The proceedings connected with the direc_Narrative of the Circumnavigation of the Globe by the Austrian Frigate Novara, Volume II (Commodore B. Von Wullerstorf-Urbair,) Undertaken by Order of the Imperial Government in the Years 1857, 1858, & 1859, Under the Immediate Auspices of His I. and R. Highness the Archduke Ferdinand Maximilian, Commander-In-Chief of the Austrian Navy.

transacted in public, and the managers for the time being are bound to

furnish for each year a detailed report[129] of the management. This

humane institution has since its foundation undergone many reforms, and

at the period of our visit was confining its sphere of usefulness to three

main objects: 1st, The pensioning aged and broken-down persons of both

sexes, with 600 cash a month. These however were not supplied with the

money, but were for the most part taken into the house itself, or at least

supported through it. 2nd, The dispensing free of charge of various

so-called universal medicines, for headache, stomach-complaints, fever,

diarrh[oe]a, spasms during the unhealthy season (June to October). On the

3rd, 8th, 13th, 18th, 23rd, and 28th of each month (that is, on every date

ending with a 3 or an 8), during the continuance of the sultry, damp,

unhealthy season there was also provided for the sick and poor, gratis,

advice from Chinese physicians in the great hall. 3rd, The furnishing

coffins for the interment of those who died without means, or on payment

in part by families not altogether penniless. In one of these extensive

magazines we saw a coffin bearing the number 1084, which was just coming

into requisition. During 36 months 1000 coffins and upwards had been

supplied to poor families for the interment of their dead! As we were

leaving the building, we remarked in the principal apartment a large

quantity of paper, partly written upon, partly in shreds, all heaped up.

On inquiry as to the object of this collection, we were informed that it

was for no industrial purpose, but solely to be ascribed to the profound

respect the Chinese have for every sort of writing. They regard written

leaves as positively holy, and are particularly careful that no written

paper shall chance to fall into improper hands, that might make a wrong

use of it. For this reason the society pays for every pound of old waste

paper which the poor of Shanghai pick up in the street and bring to the

Institution three copper cash, and when the pile has attained a sufficient

height it is set on fire at a particular season.

Built in close proximity to this "Hall of United Benevolence" is the

sanctuary of the medical profession, or, as Mr. Muirhead translated for

our benefit the gigantic Chinese inscription over the portal, "the

sacrificial hall of the medical faculty." This is a temple erected at the

expense of the nation to a celebrated Chinese physician, whose stature, in

an easy, erect attitude, cut in wood the size of life and richly gilt, is

erected upon a platform somewhat resembling an altar. Part of the drapery

consists of gigantic leaves, while his folded hands clasp a lotos-flower.

In front of the image is placed the inscription: "The shrine of the spirit

of the King of Medicine." Above the idol are the following words in

Chinese, cut in the stone and gilt, "The divine husbandman and sacred

ruler!" and thereafter, "For all ages the instructive teacher."

This renowned physician had, it seems, instituted many experiments on

himself with new healing remedies, and according to popular belief had

attained to an exact knowledge of all that was going on in the human

frame, so that he could point out the seat of the malady by simply placing

a piece of common window-glass upon the pit of the patient's stomach, and

looking into it!

Adjoining this College of Health is the city prison, or Tschi-hin, in

which, when we saw it, were confined about 100 prisoners in the various

wards. In that set apart for the worst class of criminals, we saw about

40, heavily shackled and manacled. Three of these were confined in low

wooden cages, about three feet in height and width, and four feet in

length, and fastened to each other by iron chains running through. These

men also wore iron rings on their feet. One of these unfortunates was

sentenced to 70, and each of the other two to 60, days of such durance,

without being suffered for one moment to come out from the cage, which was

placed on the ground, and like a hen-roost, was provided with perches

running through it, so as to interfere still further with freedom of

movement. Their food consisted of rice and vegetables. According to their

own showing, these three were sentenced to this terrible punishment in

consequence of some affray, but we had reason to believe that some more

serious matter was the real cause of their having this penalty inflicted

on them. We gave the unhappy wretches a few pieces of silver. Each hastily

secured the donation in a corner of his cage, and seemed in his forlorn

condition doubly sensible of the value of a metal whose influence,

especially in China, is so powerful, so all-pervading, and so infallible.

One very peculiar institution is the Wei-kwan, a sort of Council Chamber,

situated on the N.E. side of the city between the walls and the river, in

which all matters in dispute between mercantile men are adjusted, and in

conjunction with which is a temple in honour of the goddess of the seas

(Tien-Mu). In the centre of the council-room is a large elegantly-shaped

iron pan (Schang-Lu), in which the merchants and seamen frequenting the

hall burn slips of paper, on which are written the wishes of those making

their offerings. Also money, fruit, &c., are here sacrificed, and Chinese

mariners, whose "junks" have come unscathed through a storm, or have been

preserved, make their thank-offerings in the shape of elegant little

models of their ships, which are placed in various parts of the building.

This hall was founded in 1270 by the Sung dynasty, on a site where certain

Chinese believed they had observed that the tumultuous tide of the Whampoa

river gradually lost its violence, as it approached the spot, a phenomenon

which to them seemed of marvellous significance. Under the Yuen and Mui

dynasties the temple was repeatedly plundered and burnt to the ground, but

was rebuilt through the influence of a Tao-priest. In 1735, an imperial

edict ordered the observance of certain religious ceremonies from time to

time, an example which has been followed to the present day.

Directly facing the goddess of the sea (called also Kwan-Yin, Queen of

Heaven),[130] who is represented by a life-size figure placed at the

bottom of the apartment, a large stage is erected, on which Chinese dramas

are represented for their entertainment from 10 o'clock in the morning

till nightfall.

In one part of the immense pile of buildings there are also provided

dwellings for such Chinese merchants as visit Shanghai from the interior

of the kingdom, and have neither friends nor relatives in the city with

whom they can take up their residence, for public taverns are in China

only frequented by the very lowest classes. We entered one of these

Chinese hotels, which we had come upon during our ramble, and inspected

the eating-rooms and bed-rooms, which are usually situated on the first

floor. The usual charge is from 100 to 140 cash a day for board (4_d._ to

6_d._), and from 20 to 40 cash for lodging (1_d._ to 2_d._). The gloomy,

filthy, cavernous aspect of each room makes even a moment's stay

intolerable. The victuals supplied consist chiefly of rice, vegetables,

and fish. In the interior, board and lodging in these taverns is very much

cheaper, and the well-known and highly meritorious English missionary Dr.

Medhurst, who, in 1845, traversed, in the dress of a Chinese, a large

portion of the silk and tea districts, relates that the customary charge

for supper, bed, and breakfast next morning altogether amounted to 80 cash

only, or about 3-3/8_d._![131] In the streets of Shanghai, the

eating-houses are greatly out-numbered by the tea-houses, where one gets a

cup of tea for 6 cash (1/4_d._). These, like our own cafes, are laid out

with little tables, stools, and benches. As soon as a guest enters and

takes his seat, a Chinese attendant brings a cup, throws into it the

proper quantity of tea-leaves, and pours boiling water upon it. After the

lapse of a few minutes the hot light yellow liquid is hastily swallowed,

but avoiding the leaves which are swimming on the surface, and usually

serve for a second or even a third infusion. These tea-houses are crowded

with visitors throughout the day, who sometimes transact business here

over a cup of tea and a pipe of oiled tobacco, sometimes resort hither to

wile the time listlessly away.

The chief place of amusement, however, of the native population of

Shanghai is the Tea-Garden (Tschin-Huang-Mian), or temple of the Emperor,

which contains numerous gardens laid out in Chinese fashion, and booths of

all sorts, besides the attractions of jugglers, singers, actors,

soothsayers, musicians, and mountebanks, all driving their respective

avocations. The whole scene is eminently characteristic of the

grotesqueness of Chinese taste. Artificial canals and tanks filled with

green stagnant water, redolent of miasmatic effluvia, amid which the Lotos

opens its lovely white blossoms, quantities of zig-zag bridges with

beautifully carved balustrades, islands with artificially constructed

rocks and grottoes, subterranean passages, flags of all shapes and sizes,

bearing the most bombastic inscriptions--such are the chief attractions of

a Chinese People's Garden, every large town boasting one such, erected at

the expense of the State, in which from early morning till late in the

evening a vast crowd of human beings is incessantly surging to and fro,

intent on pleasure, dissipation, or profit. The rabble, however, have not

access to every part of the Tea-Garden, a certain portion being set apart

for the recreation of the chief officials of the city (Tau-Tai). This

portion, shut off by a lofty wall, is elegantly laid out, and is made

attractive with all manner of dwarf trees nursed with great care and

expense, besides the usual grottoes, artificial hills and precipices,

pavilions, &c. Hither the head magistrate occasionally resorts to pass the

warmest hours of the day, and dozes away undisturbed by the cares of his

onerous responsibilities. All the public gardens of China present almost

the identical features of the one we visited; a park without artificial

islands and wooden bridges, without canals (in lieu of paths), without

pools of stagnant water thickly covered with the broad leaves of the

_Nelumbium_, would, in the eyes of a Chinese, be deprived of its chief

pleasure and its greatest attraction.

Close to the Tea-Garden is the largest Buddhist Temple within the city

walls, in which throughout the day the over-credulous Chinese kneel before

their idols, and with many reverences murmur their set formulas of

prayers. Like everything else in China, even religious observances are

regarded from the most practical point of view. They think they have done

enough when they have gone through a certain round of outward ceremonies.

The condition of most of the temples, the utter neglect of some, and the

various employments of others, indicate that the Chinese either has no

sense of the sanctity attaching to such places of devotion, or else

attaches but little value to the act itself. The men rarely enter the

temples. It is only the women who, to satisfy the cravings of the heart,

have recourse to invoking the Deity. Frequently one sees a worshipper

approach the attendant sitting in the porch of the temple, in order to get

their horoscope calculated by him for a few cash. For this purpose she

shakes with eager devotion a box of bamboo-cane filled with thin wands,

until one of these wands springs out. The words inscribed on each wand

furnish the oracle-expounder with an infallible sign, by which, after

consulting one of the books of Chinese wisdom spread out before him, he is

enabled to pronounce the answer of the divinity to the prayers preferred

by the poor dupe. The most prolific source of revenue of the temple and

its ministrants, consists, however, in the sale of the gold and silver

tissue paper,[132] which plays so important a part in the worship of the

Chinese, and owing to their zealous and frequent use are heaped up in

immense piles, for consumption by fire in a gigantic furnace.

Much more edifying than the interior of the great Buddhist temple with its

troops of swag-bellied idols in their parti-coloured apparel, some with a

good-humoured leer, others sulkily scowling on the beholder, is the

appearance of the temple of Confucius[133] in a remote quarter of the

city. In this extensive building, at once elegant and simple, and with

numerous halls and corridors, the scholars undergo their examination for

the service of the state; here the Government officials at stated seasons

perform certain religious ceremonies, and here all the _literati_ assemble

for the discussion of grave questions of debate. The main hall has its

red-tinted walls covered with Chinese and Tartar inscriptions, all of

which refer to Confucius, his doctrines and his wisdom. At intervals, a

number of tablets let into the wall inform the visitor that this edifice

is devoted to the instruction of the virtuous, and the cultivation of the

endowments. At the same time every person who passes this in a sedan-chair

or on horseback, whether an official or one of the people, is compelled

to quit his vehicle and traverse the consecrated space on foot. Over the

entrance to the right is written: "His virtue is comparable to Heaven and

Earth;" and above the door to the left we read, "His teachings comprise

all the wisdom of ancient and modern days." Behind the temple is a smaller

edifice, dedicated to the five progenitors of Confucius. The temple itself

is similarly surrounded with various apartments, all, as their bombastic

inscriptions announce, devoted to the honour and advancement of knowledge.

One of these chambers is dedicated to the god of Literature, another to

the guardian spirit of Science. The latter is curiously represented as a

figure holding in one hand a _stylus_, in the other a lump of silver,

emblematic, we presume, of "man through wisdom attaining unto riches."

