CHAPTER VI.

_Character of the inhabitants of Java--Difference between the

Súndas and the Javans--The Lower Orders--The Chiefs--Nature

of the Native Government--Different Officers of the

State--Judicial Establishments and Institutions--Laws, and how

administered--Police Institutions and Regulations--Military

Establishments--Revenue._

Having, in the foregoing pages, attempted to introduce the inhabitants

of Java to the reader, by an account of their person, their manners,

and employment in the principal departments of agriculture,

manufactures, and commerce, I shall now endeavour to make him, in some

degree, acquainted with their intellectual and moral character, their

institutions, government, and such other particulars as may contribute

to enable him to form some estimate of their relative rank in the scale

of civilized society.

From what has been stated of their progress in the manufacturing and

agricultural arts, their general advancement in knowledge may be easily

estimated. There are no establishments for teaching the sciences, and

there is little spirit of scientific research among them. The common

people have little leisure or inclination for improving their minds or

acquiring information, but they are far from being deficient in natural

sagacity or docility. Their organs are acute and delicate, their

observation is ready, and their judgment of character is generally

correct. Like most Eastern nations, they are enthusiastic admirers

of poetry, and possess a delicate ear for music. Though deficient in

energy, and excited to action with difficulty, the effect probably of

an enervating climate and a still more enervating government, they

are capable of great occasional exertion, and sometimes display a

remarkable perseverance in surmounting obstacles or enduring labours.

Though ignorant and unimproved, they are far from wanting intelligence

in the general objects of their pursuit, and frequently astonish

Europeans by the ingenuity of their expedients, and the facility with

which they accomplish difficult operations by apparently inadequate

means.

People in a rude state of society are not always prepared to admit

their inferiority, or inclined to adopt manifest improvements: what

is much beyond their skill or their power, may excite their wonder,

but does not always tempt their imitation. This is more peculiarly

the case, where national pride or religious prejudice stand in the

way; and the contempt of unbelievers, with which the Mahomedan system

inspires its votaries, leads them usually to undervalue the arts

in which others excel, or the instruction which they communicate.

The Javans, though far from deficient in national pride, and though

Mahomedans, are free from this senseless and pernicious prejudice, and

are ready to acknowledge the superiority of the Europeans, as well

as disposed to imitate their arts and to obey their direction. No

people can be more tractable; and although their external appearance

indicates listlessness and sometimes stupidity, none possess a quicker

apprehension of what is clearly stated, or attain a more rapid

proficiency in what they have a desire to learn. The restraints under

which conversation labours by the necessity of using different dialects

in addressing different orders of society, as well as the respect paid

to superiority of rank, prevents them from such a frequent intercourse

of thought and opinion as might otherwise be expected, and often

renders them, to appearance, reserved and taciturn, although in fact,

they are social, cheerful, and good humoured.

An uninstructed people are often credulous, and the Javans are

remarkable for their unsuspecting and almost infantine credulity.

Susceptible of every impression that artifice may attempt to make upon

them, and liable to every delusion propagated by the prejudiced or the

designing, they not inaptly compare themselves to a piece of pure white

cloth, on which any dye or shade of colour may be laid. They lend an

easy credence to omens, to prognostics, to prophets, and to quacks.

They easily become the dupes of any religious fanatic, and credit,

without scruple or examination, his claim to supernatural powers. Their

profession of Mahomedanism has not relieved them from the superstitious

prejudices and observances of an anterior worship: they are thus open

to the accumulated delusion of two religious systems.

They are great observers of lucky or unlucky days, or natural

phenomena, and undertake no journey or enterprize without attending

to them. It is unlucky to go any where on the day that you hear of

the death of a friend: the sight of two crows fighting in the air is

unlucky: two small birds (called _prenjak_) fighting near a house,

afford a prognostic of the arrival of a friend from a distance.

Explosions or noises heard from the mountains not only excite terror

for their immediate consequences, but are thought to forebode some

great calamity, unconnected with the convulsions of nature, of which

they are the symptoms, such as a sanguinary war, a general famine,

or an epidemic sickness. The eclipses of the sun and moon powerfully

excite this superstitious spirit, and induce many absurd notions and

observations. Earthquakes furnish certain prognostics, according to the

day of the month on which they happen. In none of their superstitions,

however, is there any thing of that gloomy, dark, or malignant cast,

which distinguishes those of less favoured climates or of more savage

tribes.

