correct shape or form.
Deferred. Put over to another time.
Designedly. With a direct purpose.
Diagonal. Across an object at an angle to one or more aides.
Diametrically. Across an object through or near the center
thereof.
Diagram. A mechanical plan or outline of an object.
Dimension. The distance across an object. The measurement, for
instance, of a propeller from tip to tip.
Dynamically. Pertaining to motion as a result of force.
Dispossessed. A term used to indicate the act which removes a
person from the possession of property.
Diameter. The measurement across an object.
Divest. Taken away from; removed out of.
Disregard. Deliberate lack of attention.
Diversity. The state wherein one is unlike another;
dissimilarity.
Drift. The term used to indicate the horizontal motion, or the
pull of an aeroplane.
Dragon. A fabulous monster, usually in the form of a serpent.
Duplicate. Two; made in exact imitation of an original.
Easement. A legal phrase to designate that right which man
possesses, irrespective of any law, to gain access to his
property.
Effrontery. Boldness with insolence; rashness without propriety.
Effective. To be efficient.
Element. One part of a whole.
Elasticity. Material which will go back to its original form
after being distorted, is said to be elastic.
Eliminate. To take away from; to remove a part, or the whole.
Elliptical. Oblong with rounded ends.
Elusive. Capable of escaping from; hard to hold.
Elevator. The horizontal planes in front or rear, or in both
front and rear of the supporting surfaces of an aeroplane.
Emergency. A sudden occurrence calling for immediate action.
Emplacement. A spot designed to hold heavy field pieces in
intrenchments.
Enactment. The formulation of a law; the doing of a special
thing.
Enunciated. Announced; setting forth of an act or a condition.
Energy. That quality by reason of which anything tends to move or
act.
Equidistant. Two points or objects at equal distance from a
common point.
Equilibrinm. A balance produced by the action of two or more
forces.
Equalizing, One made equal to the other; one side the same as the
other.
Equipped. Armed; provided with the proper material, or in the
same condition.
Essential. The important part or element.
Essence The real charaeter or element of the thing itself.
External. The outermost portion.
Evolution. A gradual change or building up; from a lower to a
higher order.
Evolved. Brought out from a crude condition to a better form.
Expression. The art of explaining or setting forth.
Expansion. Growing larger; to occupy a greater space.
Exerted. To work to the utmost; to put forth in action.
Exhilaratiorn. A lively, pleasing or happy sensation.
Exploited. To fully examine and consider, as well as carry out.
Extremity. The end; as far as ean be considered.
Facility. Ease of management; to do things without difficulty.
Factor. One of the elements in a problem, or in mechanical
action.
Fascination, Attraetiveness that is pleasing.
Flexure. The capacity to bend and yield, and return to its
original position.
Flexible, That which will yield; springy.
Fore and Aft. Lengthwise, as from stem to stern of a ship.
Formation. The shape or arrangement of an article or thing.
Formulated. Put into some eonerete form, or so arranged that it
may be understood.
Frictionless. Being without a grinding or retarding aotion.
Fulcrumed. A resting place for a lever.
Function. The duty or sphere of action in a person, or object.
Glider. An aeroplane, without power, adapted to be operated
by an aviator.
Governing. An element which is designed to control a machine in a
regular manner.
Graduated. A marked portion, which is regularly laid off to
indicate measurements or quantities.
Gravity. The attraction of mass for mass. The tendency of bodies
to move toward the earth.
Gravitatior The force with which all bodies attract each other.
Gyratory. Having a circular and wheeling as well as a rotary
motion.
Gyroscope. A wheel, designed to illustrate the laws of motion,
which freely revolves in gimbals within a ring, and when set into
motion, objects to change its plane of rotation.
Hemispherical. The half of a sphere. The half of an apple would
be hemispherical.
Hazardous. That which is doubtful; accompanied by danger.
Helicopter. A type of flying machine which has a large propeller,
or more than one, revolubly fixed on vertical shafts, by means of
which the machine is launched and projected through the air.
Horizontal. Level, like water.
Hydroplane. A term used to designate an aeroplane which is
provided with pontoons, whereby it may alight on the water, and
be launched from the surface. The term hydroaeroplane is most
generally used to indicate this type of machine.
Impact. The striking against; the striking force of one body
against another.
Immersed. Placed under water below the surface.