In every city throughout China there is, as well as a tea-garden, a temple

in honour of the great teacher Kong-fu-tse, whose knowledge and whose

moral system, 2400 years after his mortal pilgrimage, instruct and gladden

not merely his own countrymen, but all admirers throughout the world of

what is noble and virtuous.

Among the various monasteries of the city, we visited one of the Taouists,

called the Du-Kung or Great Mirror (probably of Virtue), where strangers

provided with introductions are received and entertained at 150 cash

(6_d._ per diem). This cloister, whose sole inhabitants are some five or

six Chinese monks, is situated close to the wall, and forms one of the

best points whence to obtain a view of the entire city.

The Taouists, who follow the Tao, the "way of knowledge," and arrogate to

themselves a more profound insight into the mysterious powers of nature,

as well as more special acquaintance with and definite powers over good

and evil spirits, are disciples of the doctrines of Lao-tse,[134] and are

extensively scattered throughout the country, although at present, in

consequence of their losing themselves deeper and deeper in a slothful,

sensual mode of existence, their proselytism is proceeding at a much

slower ratio than formerly. It is purely accidental that there is

immediately adjoining the Taoui monastery a convent known as that of the

"White nuns," a small one-storey building, kept however singularly neat

and clean. Here we saw six Buddhist nuns, with close-shaven heads and in

long white dresses, which gave them quite a masculine aspect. They

received us with much courtesy, and escorted us round the various

apartments with considerable _empressement_. They were mostly widows, who

pass their lives here in calm retrospective contemplation, and occupy

themselves with preparing little articles for the Buddhist ritual, such as

censers, tapers, printed sacrificial papers, &c., with which apparently

they contrive to support themselves. These associations (Ni-koo) were

usually founded by legacies and donations by pious Chinese, and are

exceedingly useful as providing an asylum for poor, helpless women, weary

of life. Many widows withdraw into these abodes of peace, there to pass

the rest of their lives, free from the tumult of the world, in the

exercise of devotion and of works of neighbourly love and charity.

Nevertheless, if we are to believe common report, works of piety are not

the only objects occasionally pursued in these Buddhist convents, and the

web of intrigue and amorous adventure, of which they have frequently been

the scene, has not a little tended to lower the estimate in which these

religious societies are held, and even threatens to cut short their

existence. A people of such a materialistic mode of life, and such

ant-like industry, as the Chinese, who rarely know what it is to have one

holiday in the entire year, must involuntarily look with argus-like eye on

all religious communities, which pass their time in luxurious ease and

exemption from care, without in any way advancing the well-being of their

fellow-creatures by either mental or physical labour.

In the course of our peregrinations through the streets of Shanghai we

also came upon the shop of a Chinese apothecary (Yak-Tien), which

externally bears a considerable resemblance to a similar establishment in

Europe, but widely differs in respect of details. The Chinese Materia

Medica is especially abundant in patent medicines, the use and application

of which, it must be allowed, is frequently of the most extraordinary

nature.

According to the latest researches of Dr. Hobson, of whose important

services in the diffusion of European medical science in China we shall

have much to say in a future page, we are acquainted with 442 drugs from

among the three great kingdoms of Nature, which must be kept in every

well-stocked Chinese drug-store, of which 314 belong to the botanical, 78

to the animal, and 50 to the mineral world. We shall, however, in this

place only indicate those of which Chinese physicians avail themselves

most frequently in the preparation of their medicines, such, for example,

as birds' nests, dried red-spotted lizard, the fresh tips of stags'

antlers, the shell of the tortoise, dogs' flesh, bones of animals,

preparations from various parts of the human body, whale-bone,

oyster-shells, skins of snakes, shark's maw and fin, tendons of deer and

buffalo, dried silk-worms, their larvae and excrement, bamboo shavings, the

bear's gall, preparations from human _faeces_, scraped rhinoceros and

antelope horn, rabbit dung, cuttle-fish bone, dried varnish, dried leeches

and earthworms, red marble, refuse of ivory, preparations from toads,

petrifactions, old copper money,[135] snow-water,[136] human milk,[137]

&c. &c.

These pharmaceutics are brought from various parts of China, as well as

from Japan, Siam, and the Straits of Malacca, and constitute an important

and profitable branch of commerce. Many of them are sold at the druggist's

in the raw state, when they are used as sympathetic remedies, amulets, or

generally for external use. The Chinese druggists sell their medicaments

for the most part in the form of powders or pills. These latter are

usually made up in a capsule of bees-wax for greater facility of

administration, so that the dose as it comes from the shop resembles

those small wax-cakes used by house-wives for waxing their thread. One

such cake contains four or six pills, called _Tzi-pau-tan_, or very costly

pills, which are used as a sort of universal specific against fevers,

affections of the digestive organs, headaches, &c. &c.

The most valuable and costly article in the Chinese pharmacop[oe]ia is,

however, the Ginseng (_Panax Ginseng_, or _Panax Quinquefolia_), which is

chiefly found in Mantchooria and the deserts to the north of the peninsula

of Corea. The circumstance that the Ginseng is still a monopoly of the

Chinese Government, only a few privileged individuals being annually

permitted to purchase a certain quantity for its weight in pure gold, has

much more to do with its efficacy as a panacea than the benefits conferred

by its curative powers. The roots are about the size and thickness of a

man's little finger, and break short off when bent. When cleaned they are

transparent, and of a dark amber colour.

Of the Ginseng there are three qualities sold in the Chinese drug-stores.

One leang or ounce of the best (the largest and finest) costs 50 dollars,

of the medium quality five dollars, and of the most inferior quality one

dollar. The Ginseng root is also found in Virginia, Pennsylvania, and

Canada, and is thence exported to China, but the Chinese prefer that of

their native forests, even though these are very much dearer, and there is

hardly any difference to remark between them. As the plant is only found

in the wild state, and obstinately resists all attempts to cultivate it,

its collection among the forests of North America is attended with great

hardship and expense, and whereas in former years the profit realized on

this article of commerce by English and American merchantmen amounted to

from 500 to 600 per cent., it is now reduced to a very moderate

proportion.

A more general subject of interest is presented by the shops where is sold

the porcelain-ware, the manufacture of which dates from a very remote

period of Chinese history, and was already a flourishing trade at the

commencement of our historic epoch. Indeed we may reasonably assume,

notwithstanding the beautiful specimens of the art which from time to time

are brought to light, that this special branch of industry is at present

in a state of decline, while of many kinds of porcelain manufacture no

examples can now be shown, as the secret of their manipulation has

perished. What usually interests Europeans in these shops is what is known

as "crackle" porcelain,[138] the upper surface of which everywhere

presents broken lines, so that the entire vessel appears as though it

consisted of numbers of small pieces cemented to each other, the whole

having very much the appearance of Mosaic. But this description also is no

longer manufactured of the first quality in the present day. Antique

porcelain is of extraordinary value, but specimens of modern manufacture,

such as small figures, mannikins, &c., are very cheap, and are much the

same as those imported to Europe.

One marked partiality of the Chinese is their fondness for suspending

grasshoppers in small elegant baskets of bamboo strips, or twisted wire,

in which, whatever the season or the weather, these little captives keep

up a constant pleasant chirping. This custom is of great antiquity, and

while one even now finds among the populace of the present day some of

these chirpers thus carefully tended, there once was a time when the

grasshopper was the object of universal adoration, and enjoyed all the

honours of Fashion. They were indebted for this singular good fortune,

according to the abbe Grosier,[139] to a poor scholar under the Thang

dynasty, in the 7th century of our era, who to relieve his poverty fell

upon the singular expedient of trading in these insects. He went into the

country, selected the most beautiful insects he could find, constructed

elegant little cages for them, and returning to the city offered them for

sale in the most frequented streets of Tschang-gan. The idea was novel,

and the wealthy upper classes speedily found a charm in having the music

of the fields thus transplanted into their houses. The Empress, the

Queens, the ladies of the Palace, in a word, every one was eager to

possess these songsters of the meadow. There was actually an enactment

passed for the supply of the Imperial Palace with the requisite number of

these insects. The fashion rose to a perfect mania--the little Zirperu was

encountered at every corner--it was taken out whenever a call was

paid--the whole city resounded with its shrill cry. The fine arts, and

every branch of industry, felt its impulse. There was no textile fabric,

no embroidery, no design, no vessel, on which it did not conspicuously

figure. It was represented in metal and in jewellery, and no handsome lady

thought her toilette complete, unless she sported a grasshopper among her

hair. This mania has died out in China, but the buzz of the insect still

continues to furnish matter of amusement for the populace and children of

all classes, and they are still caught in large quantities, and exposed

for sale in the streets. Singular to say, all ancient and modern writers,

if we are to judge by their delineations, describe these insects as

_cicadae_, whereas it was shown and proved by the researches of one of the

zoologists of the Expedition, that the insect is no _cicada_, but a

species of grasshopper (_Decticus_), which, so far as appears, has never

hitherto been described. Very probably the circumstance that the noise

made by each of these insects is very similar, gave circulation to this

error of upwards of a thousand years' standing, whence people would

without further examination take it for granted that the insect confined

in the cage belonged to that species whose place in natural history, and

whose special musical qualifications, mankind had so long been familiar

with. One of these grasshoppers was kept for months in such a cage on

board our ship, and chirped away lustily, fair weather or foul, even when

confined in a close cupboard. On the other hand, some _cicadae_, with

which similar experiments were made, lived only two or three days in

captivity. None sang, unless when teased, or when a number more were

introduced into the vessel, thereby incommoding them, and none took

nourishment. It was obvious that the _cicadae_ possessed none of those

characteristics which would enable them to be kept in captivity as pets,

whereas, on the other hand, the grasshoppers and crickets were especially

adapted for that purpose.

We were anxious to visit a variety of other interesting places, ere

quitting the sultry, gloomy Chinese city on our return to the more genial

European quarter. But evening was already setting in, and after sunset the

gates of the city are closed, and neither Chinese nor European can after

that hour obtain access to the city. Whoever is belated must find shelter

for the night in the house of some hospitable friend, until with the first

break of morning the gates are re-opened, communication is restored with

the foreign quarter, and the previous day's scene of bustle is renewed.

The next object which excited our interest was a Chinese school. Ascending

a wooden staircase, we enter a room, quite empty but for a table and

stools, in which a haggard woe-begone Chinese, with long tail and rod in

hand, is walking to and fro, while at a table some dozen of boys of from

eight to twelve are engaged in reading. Their loud accents may be heard

down in the street outside. The cost of the schools for the people is

chiefly defrayed by voluntary subscriptions, foundations, &c. &c. The

children of the middle classes pay for nine months' instruction, three

Spanish dollars. Many teachers have more than a hundred scholars, and thus

earn about 1000 dollars per annum. These, it is true, are exceptions, but

teaching as a profession seems on the whole to be fully better remunerated

in China than in European countries. There it is in much higher

estimation, and receives better recompense. The wealthy Chinese usually

engage private tutors for their children, who, as among ourselves, usually

form part of the family. Elementary education is almost universal

throughout China. There are but few Chinese who are not at least able to

read and write. One very gratifying instance of the prevailing religious

toleration, well worthy of example in the Christian states of Europe, is

the presence of Protestant and Catholic places of worship in the midst of

Buddhist temples, and other edifices dedicated to heathen worship. The

American Episcopal church, erected in 1850, at the expense of a wealthy

merchant and ship-owner of Boston named Appleton, at a cost of 6000

dollars, already numbers eighty converts. It is an extremely simple yet

neat-looking place of worship, quite in the style of the chapels in the

Western portion of the American Union, and has in connection with it a

school numbering about forty native scholars. Every Sunday morning at ten,

a sermon is preached, which is attended by most of the foreign community.