Although, on many occasions, listless and unenterprising, their

religious enthusiasm is no sooner excited, than they become at once

adventurous and persevering, esteeming no labour arduous, no result

impossible, and no privation painful. We witnessed an instance, both

of their simplicity and of their energy, connected with this part of

their character, which excited our astonishment. The population of some

of the districts of _Bányumás_ contributed their voluntary labour, in

1814, to the construction of a broad high road, from the base to the

summit of one of the loftiest mountains on the island (the mountain

_Súmbing_), and this extraordinary public work was almost completed,

before intelligence of its commencement reached the government. It

was in consequence examined, and found to be a work of immense labour

and care, but without the least appearance of object or utility. Upon

enquiring into the motive of such a singular undertaking, it was learnt

that a general belief prevailed, that there was a very holy man at the

top of the mountain, who would not come down till there should be a

good road made for him. The _Madúrese_ are said to believe, that the

spirits of the dead revisit the earth; but this does not appear to be a

Javan superstition.

Their prejudices are neither very numerous nor unyielding, and seem

generally to have originated in some laudable feeling or amiable

weakness. Their nationality, which is very strong, although it delights

in the traditionary narratives of ancient Javan exploits, and supports

a hope of future independence, which they are not backward to express,

does not lead them to despise the character, or to undervalue the acts

of strangers. They have a contempt for trade, and those of higher rank

esteem it disgraceful to be engaged in it; but the common people are

ever ready to engage in the labours of agriculture, and the chiefs

to honour and encourage agricultural industry. Those of the highest

rank and greatest authority, generally attend at the opening of new

_sáwah_ fields, performing part of the work with their own hands, and

leading their inferiors or dependents, as they express it, to pay

respect to the earth, in whose honour they also observe annually the

_sedéka búmi_, or feast to the earth. It is in the same spirit that

the buffalo, as the chief assistant of the husbandman, is viewed with

such peculiar regard, that in some of the interior districts, new-born

infants are sometimes carried to be breathed upon by them, from a

superstitious belief that such a ceremony will render them fortunate.

Notwithstanding the despotic nature of their government, and the

feudal principles on which it rests, the Javan must be considered as

a patriarchial people, still retaining many of the virtues, and all

the simplicity, which distinguish that state of society. Their village

settlements constitute detached societies, under their local chief

and priest, and the same internal concord prevails in these little

associations which characterises patriarchial tribes. Vicinity and

daily intercourse afford opportunities of conferring real assistance

and acts of kindness: injustice and even violence may sometimes

be committed against the inhabitants of other villages, but very

seldom by the inhabitants of the same village against each other.

The patriarchial spirit of the Javans may be further traced, in the

veneration which they pay to age, the respect and acquiescence with

which they receive the maxims or the counsels of experience, the

ready contented submission which they shew to the commands of their

immediate superiors, the warmth of their domestic attachments, and the

affectionate reverence with which they regard and protect the tombs and

the ashes of their fathers. To the same description of feelings may be

referred that consideration for ancestry, that attention to the line of

descent, and that regard to the history and merits of distant kindred,

which in the meanest people appears often to assume the character of

family pride.

These observations apply principally to the inhabitants of villages,

at some distance from the seats of the princes or regents, and the

contagion of the larger capitals, and more particularly to the people

of the _Súnda_ districts. Those of higher rank, those employed about

court, or in administering to the pleasures or luxuries of the great,

those collected into the capitals or engaged in the public service,

are frequently profligate and corrupt, exhibiting many of the vices of

civilization without its refinement, and the ignorance and deficiencies

of a rude state without its simplicity. The people in the neighbourhood

of Batavia are the worst in the Island, and the long intercourse with

strangers has been almost equally fatal to the morals of the lower

part of Bantam. The population collected at the native capitals is

naturally influenced, to a certain extent, by the vices of the court;

but the further they are removed from European influence and foreign

intercourse, the better are their morals and the happier are the people.

In attempting to exhibit some of the more striking features of the

Javan character, it becomes necessary to distinguish between the

privileged classes of society and the mass of the people. Long

continued oppression may have injured the character of the latter,

and obliterated some of its brighter traits; but to the former, the

constant exercise of absolute dominion has done a more serious injury,

by removing every salutary restraint on the passions, and encouraging

the growth of rank and odious vices. In the peasantry we observe

all that is simple, natural, and ingenuous: in the higher orders we

sometimes discover violence, deceit, and gross sensuality.

Where not corrupted by indulgence on the one hand, or stupified by

oppression on the other, the Javans appear to be a generous and

warm-hearted people. In their domestic relations they are kind,

affectionate, gentle, and contented; in their public, they are

obedient, honest, and faithful. In their intercourse with society,

they display, in a high degree, the virtues of honesty, plain dealing,

and candour. Their ingenuousness is such, that as the first Dutch

authorities have acknowledged, prisoners brought to the bar on criminal

charges, if really guilty, nine times out of ten confess, without

disguise or equivocation, the full extent and exact circumstances of

their offences, and communicate, when required, more information on the

matter at issue than all the rest of the evidence. Although this may,

in some degree, be the result of the former use of torture, it cannot

be wholly so.

Though not much addicted to excess, and of rather a slow temperament,

they are in general liberal and expensive, according to their means,

seldom hoarding their wealth, or betraying a penurious disposition.