Impinge. To strike against; usually applied where air strikes
a plane or a surface at an angle.
Imitation. Similarity; the same in appearance.
Incompatible. Without harmony; incapable of existing together.
Incurved. Applied to a surface formation where there is a
depression, or hollow.
Inequalities. Not smooth, or regular; uneven.
Infinitely, Boundless; in great number, or quality; without
measure.
Initial. The first; that which is at the beginning.
Indestructibility. Not capable of being injured or destroyed.
Influenced. Swayed; to be induced to change.
Inherent. That which is in or belongs to itself.
Initiating. To teach; to instill; to give an insight.
Indicator. A term applied to mechanism which shows the results of
certain operations and enables the user to read the measure,
quantity, or quality shown.
Inconceivable. Not capable of understanding; that which cannot be
understood by the human mind.
Institute. To start; to bring into operation.
Insignias. Things which are significant of any particular calling
or profession.
Instinct. That quality in man or animals which prompts the doing
of things independently of any direct knowledge or understanding.
Intermediate. Between; that which may be within or inside the
scope of the mind, or of certain areas.
Intervening. The time between; also applied to the action of a
person who may take part in an affair between two or more
persons.
Interval. A time between.
Investigator. One who undertakes to find out certain things.
Incidence. In physics this is a term to indicate the line which
falls upon or strikes another at an angle.
Inverted. Upside down.
Invest. To give to another thing something that it lacked before.
Kinetic. Consisting in or depending upon motion.
Laminated. Made up of a plurality of parts. When wooden strips,
of different or of the same kinds are glued and then laid
together and put under heavy pressure
until thoroughly dried, the mass makes a far more rigid structure
than if cut out of a single piece.
Launchiug. The term applied to the raising, or starting of a
boat, or of a flying object.
Lateral. In mining this is a term to indicate the drifts or
tunnels which branch out from the main tunnel. Generally it has
reference to a transverse position or direction,--that is, at
right angles to a fore and aft direction.
Lift. The vertical motion, or direction in an airship; thus the
lift may be the load, or the term used to designate
what the ship is capable of raising up.
Ligament. The exceedingly strong tendons or muscles of birds and
animals, usually of firm, compact tissues.
Limitations. Within certain bounds; in a prescribed scope.
Longitudinally. Usually that direction across the longest part.
Majestically. Grand; exalted dignity; the quality which inspires
reverence or fear.
Manipulate. To handle; to conduct so that it will result in a
certain way.
Maneuver. A methodical movement or change in troops.
Manually. To perform by hand.
Manifestations. The act of making plain to the eye or to the
understanding.
Manually-operated. With the hands; a term applied to such
machines as have the control planes operated by hand.
Maintained. Kept up; to provide for; to sustain.
Material. The substance, or the matter from which an article is
made; also the important thing, or element.
Mass. In physics it is that which in an article is always the
same. It differs from weight in the particular that the mass of
an article is the same, however far it may be from the center of
the earth, whereas weight changes, and becomes less and less as
it recedes from the center of the earth.
Margin. The edge; the principal differecee between this word and
edge, is, that margin has reference also to a border, or narrow
strip along the edge, as, for instance, the blank spaces at the
edges of a printed page.
Medievral. Belonging to the Middle Ages.
Mercury. A silver-white liquid metal, usually called quicksilver,
and rather heavy. It dissolves most metals, and this process is
called amalgamation.
Militate. In determining a question, to have weight, or to
influence a decision.
Mobility. Being freely movable; capable of quick change.
Modifieation. A change; making a difference.
Monitor. Advising or reproving. Advising or approving by way of
caution.
Monstrosities. Anything which is huge, or distorted, or wrong in
structure.
Monorail. A railway with a single track, designed to be used by a
bicycle form of carriage, with two wheels, fore and aft of each
other, and depending for its stability upon gyroscopes, mounted
on the carriage.
Momentum. That which makes a moving body difficult to stop. It is
the weight of a moving body, multiplied by its speed.
Monoplane. The literal meaning is one plane. As monoplane
machines are all provided with a fore and aft body, and each has
a wing or plane projecting out from each side of this body, it is
obvious that it has two planes instead of one. The term, however,
has reference to the fact that it has only one supporting surface
on the same plane. Biplanes have two supporting surfaces, one
above the other.
Multiplicity. Frequently confounded with plurality. The latter
means more than one, whereas multiplicity has reference to a
great number, or to a great variety.