Far grander and more imposing in plan and fittings is the Catholic

cathedral of Tong-Kadu, confessedly the finest place of Christian worship

throughout China. The construction of this building was commenced by

voluntary subscription in 1846, and completed in 1852, the total cost

amounting to 230,000 _leangs_, or about L65,000. Within there is a large

organ, constructed by one of the lay brothers of bamboo pipes, whose

saddening yet inspiring notes, heard in the festivals of the Church,

invite the Christian community far and wide to devotion and instruction.

At present this cathedral is under the charge of a bishop of the Order of

the Jesuits.

Our road from the Chinese city to the European quarter led us past an

establishment which bore interesting testimony to the industrial activity

of the Chinese. It is an oil factory worked exclusively by natives, and

giving employment to about 400 workmen, besides 80 draught oxen. The oil

is extracted from indigenous beans, and is so copious, that 1400 _catties_

(1750 lbs.) of oil are procured daily, which is worth 74 _cash_ per

_catty_ (about 3-3/4_d._ per lb.), and is used both for cooking and for

light. The residuary oil-cake, after expression of the oily matter, is

used as manure.[140] A workman may earn at this description of labour from

100 to 200 _cash_ a day (4_d._ to 8_d._).

As we left the manufactory, and were bending our stops towards the little

Eastern gate, our gaze was suddenly attracted by a spacious and elegant

mansion, evidently the property of a well-to-do Chinese. This, as we were

informed by our companion, proved to be the residence of the Wuong family,

which ranks among the five oldest and most distinguished families in

Shanghai. There is to be seen in the neighbourhood a small stone memorial

shaped like a mausoleum, which, with the Emperor's permission, was erected

by the inhabitants of the district in which she lived, to commemorate the

benevolence and philanthropic exertions of the mother of Wuong. The custom

of honouring ladies distinguished by their virtues and benevolence, by the

erection of temples, cenotaphs, &c., is by no means unusual in China, and

is in marvellous contrast to the almost slavish treatment which the female

sex usually meets with. Nevertheless, in the city and environs of Shanghai

alone there are ninety such triumphal arches and memorials to as many

exemplary and philanthropic ladies. The majority of these were married,

and some had attained a very great age, one having died at 104 years, and

another at 115 years of age![141]

In the house of Wuong, who stands in high repute among the Europeans as a

merchant and ship-owner, we were received with the most gratifying

hospitality. As soon as we entered the house, an attendant immediately

presented tea in small cups, which, in conformity with the usages of the

country, had to be swallowed in all its native bitterness without

admixture of sugar or milk. Immediately after an old nurse made her

appearance, and struck up with our excellent conductor, Mr. Syles, who

seemed to be everywhere welcomed by the Chinese, and was well acquainted

with the family, a long conversation upon the most diverse subjects. At

length the master of the house himself made his appearance, a dignified,

stately man, arrayed in a light elegant grey silk frock, but in deportment

and externals not differing in the very least from his Chinese attendants,

and himself conducted us round the house. He seemed to feel pleasure in

the opportunity of baring to the view of a stranger the very penetralia

of his beautiful abode. We wandered through numerous apartments simply

yet elegantly furnished, with various antechambers and corridors, among

which were interspersed little plots laid out with dwarf plantations,

artistically-designed grottoes, and "rookeries." In one of the rooms was a

"punkah," an article of furniture rarely met with in a Chinese household.

On reaching the library or study, our host bade us be seated, while he

again ordered tea to be served. This small but pretty apartment was

covered all round with inscriptions in Chinese (chiefly maxims from

Confucius), which, written on rolls of white paper, were suspended on the

walls. While sipping our tea, and engrossed in conversation, an attendant

appeared with somewhat thick cloths, steeped in hot water, with which to

wipe our faces and hands. The evaporation of the moisture lowers the

temperature of the skin, and has so refreshing an effect, that one cannot

but feel surprised that this custom is not more extensively patronized in

hot countries, or put in practice by ourselves during our hot sultry

summers.

With respect to ourselves, what appeared most to interest our Chinese host

in his silken attire was our apparel. He felt over and over again the

black alpaca coat, which was worn by one of the members of our Expedition,

and remarked, "these Western races are truly marvellous people; they wear

far more clothes than we do, yet they perspire less." And thereupon Wuong

mopped his face twice with the towel, which in the mean time the attendant

had again dipped in the hot water, and thoroughly wrung out. As we were

taking our departure, our courteous host accompanied us to the threshold.

In the portico were a number of wooden tables lacquered with red varnish,

on which were inscribed in large golden letters of the Chinese character

the titles of honour of the family of Wuong, which on festive occasions

were drawn in front of the head of the family as he sat on his sofa.

After this ramble through the Chinese town, we returned to the "Strangers'

Quarter," where we came upon a widely different mode of life. Here

everything is arranged upon the European model, and the attention is only

diverted by those minor accessories, in which the climatic conditions have

necessitated some variation. The houses are universally lofty, roomy, and

agreeable, usually surrounded by a garden, and many of them present an

almost palace-like aspect. More even than to the merchants in Broadway is

the designation of "merchant princes" applicable to the foreign merchants

of China and the East Indies, for it is among them beyond any other class

on the globe, that there prevails a luxury almost princely in its

magnificence. In such a place as Shanghai, which can present to the

educated foreigner such a meagre equivalent for his numerous intellectual

privations, each man endeavours in the readiest possible way to render his

material existence as comfortable and agreeable as he possibly can. This

leading principle one sees illustrated and carried out in practice in the

splendid designs of their residences, and the exquisite refinement and

comfort of their internal arrangements, as well as in the scrupulous

attention paid to the cellar and the "cuisine."

On the ground-floors are the counting-house and stores, on the first floor

the drawing-room, the dining-room, and the sleeping-apartments. All these

various chambers are decorated with as much attention to comfort as good

taste, and almost every single article bears on it the solid,

unmistakeable impress of its English origin. Even into the most minute

details all the genuine comfort of an English drawing-room is introduced,

increased even, if that be possible, by the adoption of a few customs

peculiar to the peoples of Asia, such as mats of fragrant materials placed

before the doors and windows, Punkahs, which, kept in motion by Chinese

servants, keep up a constant current of fresh air, while through the

verandah, or the open glass casement, where the family sit swinging to and

fro in an American rocking-chair, a delicious cool breeze blows in the

mornings and evenings. A well-appointed numerous household is constantly

hovering around, eagerly intent to anticipate the slightest wish of their

employers. Probably in no part of the world are there more intelligent or

punctual servants than the Chinese. They get through the utmost variety of

work with consummate tact, method, and facility. Everything is done

rapidly and noiselessly, and one is served with the utmost regularity,

without being pestered with too much attention.

The members of the _Novara_ Expedition experienced in Shanghai the most

hearty hospitality. Even the presence of the various embassies, and the

momentous nature of the operations of which the Gulf of Petcheli was the

scene, proved no barrier to a most flattering reception being accorded to

this the first maritime Expedition of a German power. Foreigners of the

most widely divergent races and standing,--consuls, missionaries,

merchants, naturalists, journalists,--each in his own way vied with the

rest in ministering to our comfort, and in aiding us in the prosecution of

our objects.

One of the most distinguished of the physicians and missionaries of the

London Missionary Society, Dr. B. Hobson, who since 1838 has resided at

Canton in the honourable capacity of a "medical missionary,"[142] and who,

a few months before our arrival, had, in consequence of the outbreak of

hostilities, removed to Shanghai, was so kind as to furnish us, out of his

own rich treasures of Chinese lore, with much valuable information, and

acquainted us with the various objects aimed at by the praiseworthy

activity of the London Board of Missions. This body by no means confines

its operations to the diffusion of tracts and works relating to

Christianity published in the Chinese language, but combines

simultaneously with that sphere of action the excellent idea of

ministering to the physical necessities of the poor and sick Chinese, and

of helping them in their need. While able, eloquent Dr. Muirhead presides

over the missionary schools, and the not less zealous Mr. Wylie

superintends the printing of the books, our highly-educated friend Dr.

Hobson takes charge of the hospital, the cost of which is defrayed partly

by the Missionary Society, partly by the European community.

The building itself is rather small and unpretending, and can at most

accommodate only thirty patients. But it was erected chiefly for those

cases which in England it is customary to classify in the general category

of "accidents," injuries, that is, sustained unexpectedly, or in a riot,

&c. &c. Every day between twelve and one o'clock a consultation is held,

and treatment provided gratuitously. Hither flock hundreds of invalids, to

avail themselves of this benevolent arrangement, and while Dr. Hobson is

busy giving orders and dispensing drugs in his small apartment, a native

convert in the waiting-room is preaching the Living Word to those who come

for advice.

We passed an entire hour in the dispensary, not merely for the purpose of

witnessing the various descriptions of cases, mostly of a surgical nature,

but also to catch many an instructive remark from the lips of Dr. Hobson.

Thus he remarked, as the result of a medical practice of more than sixteen

years, that the Chinese are uncommonly soon affected by the use of mercury

and quinine. A very small dose of either of these drugs very speedily

shows a marked effect. Oddly enough, quinine, as a tonic and febrifuge, is

unknown in the Chinese pharmacop[oe]ia, and is almost exclusively

prescribed for the cure of the opium-smoking form of mania.

In China, a physician is treated with great distinction, and is usually

designated as szi-yay (the honourable teacher). Of late years cholera

(tschan-kan-tschui, literally "the contracting of the tendons") and

small-pox had committed fearful ravages among the populace, and the

appalling havoc committed by the latter-named disease gave occasion for

the publication by the English missionaries of a short treatise translated

into Chinese, on the importance of vaccination. Among children especially

the mortality caused by this fell scourge was very great, and the

instances of _leucoma_ and loss of sight resulting from the disease appear

to have been very numerous.

Dr. Hobson, who in 1851 had published a volume of Physiology in the Canton

dialect, has also completed a handbook of Practical Surgery, with 400

woodcuts, and, like the preceding, had had it printed by native workmen.

Even the drawings were drawn on the wood and cut by native artists after

English originals. Many of the scientific phrases contained in these works

must have required to be entirely reconstructed, or else expressed by a

circumlocution. Dr. Hobson intended to follow up these two splendid

undertakings with a fresh work upon Pharmacology, as also a treatise upon

the diseases of women and children, both, like their predecessors, to be

in the Canton dialect, as that most universally used.

The Chinese, however, possess themselves a pretty comprehensive medical

literature, whence we may infer that from the earliest times they paid

special attention to the science of medicine. According to a Chinese

tradition, the Emperor Schi-nung, 3200 years before our era, collected a

"Materia Medica," and 570 years later, the Emperor Hwang-te is said to

have written a work with the title "Sonwan" (open questions in medicine).

The celebrated work, "the Doctrine of the Pulse," by Wang-shu-fo, was

written in the reign of Tsche-Hwang-te (the book-burner), about 510 B.C. A

second edition of this work was published in the reign of Kang-he, in the

year 1693 of our era. About A.D. 229 the Chinese physician Tschang-kae-pin

wrote the first Chinese work which, in addition to the theory of medicine,

also contained prescriptions. The great "_Materia Medica_" of China was

compiled by Li-tschi-kan, and was published by his son during the reign of

Wan-Leih, about A.D. 1600. The most important medical work in Chinese is

the E-tsang-kin-ksen, or "the Golden Mirror of Medical Authors," collated

by Imperial authority from the best works of earlier native authors,

especially from the "Nan-king," and the writings of Dr. Tschang-kae-pin.

This was published in 1743 (the seventh year of the reign of Keen-lung),

and consists of thirty-two volumes 8vo, with upwards of 400 woodcuts.[143]

The information furnished us by Dr. Hobson with reference to the terrible

forms of leprosy in China are of so much interest, general as well as

special, that we believe we shall not transcend the scope of this work, if

we give in these pages the valuable data upon the subject in all their

completeness.

The Chinese consider leprosy as the most appalling of diseases, since,

while resisting all means of cure itself, it attacks others, and they

accordingly avoid in the greatest terror all those who are smitten with

it. Like the people whom Moses brought out, the Chinese regard leprosy as

a direct consequence of impiety, an expiation for sin committed. For this

reason those afflicted with leprosy are rarely regarded with pity. No hand

of sympathy is stretched forth to give aid, no heart feels itself impelled

to alleviate their hopeless condition, and thus the most wretched of all

are in the eyes of the masses simply objects of disgust and of horror.

Leprosy is called Lae in Chinese. In the Imperial dictionary of Kang-he

Lae, is described as a very evil kind of disease, which breaks out upon

the skin in the form of blotches and pustules. Gutzlaff and others

acquainted with Chinese make use however of the words Ma-fung to express

leprosy, which is also used by native writers to indicate the disease.

The Chinese physicians consider leprosy as a subtle, penetrating,

poisonous effluvium which has infected the blood. They profess to

recognize 36 different kinds of leprosy, among which they enumerate every

form and variety of Lichen, Scabies, Psoriasis, and Syphilis. Common as

the disease is in Southern China, it is unknown in the North; its area of

manifestation seems to be confined within the tropics. It is, however,

related of many Chinese in good circumstances, that when attacked by

leprosy they have removed to Pekin, where after a two years' residence

they have lost all trace of the infection, which, however, broke out anew

immediately on their return to the South.

Leprosy does not seem by its physical effects to shorten life. There are

in China numbers of aged people attacked with this disease, and in the

Lazar-house at Canton there is still living an old leper upwards of

eighty, who has long found an asylum in that hospital as an incurable.

Suicide is not uncommon among those thus sorely smitten, when they usually

poison themselves with an over-dose of opium, hang themselves, or drown

themselves, for death, they say, makes them once more clean. Although the

Chinese believe in the hereditary transmission of leprosy, they

nevertheless think that the disease becomes of a milder type in the third

generation, and entirely disappears in the fourth. Marriages never take

place with the offspring of leprous parents or grand-parents, but on the

other hand the lepers and their children intermarry among themselves. A

leper however of the fourth generation would only ally himself with a girl

of the same degree of exemption. The children of such a union would be

considered sound and free from leprosy, and would no longer be excluded in

any way from social rights.

But the Chinese believe leprosy not alone hereditary, but also infectious

through the very slightest contact. Hence the father abandons his own

child; the children flee from their parents: they will not eat and drink

with them, will not sit in their company, will not use the chairs which

have been sat upon by the leper, until at least the surrounding atmosphere

has been fumigated with a torch. Even the law declares leprosy to be a

contagious disease. A wealthy leper durst not venture to leave his own

room, where he is excluded from all communication with the outer world,

without exposing himself to the danger of being arrested by the police,

and mulcted in a heavy fine, or else sent to what is called the Leper

village near Canton, an abode of human woe and misery, which even the

leprous regard with horror.[144]

As the Chinese physicians regard leprosy as a taint of the blood, and in

their treatment adopt Hahnemann's principle of _similia similibus

curantur_, they prescribe by way of remedies the most repulsive and

disgusting substances which they can select from their _Materia Medica_,

such as the saliva of the toad, beetles, snakes, worms, scorpions,

centipedes, &c. &c.

Dr. Hobson considers leprosy, when once fully developed, to be incurable.

Such remedies as arsenic, salts, acids, in short alteratives, occasionally

prove efficacious at an early stage of the malady, as also Iodine baths,

and mercurial friction. External remedies however are usually found to be

unavailing in reaching the root of the disorder, its seat lying deeper

than an ordinary affection of the skin.

Of late years the seeds of the Tschaul or Tscharul Mugra (one of the order

of _Flacourtiaceae_), have been administered for leprosy by several English

physicians in India, and certainly, in some instances, with such results

that the most sanguine hopes were entertained of its efficacy in all cases

of leprosy. Dr. Hobson informed us that Dr. Mouatt, of the Medical

College, Calcutta, who was the first to discover the remarkable properties

of this plant, sent him, when he was at Canton, a considerable quantity of

these seeds for the purpose of experimenting with them.[145] They were

ground into a coarse powder, and in that state administered twice a day

at considerable intervals in doses of about 60 grains, the external sores

being at the same time rubbed with the oil pressed out of the seeds. The

cure must be persevered in without interruption for six months, and must

be from time to time aided by saline purgatives. The first symptom of

improvement shows itself in an abatement of the prominence and redness of

the eruption, and the appearance of white scales all round it. This remedy

has long been known to the Chinese, but those who are acquainted with the

active curative principle contained in the seeds of the Tscharul Mugra,

keep the secret to themselves in their own interest.[146] Dr. Hobson

assured us that he had cured two cases of leprosy taken early, and in a

very mild form, by the administration of these seeds, and had seen several

greatly improved by their use; but this experienced physician is, like

others, distrustful of the efficacy of the seeds of Tscharul Mugra in

cases of fully developed leprosy, which, according to his view, is

pre-eminently a taint of the blood,--a poison which can never again be

eradicated from the system. In cases of scrofula, these seeds have been

found serviceable.

Like their brethren of the London Missionary Association, the various

missions of the United States of North America display the most

praiseworthy zeal and activity of co-operation upon every question.

That eminent philanthropist, Dr. Bridgman, who had, for more than a

quarter of a century, been an active and highly esteemed missionary, was

in 1858 at the head of the American Episcopal Mission, and was one of the

oldest, as also among the most highly respected, denizens of the little

foreign settlement. This meritorious citizen died at Shanghai, on the 29th

of November, 1861, after having spent upwards of thirty years in China in

the promotion of the Christian faith and the advancement of knowledge,

deeply lamented by foreigners, as well as by the Chinese, who always found

him their true and confident friend. This gentleman had the kindness to

assemble under his simple but kindly roof the various members of his

mission, who are no less useful in increasing our acquaintance with the

Chinese language and literature than in diffusing the blessings of the

gospel, thus furnishing the members of the _Novara_ Expedition with an

opportunity of personal intercourse with these gentlemen. We here became

acquainted with Mr. Wells Williams, so highly esteemed and so widely known

for his profound historical and philological works[147] respecting China,

as also with Messrs. Syle, Aichison, Macy, Jones, and Blodgett,

missionaries distinguished for their extensive acquirements in Chinese;

and in the course of this agreeable and interesting intercourse were so

fortunate as to obtain information respecting a variety of topics, many of

them suggested by Dr. Pfitzmaier, and recommended by him to our

investigation. On most of these topics accurate intelligence was in the

course of our voyage transmitted to the Imperial Academy of Sciences; of

the remainder elaborate and comprehensive particulars are reserved for the

scientific publications of the Expedition.

We may, however, more closely investigate here one topic of universal

interest, namely, the latest researches respecting the very remarkable,

little known, half-savage tribe, known as the Miau-Tze.

These extraordinary human beings are usually encountered in the provinces

of Kwei-chan, Yun-nan, Szechuen, Hunan, Kwang-si, and the western part of

Kwang-tung. The wild tribes of the island of Formosa belong, on the

contrary, to an entirely different race. In the Imperial Dictionary of

Kang-hi, the sign [Chinese character(s)], _miau_ (a compound of the words

"flower" and "meadow"), signifies "germinating seeds," "blades of grass

springing from the seed-vessels." The sign [Chinese character(s)], _tsz_,

on the other hand, is that usually employed to express son, or descendant.

In accordance with this explanation, the Chinese also seem to consider the

Miau-tze as children of the soil, as aborigines, or indigenous inhabitants

of the country. In their descriptions of this singular people they divide

them into "Sang" and "Schuh." _Sang_, ordinarily used when speaking of

fruit, signifies "green, unripe,"--_schuh_ again means "ripe," or, when

speaking of food, the former signifies "raw," the latter "thoroughly

cooked." By these means they discriminate them into the savage independent

"green" Miau-tze, and the subjugated more civilized "ripe" Miau-tze. The

subjection and civilization of these latter are however as yet very

problematical. As in days long gone by, so up to the present hour, the

Miau-tze are restless and troublesome neighbours to the Chinese. Dr.

Bridgman has lately translated into English the sketches made by a Chinese

scholar upon the Miau-tze, during his travels in the province of

Kwei-chan, by which he has added greatly to our stock of information

respecting those "children of the soil;" the work consists of two volumes

in 8vo, containing about 82 sketches or delineations. Each of these fills

one page, the handwriting being condensed or expanded according to the

amount of the contents, while that opposite contains an illustration

elucidatory of the text. This very rare work divides the Miau-tze into 82

tribes according to their customs, more or less savage, very few of whom

possess any trace of a written language, recording the most important

events simply by certain marks on a stick, or by what are called

"tallies," and subsisting upon wild fruit, fish, and the flesh of wild

animals. They usually go about barefooted, are very scantily clad, lead a

life full of privation and hardship, and in all their troubles have

recourse to the invocation of the evil spirits. Only very few of their

race follow agriculture, or any branch of industry, or worship Buddha in

their festivals.[148] Some of these however seem to be more or less

crossed with Chinese blood, as, for example, the Tsche-Tsai-Miau, in the

district of Kutschan, whither the rebel Ma-san-pai formerly fled with 600

of his followers, when his attempt, under his feudal leader, Mu-san-Kwei,

to overthrow the reigning dynasty, failed of success. Many of these

fugitives formed connections with the native women, and their descendants

are now known by the name of the six hundred savage Miau families.

Adjoining Dr. Bridgman's residence, is a school maintained at the expense

of the mission, in which twenty-four Chinese girls are during five years

instructed in reading and writing their mother tongue, in arithmetic, and

in the rudiments of Christianity, after which they are provided with a

small portion and married to Chinese Christians of good character.

Selected under the idea that very favourable results may be anticipated,

if the various subjects in which the scholars are instructed are imparted

to them in their native language, English is entirely omitted. Interesting

and extraordinary, however, as it is to hear American ladies imparting

instruction in the Chinese language, this method of teaching has many

drawbacks, and the mission itself and society in general would derive far

more advantage, if these poor females should be instructed in English,

thus widening the horizon of their knowledge.

In the boys' school, also supported by the mission, another method of

teaching is in use. The children learn an epistle first in Chinese,

afterwards in English, when they are called upon to translate the Chinese

into English. Thus we heard one lad rehearse the Book of Ruth, first in

Chinese, and then in English. He was then examined in English upon the

meaning of certain passages, when he replied with great accuracy in the

same language. Education in these schools is mainly intrusted to ladies.

Two of these, Miss Jones and Miss Conover, displayed remarkable

attainments in Chinese, besides their really marvellous store of

information. None of the teachers are married, while none of the wives of

the missionaries interfere with the school, but employ themselves in

superintending the education of their own children. We found forty Chinese

boys receiving their education at the expense of the mission, whose

parents have to sign a written engagement that they will not withdraw

their children from the institution for a period of ten years, in fact,

till the completion of their education. This precaution is absolutely

necessary, owing to the fickle nature of the Chinese, else it would be a

by no means rare occurrence for the parents to insist on the child

returning home, possibly just at the critical moment when the beneficent

influence of Christian culture is beginning to spring up in the soul. On

the whole, this mission has splendid results to show. We saw one scholar,

who at present forms one of the staff of teachers, and speaks and writes

English absolutely better than his native language. Another young Chinese,

sent out at the expense of the mission, spent eight years at Yale College

in Massachusetts, and at present earns his maintenance by translating

English documents into Chinese and _vice versa_, for the mercantile houses

of the place.

Dr. Bridgman is at once founder and president of the first scientific

association in Shanghai, the "North China Branch of the Royal Asiatic

Society," including among its members almost all the foreigners resident

in Shanghai, who assemble regularly every winter for intellectual and

literary recreation, and publish from time to time in a periodical of

their own, details of the efforts, adventures, and experiences of their

colleagues in promoting the objects of the association.