Muscular. Being strong; well developed.
Negative. The opposite of positive; not decisive.
Neutralize. From the word neuter, which means neither, hence the
term may be defined as one which is not a part of either, or does
not take up with either side.
Normal Pressure. Normal means the natural or usual, and when
applied to air it would have reference to the condition of the
atmosphere at that particular place. If the pressure could change
from its usual condition, it would be an abnormal pressure.
Notoriously. Generally known, but not favorably so; the subject
of general remark; or unfavorably known.
Obscurity. Not well known; in the background; without clear
vision; hidden from view.
Obliquely. That which differs from a right angle; neither
obtuse nor acute; deviating from a line by any angle except a
right angle.
Obvious. That which is readily observed and understood.
Orthopter. That type of flying machine which depends on flapping
wings to hold it in space, and to transport it, in imitation of
the motion of the wings of birds in flying.
Oscillate. Moving to and fro; the piston of a steam engine has an
oscillating motion.
Outline. Describing a marginal line on a drawing; setting forth
the principal features of an argument, or the details of a story,
or the like.
Overlapping. One placed over the other.
Parabolic. A form of curve somewhat similar to an ellipse.
Pedestal. A standard or support; an upright to hold machinery.
Pertinent. Appropriate; pertaining to the subject.
Pectoral. The bone which forms the main rib or support at the
forward edge of a bird's wing.
Persistent. Keeping at it; determination to proceed.
Perpendicular. At right angles to a surface. This term is
sometimes wrongly applied in referring to an object, particularly
to an object which is vertical, meaning up and down. The blade of
a square is perpendieular to the handle at all times, but the
blade is vertical only when it points to the center of the earth.
Pernicious. Bad; not having good features or possessing wrong
attributes.
Pendulum. A bar or body suspended at a point and adapted to swing
to and fro.
Perpetual. For all time; unending or unlimited time.
Phenomena. Some peculiar happening, or event, or object.
Pitch. In aviation this applies to the angle at which the blades
of a propeller are cut. If a propeller is turned, and it moves
forwardly in the exact path made by the angle, for one complete
turn, the distance traveled by the propeller axially indicates
the pitch in feet.
Placement. When an object is located at any particular point, so
that it is operative the location is called the placement.
Plane. A flat surface for supporting a flying machine in the air.
Plane of movement pertains to the imaginary surface described by
a moving body. A bicycle wheel, for instance, when moving
forwardly in a straight line, has a plane of movement which is
vertical; but when the machine turns in a circle the upper end of
the wheel is turned inwardly, and the plane of rhovement is at an
angle.
Pliant. Easily yielding; capable of being bent; liable to be
put out of shape.
Plurality. See multiplicity. More than one.
Poise. Held in suspension; disposed in a particular way.
Pontoon. Applied to a series of boats ranged side by side to
support a walk laid thereon. In aviation it has reference to a
float for supporting an aeroplane.
Ponderous. Large; heavy; difficult to handle.
Posterior. The rear end; the opposite of anterior.
Principles. The very nature or essence of a thing; the source or
cause from which a thing springs.
Proportion. The relation that exists between different parts or
things.
Propounded. Questioned; stated; to state formally for
consideration
Proprietary. A right; the ownership of certain property.
Primitive. The beginning or early times; long ago.
Prelude. A statement or action which precedes the main feature
to be presented.
Proximity. Close to; near at hand.
Prototype. That which is used as the sample from, which something
is made or judged.
Propeller. The piece of meebanism, with screw shaped blade,
designed to be rapidly rotated in order to drive a vessel
forwardly. It is claimed by some that the word Impeller would be
the more proper term.
Primarily. At the first; the commencement.
Precedes. Goes ahead; forward of all.
Propulsive. The force which gives motion to an object.
Projected. Thrown forward; caused to fly through the air.
Radially. Out from the center; projecting like the spokes of a
wheel.
Ratio. The relation of degree, number, amount; one with another.
Reaction. A counterforce; acting against.
Recognize. To know; seeing, hearing, or feeling, and having
knowledge therefrom.
Reflection. Considering; judging one thing by the examination of
another. A beam of light, or an object, leaving a surface.
Refraction. That peculiarity in a beam of light, which, in
passing through water at an angle, bends out of its course and
again assumes a direct line after passing through.