An extraordinary meeting was held in honour of the _Novara_ voyagers, at

which about forty persons were present. The President, Dr. Bridgman,

welcomed our commander and his subordinates with a few cordial remarks,

which was responded to by Commodore Wuellerstorff, after which the writer

of these lines had the honour to deliver in English a brief address,

touching on the chief aims of the Expedition and its scientific objects,

stating that its chief purpose was less the promotion of purely scientific

knowledge, than by ample, long-continued practice to provide material of

suitable quality for our youthful budding navy, to unfurl the standard of

Austria in localities where it had never before been seen, to effect

treaties of commerce with foreign nations, to knit the various capitals

which we should visit in our cruise by the tie of science, to open

correspondence with their various institutes, and to make collections,

chiefly of those objects of natural history, the acquisition of which,

owing to their great value or the difficulty of transport, is almost

impossible to the single traveller. The hearty reception which had been

accorded the Expedition in Shanghai rendered it doubly incumbent on us to

explain the various purposes we had in view, and the original points of

inquiry to which we were restricted by the track definitely assigned to

us, as also to account for the shortness of our stay in each port, and the

fact that our prescribed route led us sometimes to visit places either

politically or nautically well known.

After the close of this short lecture, several of those present rose to

speak, amongst others the United States Plenipotentiary, Mr. Reed, who

expressed his sincere pleasure at having been privileged during his stay

in China to meet with the commander of an Austrian frigate engaged with

his gallant companions in so grand a mission.

Mr. Reed spoke in high terms of the scientific exertions being made by

Germany, and recalled in animated terms the splendid services of A. von

Humboldt, whom the news of the death of Washington (14th Dec. 1799) found

already occupied in scientific research in the primeval forests of South

America, and who still (August, 1858) continued to display such marvellous

intellectual activity.

Besides Mr. Reed, we also made the personal acquaintance of the French

Plenipotentiary, Baron Gros; the ambassadors of England and Russia were

already gone, the former to Japan, the latter to the Amur. We were

introduced to Baron Gros at the house of M. de Montigny, the French

Consul, who during a residence of many years in China has occupied himself

not alone with upholding the prestige and influence of "_la grande

nation_," but has also rendered conspicuous services to science and

agriculture. To him is due the credit of having in 1847 dispatched to

Europe the first seeds of what is called the Chinese sugar-cane (_Sorghum

saccharatum_), and of having introduced to agriculturists that remarkable

species of grass, with which, in consequence of its many useful qualities,

hundreds of thousands of acres have since that period been planted in

various parts of the globe. M. de Montigny distinguished the members of

our Expedition in every way, and presented them with numerous specimens of

seeds from Northern China.[149]

The visit paid to Baron Gros by two of the naturalists left by no means an

agreeable impression. The French ambassador is a tall, commanding,

powerfully-built man, about fifty years of age, with a full, round,

beardless face covered with freckles, and hair of a light colour. He

seemed pleased to speak of himself and his connections, and repeatedly

proclaimed himself an admirer of German men of science, who was in

correspondence with M. von Humboldt. "You know," quoth the Baron,

apparently desirous of explaining his meaning, "he that wrote the Kosmos."

The two members of our Expedition coloured up; to pronounce the name of

Humboldt to German men of science, and deem it necessary to state his

literary claims, was sufficiently embarrassing. One of them endeavoured to

turn the conversation to the gulf of Petchi-li, whence Baron Gros had just

returned after the ratification of the treaty of peace. He showed them a

hasty sketch of a portion of the great wall of China, to which he had paid

a visit when in the gulf of Petchi-li, and had made the sketch on the

spot. The natives with whom he came in contact during his stay in the

North he described as destitute and poor to an extraordinary degree, but

anything but hostile to foreigners. They asked for with eagerness and

seized with avidity the entrails of animals which the sailors were about

to throw away; on empty bottles being thrown overboard, they swam a

considerable distance to rescue them. With respect to the political events

in the Pei-ho and Tien-Tsin, his Excellency, whether out of diplomatic

reserve or for other reasons we do not know, preserved profound

silence.[150]

A variety of circumstances, however, may have contributed to make the

Baron less susceptible to every other thing than his everlasting "I."

Baron Gros had in fact been subjected to the very great inconvenience of

the Propellor _Audacieuse_, which had been brought from France, having

suddenly become unseaworthy, so that he had to abandon her. She was making

from 100 to 140 tons of water per diem, and there was nothing for it but

to have the vessel taken with all speed to the docks at Whampoa for

repairs, while the envoy had to return to Europe by another opportunity.

Moreover, the Baron had been attacked by a disorder of common occurrence

in hot countries, namely, a furuncle, which is exceedingly painful, and

obstinately resists every remedy. Whoever is of a constitution liable to

such attacks is never free from them till he gains a colder climate. In

the case of the unfortunate Baron, these went on continually increasing,

and on one of his compatriots being asked in society what was the cause of

the absence of the French ambassador, replied with an arch look, "_le

pauvre baron a quatre-vingt cloux_." In fact, the annoyance caused by this

malady is redoubled by the little sympathy accorded to those afflicted

with it, who are only rallied or laughed at.

Another personage who, at the period of our stay in Shanghai, attained a

rather unenviable notoriety by his strange conduct, and did but little to

raise the reputation of France in these latitudes, was the Marquis de

Chassiron. By his marriage with one of the Princesses Murat (since dead),

he was allied to the Emperor of the French, whom he occasionally spoke of

in an off-hand way as "mon neveu, l'Empereur." Meagre, wizen,

spindle-shanked, and ringletted, in coloured check pantaloons, blue

frock, open-work cravat of Gros de Naples, and dancing-master's pumps,

resembling much more a second-rate Paris dandy than a diplomatist, it

seemed as though he must have been dispatched to this out-of-the-way part

of the world for quite other than a diplomatic object, although he took

great pains to spread the report that he had been appointed the successor

of Baron Gros in the Embassy.

One day the Commodore and some members of the Expedition received an

invitation from the kind and hospitable English Consul, Mr. Brook

Robertson, to be present at a reception at the Consulate of the Tau-Tai,

or highest Chinese official of the city.[151]

We the more readily congratulated ourselves on this invitation, as, owing

to the sudden departure of the Tau-Tai, we missed the opportunity of

paying him a visit in his own palace in the city. Punctually at the

appointed hour, 2 P.M., a formal procession was seen approaching the

buildings of the English Consulate. In front were carried numerous titles

and insignia, then the Tau-Tai in a large and handsome sedan-chair, and

finally a noisy "following," in the shape of a rabble of servants. Mr.

Robertson received the Tau-Tai at the threshold of his house, and greeted

him with the customary Tschin-Tschin, moving the hands closely folded a

few times over the breast.

All present kept the head covered, making in like manner a few

Tschin-tschins, and then accompanied the visitor to the reception-room, in

which were five stools, the seat of honour being on the left. As soon as

the Tau-Tai was seated, the rest took their seats, and a proposition was

made in consequence of the truly tropical heat, contrary to Chinese

notions of courtesy, to divest one's self of one's head-gear. The

Mandarin, at all events, seemed as little loth to lay aside his

funnel-shaped straw-cap, with its blue button and peacock's feather, as

the Europeans present to doff their uniform caps.

The presentation of the commander and the author of this narrative by Mr.

Meadows, who acted as interpreter, gave the Tau-Tai an opportunity of

inquiring of the English Consul whether our frigate had been at the gulf

of Petcheli. Mr. Robertson replied that the _Novara_ was the first

war-ship of a German power which had ever visited the Yang-tse-Kiang and

Wusung rivers, and that the frigate was bound on a voyage of scientific

discovery. This led to a running fire of questions and answers, during the

course of which two attendants were engaged alternately in filling a small

pipe with tobacco, which they handed to the Tau-Tai. The latter drew a few

puffs, permitted the smoke to escape through his nostrils, after which

his pipe was again replenished with a small supply of tobacco.

We next had an example of the custom, already mentioned, of wiping the

face with a hot damp towel, one of the attendants dipping a rather thick

piece of linen cloth in a tub of hot water, which was then wrung out, when

the cloth was presented to the Mandarin, who, without in any way

interrupting the conversation, from time to time wiped the perspiration

from his brow.

The Tau-Tai had a well-made, handsome figure, pleasing, rather

intelligent, features, a round, smooth, delicate face, without any trace

of beard, eyes as usual drawn up at the outer corner, small elegant hands,

and beautifully tapered fingers, with very long nails. His dress was very

simple; he wore, for the sake of coolness, a shirt made of thin bamboo

shoots, with a long, yellowish, loose surcoat, white drawers, and, instead

of the usual Chinese shoe with its high cork soles, or white thick

gaiters, he wore light shoes of European make. His head was covered with a

cone-shaped straw-hat of very fine texture, with a red tassel and blue

knot in the midst, and a dark green peacock's feather, extending

horizontally backwards.

Business over, a table was covered, and the Tau-Tai invited to partake.

According to the Chinese custom, only confectionery, preserves, and fruit

were handed round. The liquids consisted of sherry, liqueurs, Chinese wine

or Samschoo (made from rice and imbibed from cups in lieu of glasses), and

green and almond tea. The Mandarin drank to all present, and seemed to

take more to sherry and Maraschino than to his own native drinks. The slim

liqueur bottle, with its neat gilt label and the thick cork stopper,

seemed especially to attract his attention.

After a few commonplace observations, the Tau-Tai once more turned the

conversation upon Austria, and remarked he had never before heard of that

power. Mr. Meadows endeavoured to prompt the memory of the Chinese

official, produced Muirhead's universal geography translated into Chinese,

turned up therein the section relating to Austria, and handed the book to

the Tau-Tai, who had the entire passage read to him by one of his

attendants, that he might "get up" the country from which the strangers

had come who were seated on his left and right hands.

The inquisitiveness of every Chinese now displayed itself in a series of

inquiries as to the principal products and articles of export of the

Empire, and he expressed a hope he should ere long see more of the

"Austrian Mandarins" in Shanghai. The _Novara_ travellers on their side

with a patriotic pride, readily pardonable under the circumstances,

endeavoured through the medium of the Government interpreter to leave the

best possible impression of their native country upon the mind of the

Tau-Tai, by giving a glowing description of the Austrian Empire, its

natural advantages, and its people. Of numbers the worthy man seemed to

have no definite idea, for the remark that the Empire contained (1st

August, 1858) very nearly 40,000,000 inhabitants seemed greatly to

astonish him, although this is probably barely one-tenth of the population

of the Chinese Empire.[152]

Just as the Tau-Tai was preparing to set out on his return, a tremendous

tumult was suddenly heard in the street. It seemed like a popular

insurrection, and servants were forthwith sent out to ascertain the cause

of this unexpected shindy, who came back presently with the intelligence

that an English sailor had struck a coolie of the suite a blow on the face

with his fist, so violent that he was seriously injured, and was bleeding

profusely. The Tau-Tai made his appearance on the portico. As soon as the

injured man saw his master approaching, he flung himself before him

imploring aid, and exhibiting his face streaming with blood, and the wound

gaping open. The Tau-Tai ordered the man to rise, and delivered him to the

Chinese police. Occasionally when a Chinese receives a wound in a quarrel

of this nature he will abstain from wiping off the blood-stains from his

face for weeks together, finding, it should seem, some satisfaction in

being able to exhibit them. This done, the procession resumed its march.

In front strode a man who from time to time administered a sounding thwack

to the gong, after which he rushed through the streets bawling like a

Stentor, that the people might crowd on one side and leave the Tau-Tai

space to pass unobstructed. The rear was brought up with police,

catch-poles with long bamboo poles, and the executioner with his axe--the

never-failing attendant on such occasions,--who accompanies it, however,

only as a sort of allegorical personage, to impress upon the yelling

crowds around the consequences of disobedience, and of rebellion against

constituted authority.

The only important excursion we made from Shanghai was to the Jesuit

Mission of Sikkawei, twelve miles distant. Our excellent host, Mr. James

Hogg, of the well-known firm of Lindsay and Co.,[153] and Consul for the

Hanse towns, to whose great kindness we are deeply indebted, was so kind

as to order his pretty little yacht _Flirt_ to be got ready for our

accommodation, and we set off, accompanied by the heroic Mr. Gray, of the

American house of Russell and Co., who lost one foot while fighting

against the Tai-ping rebels before the very gates of Shanghai. As the

Europeans are in the habit of using these pleasure-boats as residences

during their visit to the interior, so as not to be dependent upon the

somewhat uncertain hospitality of the Chinese, they are provided with

every accessory to comfort, being fitted with a neat cabin, a small

library, boudoir, berth-cabin, &c. They usually carry an immense spread of

canvas, and during calms are propelled like the native boats with one big

oar from the stern, which serves at the same time as a rudder. The sail up

the Wusung, in which upwards of a hundred sail of merchantmen, and above a

thousand junks, were lying at anchor, was very interesting. Many of the

junks lying off the Catholic cathedral of Tonka-du displayed a flag with a

white cross on a black ground, in token of the religious faith of the

crew. Here also we saw for the first time some Siamese ships, built in

Siam, for the most part on European models. Of these we counted eleven. By

way of ensign, they had an elephant rather nicely drawn, sometimes on a

red, sometimes on a blue field, according to the fancy or the taste of the

owner. These vessels have Siamese crews and English captains, and are

armed with ten or twelve cannon, so that his Siamese Majesty can at a

moment's notice use his little fleet of merchantmen for warlike purposes.

The channel, 200 or 300 fathoms wide, which unites the Wusung with the

internal network of small rivers, is called the Wuang-Po, a designation

which some authorities assume to be the name of its constructor, while

others maintain that it is derived from _wong_, yellow, and applies to the

colour of the water, just as Whampoa, near Canton, signifies the yellow

anchorage. Nothing has so much contributed to that immense activity of

commerce, which we marvel at among the Chinese, as their vast canal

system, the introduction of which was pursued with such energy in the 7th

century.[154] The innumerable artificial canals, with which the whole

north of China is intersected, and which by their admirably planned system

of arrangement unite all the lakes and navigable rivers of the Empire with

each other, make it possible to voyage through every province of the

Empire without having once to leave the boat. They atone for the great

want of good roads, and even make the absence of railroads less

perceptible in a country where the value of labour is so unprecedentedly

low.

As soon as we leave Shanghai behind, with its immense commercial fleet,

the scenery beyond becomes tame. The banks on either side are low, and far

as the eye can reach not a single hill is to be seen, not even a rising

slope--nothing but a flat alluvial soil, every inch of which seems

diligently tilled, or otherwise made useful.

After we had sailed several miles in the _Flirt_ we came to a branch of

the great canal, where we shifted into a smaller but not less elegant

boat, the property of Mr. Gray, which drew less water, and in which we

were to reach the Jesuit mission. At this season, however, owing to the

lowness of the water, navigation was only continued with great difficulty,

and notwithstanding the astonishing dexterity with which our worthy Lau-tu

(the old chief) conned our craft through the sharp bends of the river, we

were at last compelled to halt, and perform the rest of the distance,

about two miles, on foot.

We now found ourselves strolling through fields planted with rice and

cotton, through cabbage and vegetable gardens, occasionally even over

graves, which rose in mounds here and there along our path. Sometimes in

the distance we could descry small villages and solitary farm-houses.

In Sikkawei we found about twenty Jesuits, French and Italians, all of

genuine Chinese appearance, with heads half-shaved, long queues stretching

to the ground, loose yellow clothes, and velvet shoes with thick cork

soles. This had a striking, almost theatrical effect. We were ushered into

the reception-room, and there offered refreshment. The conversation soon

became brisk, which added to the singularity of the scene, as the seeming

Chinese, sitting in a circle round the table, and smoking perfumed tobacco

out of small long-stemmed pipes, began, in fluent French or liquid

Italian, to discuss Paris, Naples, Vienna, or politics and art.

This Mission is supported by the Propaganda of Rome, as also by voluntary

contributions. About 80 pupils, chiefly children of poor parents, are

instructed in the Chinese language and literature, in reading, writing,

arithmetic, and drawing, and in the tenets of the Roman Catholic faith; on

the other hand, little anxiety is manifested for their instruction in

French or English, or in providing them with any practical mechanical

instruction. In this mode of education the main object seems to be to

enable the students more readily to reach the highest offices in the state

by imparting to them a thorough grounding in Chinese literature, and by

these means to ensure for them religious influence and protection.

Accordingly, strenuous efforts are made to increase the number of

scholars, and in order to facilitate this aim, as in the case of the

Indians of Central and Southern America, their observance of various

heathen rites is connived at, as, for example, the worship of their

ancestors, the ceremonies at the death of a relation, &c. &c.

One branch of art, in which some of the scholars have, owing to their

having naturally a turn for it, attained considerable proficiency, is

wood-engraving. In the church attached to the Mission are shown a number

of altar-ornaments, chiefly figures very beautifully carved in wood, the

work of a Jesuit of Spanish extraction, whose talent and enthusiasm seem

to have laid the foundation of this school of image-carvers. In what is

called the model-room are numbers of figures and busts designed by the

practised hand of the brother alluded to. Here too are some heads of the

Saviour, very beautifully executed in clay by the Chinese scholars, as

also Madonnas, busts of Queen Victoria, Prince Albert, and the Emperor

Napoleon III. These are doubly extraordinary, when we remember the slight

instruction and very scanty assistance bestowed on them while in course of

execution; their actual value however is small, for at present, as none of

the Jesuits in the Mission have any very decided taste for the art,

instruction in it has almost entirely ceased.

The achievements of the present members of the Society of Jesus, in China,

suffer greatly, measured by the standard of what was accomplished by their

renowned brethren in previous centuries; one looks in vain for the high

attainments, the self-sacrificing zeal, the practical talents of other

times, and Sikkawei, with its present spiritual occupants, cannot leave a

very pleasing impression on any unprejudiced Catholic. There is an utter

lack of all those qualities which once formed the renown and the title to

admiration of the Jesuits in China. One looks for, but fails to find, a

library corresponding to the dignity of the Mission, or mathematical or

medical instruments, or a chemical laboratory: in lieu of these there seem

to prevail a deficiency of Christian toleration for these unmistakeable

adjuncts of true education and enlightenment. At all events, we judged as

much from a remark made by the brother who accompanied us round the

building, who spoke some words in Chinese to the gaping crowd of

long-tailed scholars, who kept pressing upon us, and then turning to us,

observed in French,--"I have informed our pupils that our present guests

are Roman Catholics, and therefore _true_ Christians, because we

occasionally have English visitors at the Mission, and they are heretics."

Apparently the intolerant padre was reckoning without his host, for there

were several Protestants among the party!

Throughout the province of Kaing-su there are at present 80,000 Chinese

Catholics, that is to say, who profess Catholicism, though having but a

very superficial idea of its spirit and its reality.

In returning to our boat we availed ourselves of the mode of conveyance in

most common use in China, the sedan-chair, or couch. The ordinary

sedan-chair differs little in exterior form and interior arrangement from

those still occasionally used in some of the out-of-the-way, old-fashioned

towns, both of Germany and England. Owing to the extreme cheapness of

labour, the least well-to-do classes of Chinese are able to avail

themselves of these convenient conveyances, the use of which is doubly

agreeable in such a hot climate. Indeed, long journeys are very frequently

made by this mode of transport. As a rule, the sedan-bearers get over from

twenty to twenty-five miles per diem, charging for that distance one

dollar, in addition to their food, consisting of tea, rice, vegetables,

and cakes. Baggage and merchandise of all sorts are conveyed by coolies,

each carrying with ease 110 _catties_, equal to 146 lbs. With such a

burthen he will trudge over lofty mountain passes, and without much effort

will cover thirteen miles a day. If special dispatch is required, the

burthen must be reduced one-half, when the coolie, keeping at the trot,

will get over double the distance in one day; what is gained in speed

being lost in power.

On our return to Shanghai, we visited the celebrated six-storied Pagoda,

Long-Sah, which is traditionally said to have been erected about A.D. 250,

during the period of the Three Empires. Of all the Pagodas hitherto known,

not even excepting the well-known specimen at Canton, it is the best

preserved, and forms one massive, wide quadrangular tower, about 150 feet

high, arranged in six stories, one of which has running around it a richly

carved balcony. The pyramidal roof has turned-up angles, to which are

suspended bells, which when agitated by the wind give forth their music.

From the highest story, to which access is obtained by a stone staircase,

there is a rather agreeable, pretty extensive view over the country, and

its cultivated surface, stretching away till, at 200 miles from Shanghai,

to the north and north-west, rises a range of mountains, of which of

course not a glimpse is to be seen hence, the prospect in this direction

having no defined limit. This panoramic view gives an excellent idea of

the characteristics of a Chinese landscape, the various methods of

cultivation, the situation of the valleys, and, above all, the ceaseless

tide of traffic, as evidenced by the almost innumerable artificial

water-channels which intersect the country in every direction. Quite close

to the Pagoda is a Buddha temple, the well-known Lung-hwo, erected A.D.

230. Of the seventy Buddhist and Taouist temples of the province this is

the largest and most beautiful. The rear of the edifice is adorned with

countless figures, sometimes of colossal dimensions, in wood, plaster, and

porcelain, richly carved and gilt. There is also a female statue among

these Chinese saints, the attitude strongly suggestive of a Madonna.

This temple is plainly in connection with the Pagoda, and the various

small chambers behind it seem to have been destined for the accommodation

of priests and devout pilgrims. According to an old Chinese tradition this

temple owes its erection to the following circumstance:--a queen from the

south, who had anchored her boat one night in the Whampoa Channel near

Wusung, suddenly beheld a light shoot up amid the tall grass, and rise

towards heaven, in consequence of which she gave orders for a temple to be

built on the site.

One of the most interesting episodes of our stay at Shanghai consisted in

a genuine Chinese banquet, given by a wealthy native merchant, named

Ta-ki, a warm friend of all foreigners, in honour of the Austrian

Expedition. The huge invitation cards, written, according to the usual

practice of the country, in Chinese characters upon blood-red paper, and

folded in envelopes of the same brilliant hue, were sent round to the

residences of the guests some days beforehand.

At 8 P.M. the feast began. Ta-ki's house, like those of all the wealthy

Chinese, is surrounded by a massive wall, six or seven feet in height, and

painted white. After passing through a narrow gateway, the visitor finds

himself at once in the usual apartments. These were adorned for the

occasion with large coloured lanterns, which despite their numbers shed a

mild and most agreeable light.[155] Along the walls, which were richly

gilt, hung quantities of sententious native maxims, written with Indian

ink, sometimes in Chinese characters, sometimes in Tartar, on white or

yellow rolls of paper. The greatest attention appeared to have been paid

to the preparation of the reception-room, whose form was a rather narrow

oblong, in which at the far end was erected a platform, where a strolling

company acted Chinese theatricals. The musicians sat on the stage. The

company belonged to one of those innumerable wandering troops which are

engaged for a day or two now by the community, now by wealthy Mandarins,

to give some theatrical representations, which it seems must in China

form the accompaniment of every important event, whether joyous or

sorrowful.

At those performances which are given in public, the multitude is admitted

gratis, and of this privilege they avail themselves to the utmost. Each

man selects the best seat for himself, on the street, in a tree, or on a

roof. Mandarins, however, and rich private individuals have their own

little stage scenes in the interior of their usually spacious mansions, in

which from time to time they have theatrical representations for the

amusement of a small circle of friends. Some Mandarins even go the length

of having their own players, who receive regular annual pay, and form part

of the household.