Reflex. Turned back on itself, or in the direction from which it
came.
Requisite. Enough; suffieient for all purposes.
Relegate. To put back or away.
Rectangular. Having one or more right angles.
Reservations. Land which is held by the Government for various
purposes.
Resistance. That which holds back; preventing movement.
Retarding. Preventing a free movement.
Revoluble. The turning or swinging motion of a body like the
earth in its movement around the sun. See Rotative. To cause to
move as in an orbit or circle.
Resilient. Springy; having the quality of elasticity.
Reversed. Changed about; turned front side to the rear.
Rotative. That which turns, like a shaft. The movement of the
earth on its axis is rotative.
Saturation. Putting one substance into another until it will hold
no more. For instance, adding salt to water until the water
cannot take up any more.
Security. Safety, assuredness that there will be no danger.
Segment. A part eut off from a circle. Distinguished from a
sector, which might be likened to the form of one of the sections
of an orange.
Sexagonal. Six-sided.
Sine of the Angle. The line dropped from the highest point of an
angle to the line which runs out horizontally.
Sinuous. Wavelike; moving up and down like the waves of the
ocean.
Simulates. To pattern or copy after; the making of the like.
Skipper. A thin flat stone.
Spirally-formed. Made like an auger; twisted.
Stability. In airships that quality which holds the ship on an
even and unswerving course, and prevents plunging and side
motions.
Structural. Belonging to the features of eonstruetion.
Strata. Two or more layers; one over or below the other.
Stream line. In expressing the action of moving air, or an
aeroplane transported through air, every part is acted upon by
the air. Stream lines are imaginary lines which act upon the
planes at all points, and all in the same direction, or angle.
Stupendous. Great; important; above the ordinary.
Substitute. One taken for another; replacing one thing by
something else.
Supporting. Giving aid; helping another.
Synchronous. Acting at the same time, and to the same extent.
Thus if two wheels, separated from each other at great distances,
are so arranged that they turn at exactly the same speed, they
are said to turn synchronously.
Tactics. The art of handling troops in the presence of an enemy.
It differs from strategy in the particular that the latter word
is used to explain the movements or arrangement of forces before
they arrive at the battle line.
Tandem. One before the other; one after the other.
Tangent. A line drawn from a circle at an angle, instead of
radially.
Technically. Pertaining to some particular trade, science or art.
Tenuous. Thin, slender, willowy, slight.
Tetrahedral. This has reference to a form which is made up of a
multiplicity of triangularly shaped thin blades, so as to form
numerous cells, and thus make a large number of supporting
surfaces. Used as a kite.
Theories. Views based upon certain consideration.
Theoretical. Where opinions are founded on certain information,
and expressed, not from the standpoint of actual knowledge, but
upon conclusions derived from such examinations.
Torsion. A twist; a circular motion around a body.
Transmitted. Sent out; conveyed from one point to another.
Transformed. Changed; entirely made over from one thing to
another.
Transverse. When a body is shorter from front to rear than from
side to side its longest dimension is transversely.
Distinguish from lateral, which has reference only to the
distance at right angles from the main body.
Translation. The transportation of a body through the air.
Trajectory. The path made by a body projected through the air.
Triangular. A form or body having three sides and three angles.
Typical. In the form of; a likeness to.
Ultimate. The end; the finality; the last that can be said.
Uninitiated. Not having full knowledge; withont information.
Unique. Peculiar; something that on account of its peculiar
construction or arrangements stands out beyond the others.
Universal. Everywhere; all over the world.
Undulate. To move up and down; a wave-like motion.
Utility. Of use; to take advantageous use of.
Unstable. Not having anything permanent; in a ship in flight one
that will not ride on an even keel, and is liable to pitch about.
Vacuum. Where air is partly taken away, or rendered rarer.
Valved. A surface which has a multiplicity of openings with
valves therein, or, through which air can move in one direction.
Vaunted. To boast concerning; to give a high opinion.
Velocity. Speed; the rate at which an object can move from place
to place.
Vertical. A line running directly to the center of the earth; a
line at right angles to the surface of water.
Vibratory. Moving from side to side; a regular motion.
Volplane. The glide of a machine without the use of power.
Warping. The twist given to certain portions of planes, so as to
cause the air to aet against the warped portions.
Weight. The measure of the force which gravity exerts on all
objects.