Notwithstanding the very extensive collections of Chinese plays, with

several of which the learned classes of Europe have been made acquainted

by the valuable labours of Julien, Bazin, Remusat, and others, there are

but a very few of true literary value. The plot of most of them is

exceedingly simple, the actors themselves specify the characters they are

to play; between each scene there is usually a lack of connection, and

frequently the most telling scenes and situations are marred by the most

arrant trash, or the coarsest jests. Only a very small number of these

rise above the level of the buffoonery of former ages, and judging by the

accounts given by travellers, who have been present at such entertainments

in even the large cities, including Pekin itself, the dramatic art would

as yet seem to be in its infancy in China.[156] The company which was

assembled in the hospitable mansion of Ta-ki, to do honour to the members

of the _Novara_ Expedition, was not calculated to impress them favourably

with the scope of the Chinese drama. The piece appointed consisted of

events in the ancient history of China, for which Chinese dramatic poets

have a special predilection, owing to the abundance of material from which

to choose, although the multitude seem to have but little sympathy with

it. Even our host, who spoke the Canton-English, as it is called, could

give us but little explanation or enlightenment as to the plot, and

contented himself with repeatedly remarking that the piece related to

"old, old times!"

Notwithstanding the universal custom, according to which women are not

permitted to enter a theatre, so that even the female characters have to

be played by men dressed to represent the part, the majority of the

present troupe were girls of from 14 to 20 years of age, who, stained red

or white, and elegantly arrayed, appeared mostly in Mandarin dresses on

the stage. The most outrageously absurd of the scenes were those most in

favour with the numerous domestics who, besides the invited guests, formed

the audience. Thus, there was a roar of laughter when a nurse entered with

a child in her arms, which had the face of an old soldier, with grey

beard, whiskers, and moustachios. They sang a long, rather melancholious

ditty, and then retired, without there appearing to be the slightest

connection between this and the following scene. We noted the evident

predilection of the Chinese actors for a high-pitched falsetto tone of

voice when speaking, which, by the way, must render their assumption of

female parts much more easy, and on the present occasion they probably

were desirous of giving us a specimen of their skill in this

accomplishment. The music on such occasions is, if possible, even more

discordant and monotonous than the delivery, and is not confined to merely

accompanying the couplets, but continues to play during the intervals till

the ear is utterly wearied.

At the close of each act a large board covered with a red cloth was

brought on the stage and placed beneath the feet of the actors; on this

the steward of the house placed a present for the troupe about four

dollars' worth of copper _cash_, which was forthwith carried away. This

was apparently the only intimation to most of the spectators that a piece

was ended, and a fresh one about to begin.

After these theatrical representations had lasted about an hour and a half

a long pause ensued. One longed to escape outside into the fresh air, to

get rid of the wearying sensation of the performances, and the stifling

heat which prevailed in the room. The guests were at liberty to walk

without obstruction through the various apartments of the extensive

residence, and accordingly stumbled upon rooms which are usually, as it

were, hermetically sealed to a foreigner, viz. the apartments of the

women. Ta-ki carried his hospitality even this length, and presented us to

his wives, as also to his grey-haired mother, seventy years old, for whom

he showed the utmost love and respect. Ta-ki's wives, four or five in

number, had "assisted" at the theatrical performances, each seated on

elevated seats expressly prepared for them, and behaved with the greatest

courtesy and ease of manner. They seemed not to have the slightest thought

of showing off, or of tittering or joking with the strangers. All were

attired in silk, and most tastefully decorated with jewels; all had the

usual painfully distorted small feet, which greatly interfered with their

powers of locomotion. They did not attend at the banquet, but had their

food served in the private apartments.

For supper the quondam theatre was converted into a banqueting-hall. But

there was no long wide table set out as in Europe, only small

four-cornered tables covered with red cloth, at each of which three

Europeans and one Chinese took their seats; the duty of the latter being

to do the honours to his companions in the name of the host, who took his

seat beside the Commodore, and to minister to their comfort.

As it was the object to give us the most accurate idea possible of a

genuine Chinese repast, everything was eliminated which could in any way

interfere with the design, and we had accordingly to begin with dessert

and conclude with the soup, as also to convey the various descriptions of

food to our mouths with thin strips of ivory ("chop-sticks"), instead of

knives and forks.

The peculiarity of Chinese usages, so directly opposed to those of Europe,

became likewise strikingly apparent in the course of the meal. And as in

China the mark of courtesy is to keep the head covered instead of removing

the hat, so the place of honour is on the left hand; the ancestors are

ennobled instead of the descendants (which is at once more sensible and

more economical); the characters in writing run from right to left instead

of the reverse; the mourning colour is white instead of black; the natives

carefully extirpate every sign of a beard, instead of cherishing it as a

symbol of mature, dignified manhood; thus also meals begin with the food

with which we terminate ours, confectionery and fruit. When we were all

seated, each table was forthwith covered with a profusion of the most

varied dishes on beautiful plates of stained porcelain, and while we were

still engaged in attempting to discover the mysterious ingredients of

these, the Chinese who was doing the honours at our table was exerting

himself to select and lay before us the most dainty morsels of each dish.

In performing this part of his functions he thought only to act with more

care and attention, in drawing each of the twain chop-sticks between his

own lips and withdrawing them before he fished up a fresh piece and laid

it on our plate! The dexterity with which all Chinese use these

chop-sticks, which are usually made of ivory, ebony, or bamboo, borders

on the marvellous. In their hands, held between their fingers, they become

like a pair of pincers, with which they can pick up the smallest objects,

and can eat rice-grains, beans, or peas as easily as they can separate the

flakes of a fish from its skin, or remove the shell of a hard-boiled egg.

As to the ingredients of the dishes presented, we must frankly avow that

by far the greater number were utterly unknown to us, for the Chinese

cuisine, oddly enough, sets great store on making the materials

unrecognizable, and altering their natural flavour by various recipes and

culinary mysteries. According to the inquiries which we made of our

carver, our host seemed so anxious to fulfil to the letter his promise to

give us a real Chinese repast, that he had resolved on not sparing us a

single one of the rarer dainties of Chinese epicures. Thus we not only had

swallows' nests, lapwings' eggs, and steamed frogs, but also roasted

silk-worms, shark-fins, stag and buffalo tendons, biche-de-mar, bamboo

roots, sea-weed, half-fledged chickens, and various other natural

delicacies. The table was supplied at least three times with fresh

delicacies, and we believe we do not exaggerate when we estimate the

number of different dishes at not less than half a hundred. Meat of all

sorts was at a discount, and was served up in small morsels ready

carved;[157] on the other hand, rice and vegetables were presented in

every imaginable form. During the meal one young girl, who had played a

part in the dramas, was incessantly occupied with filling for each guest a

very small cup with a warm beverage distilled from millet, thus carrying

out the code of Chinese civility, that the cup should never be suffered to

be empty, and therefore, that however little has once been drunk it must

forthwith be replenished. Of the juice of the grape the Chinese make no

use, although there are many districts in the country which are eminently

adapted to the growth of the vine. All the native drinks consist of

nothing but poor-flavoured, highly-perfumed drinks, chiefly distilled from

millet and rice, and known by the general name of Samshoo, although this

name is solely applicable to that obtained from rice, which somewhat

resembles arrack. After the meal is over there are no spirits presented,

but only tea, usually the common green tea, or else a tea prepared from

almonds. The Chinese are, on the whole, a very temperate people, and even

their passion for smoking opium is rather a vice among the masses of the

coast provinces and the large towns, than of the interior of the kingdom.

During the banquet, as well as after it, there were further theatrical

exhibitions, but the guests, who had been sufficiently wearied with the

first of these, preferred to retire quietly to their own residences, and,

seated in a rocking-chair on the delicious verandah, to recall all the

peculiarities of the entertainment at which they had been present.

The rites of hospitality to strangers were not, however, limited in

fulfilment to Ta-ki, since the various consuls settled at Shanghai, as

well as several of the English, American, and German merchants, invited

the members of the Expedition to dinner-parties given in their honour,

each vying with the rest in refined courtesy. An especially pleasant

memory attaches to one indication of this feeling, the spontaneous

offering of a number of Germans to our commander and his associates. We

were sitting in the house of Mr. James Hogg, the Hanseatic Consul, when

from the garden there suddenly arose a serenade of men's voices, singing

German melodies. Surprised and deeply affected, the entire company rose

from table and strolled into the garden, but the serenaders were concealed

behind a group of trees, and as they withdrew, singing, the last cadence

of a thrilling patriotic song was heard melting in the distance!

The Germans already constitute a by no means inconsiderable portion of the

foreign community of China, and it is painful to observe what slender

encouragement and support their energy and industry have as yet met with

from the various governments of Germany. The number of Bremen ships which

visited the harbour of Shanghai has of late years equalled that of the

United States, and would be very greatly increased if the German

mercantile community and the home-shippers to the Chinese market could

depend upon protection such as the English and French can rely upon. The

German States, such, for instance, as the Hanseatic Towns, Prussia,

Oldenburg, have indeed unsalaried Consuls here, but the shrewd, material

Chinese people require something more than an empty intercession--they

require to be convinced by an unmistakeable physical ability to back these

representatives. Many a crying injustice, which the helpless German

merchants and ship captains have to put up with without hope of redress in

the various ports of China, would not and dare not occur if but a single

German ship-of-war were stationed in Chinese waters. What the effect is,

under similar circumstances, of even one single small boat was well

illustrated by Mr. Alcock, formerly the English Consul at Shanghai,[158]

who with a small English brig blocked the mouth of the Yang-tse-kiang, and

did not suffer one single "junk" of the many hundreds stationed in the

river to put to sea under threat of firing into them until the Chinese

Government had paid attention to his demands, and surrendered for trial by

an English tribunal the murderers of an English missionary. The bare

menace of closing the river sufficed to secure the Consul in his rights,

and he speedily saw his various demands complied with. Only a month or two

later a Bremen captain sustained such severe losses through the wilful act

of the Chinese Government that he had to sell his ship, the energetic

protest of his Consul to the native authorities meeting no other

attention than an insulting chuckle over the powerlessness of the German

empire.

In consequence of the Treaty of Pekin securing to Europeans the

unobstructed navigation of all canals and rivers throughout the Celestial

Empire, the trade with China is becoming so rapidly developed, that some

remedy of this sort is imperatively needed,--if German commerce and

industry would avoid receiving a serious check, if she would not be

supplanted by other and more fortunate nations, in the endeavour to avail

herself of the great alteration for the better in the facilities for trade

in China.

The activity and energy of the English in opening up new outlets for their

native manufactures were here astonishingly visible. Hardly are the

ratifications of peace exchanged, opening the most important rivers and

harbours of the Empire to free commerce with the subjects of England, ere

the country has been surveyed and explored in every direction. A number of

English merchants ascended the Yang-tse-kiang as far as Hang-kow[159]

(mouth of trade), a city containing several millions of inhabitants,

which, in consequence of its extraordinarily advantageous site, has

already been described by Huc as the chief emporium of the 18 Provinces,

and whence all the foreign trade radiates into the interior. Others

undertook a land journey from Canton to Hang-kow; a third company ascended

the Pei-ho and visited Tien-Tsin, while yet a fourth were contemplating

the formidable undertaking of boating it up the Yang-tse-kiang from

Shanghai to Hang-kow, whence they thought of penetrating via Thibet into

British India.[160] Already information has been obtained from a variety

of these excursions, which were undertaken specially in the interests of

commerce, such as justify the most glowing expectations as to the trade

with the Yang-tse-kiang and the Pei-ho.[161] Hang-kow promises to be a

most important depot for the exportation of tea, while Tien-Tsin promises

to be not less important as an entrepot for the importation of

manufactures of every description. By the opening of these two additional

harbours, Shanghai and Canton will fall off in their ratio of increase

hitherto, but general commerce will on the whole receive a new impulse.

To the merchant and shipper, the latest intelligence from China as to the

enormous development of commerce and trade at numerous spots of the

Central Empire, hitherto undisturbed by European civilization, must be

positively astounding. It is a rich mine of the most valuable material,

which the _China Overland Trade Report_ and the _North China Herald_

presents to its readers, rendered doubly valuable through the influence

of that Freedom of Speech, which makes every mercantile nation participate

in the very latest information as to these experiments and their results.

For, so far as concerns our present direct intercourse with China, a time

must come, when more accurate notions will penetrate into even Austrian

commercial circles as to the wants of a population, and the natural wealth

of an empire, which embraces a superficial area of 3,000,000 square miles,

with a population of 400,000,000 souls, and whose entire foreign commerce

already amounts to L36,000,000, apart from the impulse which recent events

must lend it.

Notwithstanding the immense variety of natural products of the Chinese

Empire, the chief articles of export hitherto have been tea and silk, and

we shall therefore confine our attention to a few important particulars as

to those two articles.

The introduction of silk cultivation into China, one of the most ancient

industrial pursuits of the Empire, is due, if we are to believe a native

legend, to the consort of the Emperor Hwang-te, who reigned B.C. 2640. The

first mention of the mulberry tree and of silk occurs in the

Schoo-kiu,[162] "the Book of exalted solid learning--the Book of Books,"

as it were, a collection of the most ancient historical annals of the

Chinese Empire, which was compiled B.C. 484, by Confucius, from the

memoranda of former writers of history, as well as from the information

furnished by ancient monuments. Even empresses in those halcyon times did

not deem it beneath their dignity to collect mulberry-leaves and feed the

silk-worms, while various treatises were composed by imperial pens,

respecting the cultivation of that most useful plant. The interest taken

in silk-rearing by these the highest personages in the Empire, has

remained unbroken to our own day, and quite recently a Chinese governor

enriched the already copious literature upon this subject with a

comprehensive work, written with the laudable object of stimulating the

inhabitants of the silk-producing districts to a more extensive and

improved system of silk cultivating.

The two best species of mulberry, those which are best adapted for the

consumption of the worm, are: "Loo" (_Morus alba_), with long leaves,

little fruit, and firm roots, which flourishes chiefly in North China, and

"King" (_Morus nigra_), with narrow leaves, more abundant fruit, and

altogether a hardier plant, which grows chiefly in the South.

According to old Chinese notions, there are eight different species of

silk-worm, which spin their cocoons at various periods[163] of the year

between April and November.

The chief silk districts lie in the northern part of the province of

Tsche-Kiang, and the principal silk marts are the following cities:

Hoo-chow-foo, Hang-chow-foo, Keahing-fu, Nantsin, and Shoo-hing, which lie

in a sort of semi-circle about 150 miles from Shanghai.

The silk is not grown in China by wealthy landed proprietors, and "thrown"

in huge establishments, but by millions of husbandmen, each of whom calls

but a small patch of land his own, and plants it with mulberry trees,

thus, like the bee, contributing his own share towards increasing the

universal stock. During the season specially devoted to the silk-worm, old

and young, lofty and lowly, throughout the silk districts, are busily and

earnestly engaged night and day in tending the worms and winding off the

silk. When the crop is being gathered in, the chief merchants send their

agents to all parts of the chief silk districts, in order to collect and

buy up these small quantities (varying greatly in value, as may be readily

imagined), and depositing them in regularly assigned warehouses, where

they can be sorted according to quality. This done, the silk is packed in

bales of 80 _catties_, or about 106 lbs. weight, and conveyed to Shanghai

for sale, where it is once more subjected in each mercantile house to the

examination of the special "silk Inspectors," or "Testers," after passing

through whose hands, it is sorted according to quality for shipment to

Europe.

Three distinct qualities of raw silk are known in commerce, viz. Tsatli

[Chinese character(s)], Taysam [Chinese character(s)] (the big worm), and

Yuen-wha, or Yuen-fa [Chinese character(s)] (the flower of the garden).

These three leading descriptions are again subdivided into a great number

of sorts, which are usually known by the name of the trader, or his "hong"

(business).

The annual production of silk in China is estimated to amount to from

200,000 to 250,000 bales, or from 20,000,000 to 25,000,000 pounds' weight.

This, however, is a very superficial estimate; that silk cultivation,

however, must be enormously developed in China is obvious, not alone from

the immense home consumption of the article, but also from the

circumstance that, notwithstanding the immense increase in exports during

the last ten years, the price of silk has not merely remained stationary,

but is on an average absolutely less than at a period when barely

one-fourth of the quantity now exported found its way to England and

France. The price of silk is usually reckoned in Taels,[164] on the

estimate of a bale averaging 100 lbs. English. Between Shanghai and London

the bale loses on the average three per cent. in weight. There is also

usually an allowance made of 15 per cent. for cost of transport and

incidental charges from Shanghai to any English port.

On the average only one-fourth of the entire quantity of silk produced in

China, or about 6,000,000 lbs., is exported annually, of which by far the

largest quantity, perhaps as much as nine-tenths, goes to England and

France. In 1843-44, the total export from all China was only 5100 bales.

In 1859, the export of raw silk from Shanghai alone was 75,652 bales!

Besides the raw silk there are annually exported from China a large

quantity of silk-stuffs manufactured in China, crape shawls, &c. &c., to

the value of from L400,000 to L500,000, the majority of which find a

market in the United States.

The social condition of the Chinese silk-spinner is not less deplorable

and poverty-stricken than that of the workmen of Europe, who are similarly

engaged in the preparation of this costly article of luxury. As in Lyons,

in Spitalfields, or among the Silesian Mountains, the Chinese silk-weaver

lives and dies in the most abject misery, and the delicate and beautiful

fabrics of his loom are produced in a wretched hut of such mean

dimensions, that he is sometimes compelled to dig a hole in the soil in

order to find room for the treadle. However, the Chinese weaver appears in

so far better off than the same handicraftsman in Europe, that he has less

to dread from the severity of the climate, and can purchase more food,

even though his remuneration be smaller, than the weaver can possibly do

in Europe, owing to the much higher price of even the commonest

necessities of life.

The recent revolution in Chinese foreign relations will exercise a

permanent influence on the silk culture of China, and, considering the

exceedingly low rate of wages in that country, the time cannot be far

distant, when one may purchase Chinese silk in Europe more cheaply than

home-grown silk, when manufacturers will find it more profitable to

purchase this most important raw material in China, than in Italy or the

South of France. Acute business men in Hong-kong and Shanghai assured us

that it only needed an impulse from without to increase the silk

manufacture of China tenfold, and supply the annual demand for silk of the

entire globe, which, if we are to believe encyclopedias and such like

authorities, amounts to from 12,000,000 to 15,000,000 lbs. What makes

Chinese silk especially suitable for the European market is its possessing

in great perfection the two chief qualities of substance and colour,

while, on the other hand, it is inferior to that of Europe in the fineness

and glossy feel of its fibre. In Europe the silk is wound off from a

limited number of cocoons, whereas in China it is left to the discretion

of the workman to spin it from few or many cocoons as he pleases. Hence

results that inequality and unevenness in the texture of the thread, a

defect which cannot possibly be remedied by after-manipulation, and which

accordingly completely prevents its employment in the manufacture of the

more costly fabrics. This drawback, which is the main reason why Chinese

silk does not rule the European market, will however admit of being

remedied without any difficulty, so soon as the silk districts become more

easily accessible, by the introduction of European labour and machinery,

when this valuable and costly product will gain materially both in

fineness and suitability.

Only a few years since German and Austrian merchants attached but a small

value to Chinese silk as suited to our market, and it seemed to them a

positive absurdity, when any one spoke, as we ourselves repeatedly have

done from a profound conviction of its truth, of the future influence

exercised over the silk markets of the world by the influence of this

Chinese raw material. Now-a-days we hear that there is scarcely one single

silk factory which can hold its ground, unless, in addition to French and

Italian silk, it imports Chinese silk, while the demand for that material

increases from year to year, and has very probably not yet attained the

one-hundredth part of the development of which it is susceptible.

Tea (_Cha_[165]) ranks next to silk among the articles which have raised

the trade with China to such an importance. The cultivation of the tea

plant is of far later date than that of the mulberry tree, and its leaves,

although used by the Chinese as a curative from the third century of our

era, only came into general use, as providing a universal drink, towards

the end of the sixth century.[166] Statesmen and poets sounded the

praises of the new beverage, and while the one employed this excellent and

beneficial gift of nature to fill the treasury by the imposition of a tax,

the others chanted the praise of the plant in their hymns and songs, and

thus, probably without intending it, contributed to increase the revenue

of the Government.

"Tea," writes one of the older Chinese authors, "soothes the spirit,

softens the heart, dispels languor, restores from fatigue, stimulates the

intellect, and arouses from indolence; it makes the body lighter and more

brisk, and quickens the faculty of observation."

The tea plant first attracted the attention of Chinese naturalists in

Wu-yi, or, as the English term it, the Bohea[167] district, which enjoys

to this day a great reputation for the exquisite quality which grows on

its hills.

At present the cultivation of the tea plant extends northward as far as

Tang-tschao, in the province of Shantung, southward as far as Canton and

Kuang-si, and westward as far as the province of Yun-nan. As, moreover,

the tea plant likewise abounds in Japan, the Corea, and the Loo-Choo

Islands, as also in Chusan, Tonquin, and Cochin China, we may assume that

it flourishes over about 28 deg. of latitude and 30 deg. of longitude, within

which it can be cultivated without being affected by severe alternations

of temperature. That part of North China, however, which lies between 27 deg.

and 33 deg. N., seems on the whole to furnish the finest sorts,[168] where the

mean annual temperature ranges between 61 deg.7 and 68 deg., and in which fine

weather with a rise of temperature follows upon a heavy rainfall; the

latter being as necessary for the speedy and luxuriant growth of the

leaves, as the former is for eliciting their fragrance and other valuable

qualities.

To form an idea of the enormous amount of tea which is annually cultivated

in China, it suffices to remark that, after deducting the immense quantity

consumed, there are more than 70,000,000 lbs. exported annually.

It is not our intention to give a disquisition upon the cultivation and

preparation of the tea, the drying (_poey_), roasting (_tschoo_),

perfuming and colouring of the leaves, in short, the long tedious process

to which this valuable article of commerce is subjected from its

collection on the fertile green slopes of the bush-covered hills of Bohea,

till its arrival at the port of shipment in a form suited for exportation.

We prefer here to confine our attention to a consideration of those

experiments which have recently been made in China with respect to tea

cultivation.

There are of the tea plant an almost endless variety of qualities, but

only two species, viz. _Thea viridis_ (green tea), and _Thea Bohea_,[169]

and even these two have such few points of difference, that quite lately

they were described by Fortune as one and the same species. Thus, too, it

has been asserted in our own day that the green and black varieties of tea

sold in Europe do not, as is universally supposed, belong to two different

species of tea, but that the difference of colour, shape of leaf, flavour,

&c., is exclusively due to varieties in the mode of preparing them for the

market, and that the manufacturer is able to make from the leaves every

description, black or green, which is required in commerce. Thus in the

celebrated tea district of Ning-tschan, where in former days black tea was

exclusively grown, there is now procured green tea from the same species

of plant, apparently because its cultivation pays better, while the

quality remains in its olden repute.

The black tea, which constitutes four-fifths of the entire export to

England, is grown of a particularly fine quality in the district of

Kien-ning-foo in the province of Fo-kien, and is known to commerce by a

variety of names, chiefly derived from the localities in which it is

grown, or those of their proprietors. On the other hand, the green sort

selected for exportation is chiefly met with on the slopes of the chain

of hills between Che-kiang and Ngan-hwui. Besides those descriptions

actually prepared on the spot where they grow, there are also an immense

variety of teas manufactured in Canton from all sorts of black and green

tea. The tea-growers of Canton are reputed to colour their green teas

artificially, by sprinkling them with a mixture of Prussian blue and

pulverized chalk, after which they subject them to a rolling motion for a

considerable time in heated copper pans.[170]

Narrative of the Circumnavigation of the Globe by the Austrian Frigate Novara, Volume II (Commodore B. Von Wullerstorf-Urbair,) Undertaken by Order of the Imperial Government in the Years 1857, 1858, & 1859, Under the Immediate Auspices of His I. and R. Highness the Archduke Ferdinand Maximilian, Commander-In-Chief of the Austrian Navy. · 第 14 / 16 章

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