Fond of show and pomp, they lay out all their money, as soon as it

is acquired, in the purchase of articles of dress, horses, splendid

trappings, &c.: but they possess a quality which is not always joined

with a love of splendour, either in nations or individuals; they are

cleanly in their persons, and pay the greatest attention to neatness,

as well as to glare and finery.

Hospitality is universal among them; it is enjoined by their most

ancient institutions, and practised with readiness and zeal. The Javans

are exceedingly sensible to praise or shame[74], and ambitious of power

and distinction; but their national oppressions or agricultural habits

have rendered them somewhat indifferent to military glory, and deprived

them of a great portion of their ancient warlike energy. They are

more remarkable for passive fortitude than active courage, and endure

privations with patience, rather than make exertions with spirit and

enterprize.

Though living under a government where justice was seldom administered

with purity or impartiality, and where, of course, we might expect to

see the hand of private violence stretched out to punish private wrong,

or a general spirit of retaliation and insidious cruelty prevailing,

the Javans are, in a great degree, strangers to unrelenting hatred and

blood-thirsty revenge. Almost the only passion that can urge them to

deeds of vengeance or assassination, is jealousy. The wound given to

a husband's honour by seducing his wife, is seldom healed, the crime

seldom forgiven; and what is remarkable, the very people who break the

marriage tie on the slightest caprice, or the most vague pretence,

are yet uncommonly watchful over it while it remains entire. They

are little liable to those fits and starts of anger, or those sudden

explosions of fury, which appear among northern nations. To this remark

have been brought forward as exceptions, those acts of vengeance,

proceeding from an irresistible phrenzy, called _mucks_, where the

unhappy sufferer aims at indiscriminate destruction, till he himself is

killed like a wild beast, whom it is impossible to take alive. It is a

mistake, however, to attribute these acts of desperation to the Javans.

That such have occurred on Java, even during the British

administration, is true, but not among the Javans: they have happened

exclusively in the large towns of Batavia, _Semárang_, and _Surabáya_,

and have been confined almost entirely to the class of slaves. This

phrenzy, as a crime against society, seems, if not to have originated

under the Dutch, certainly at least to have been increased during their

administration, by the great severity of their punishments. For the

slightest fault, a slave was punished with a severity which he dreaded

as much as death; and with torture in all its horrid forms before his

eyes, he often preferred to rush on death and vengeance.

Atrocious crimes are extremely rare, and have been principally owing

to misgovernment when they have occurred. In answer to what has been

asserted concerning robberies, assassinations, and thefts, it may be

stated, that during the residence of the English, an entire confidence

was reposed in the people, and that confidence was never found

misplaced. The English never used bars or bolts to their houses, never

travelled with arms, and no instance occurred of their being ill used.

The Dutch, on the contrary, placed no confidence: all their windows

were barred, and all their doors locked, to keep out the treacherous

natives (as they called them), and they never moved five miles abroad

without pistols and swords. What could be expected by a government that

derived a principal part of its revenue by the encouragement of vice,

by the farms of gaming, cock-fighting, and opium shops? After the two

former were abolished by the English, and the local government had done

all in its power to discourage the latter, a visible amelioration took

place in the morals of the lower ranks.

Hordes of banditti, formidable for their numbers and audacity, formerly

infested some parts of the country, particularly the provinces of

Bantam and Chéribon; but since they have been dispersed by the strong

hand of government, the roads of Java may be travelled in as much

security as those of England.

Much has been said of the indolence of the Javans, by those who

deprived them of all motives for industry. I shall not again repeat

what I have formerly on several occasions stated on this subject, but

shall only enter a broad denial of the charge. They are as industrious

and laborious as any people could be expected to be, in their

circumstances of insecurity and oppression, or as any people would be

required to be, with their advantages of soil and climate. If they do

not labour during the whole day, it is because such persevering toil

is unnecessary, or would bring them no additional enjoyments. The best

refutation of the charge of indolence is to be found in the extent of

their cultivation, the well dressed appearance of their rice fields,

and the abundant supplies of their harvests. They generally rise by

daylight: at half-past six they go out to the rice fields, where they

employ their buffaloes till ten, when they return home, bathe, and

refresh themselves with a meal. During the violent heat of the noon

they remain under the shade of their houses or village trees, making

baskets, mending their implements of husbandry, or engaged in other

necessary avocations, and at about four return to the _sáwahs_ to

labour them, without buffaloes or other cattle. At six they return to

their homes, sup, and spend the remainder of their time till the hour

of rest (which is generally between eight and nine) in little parties

for amusement or conversation, when the whole village becomes a scene

of quiet content and pleasure. The same round of toil and relaxation

is observed during the season for garden culture, dry field labour, or

other employments.

Under this system, the villagers seem to enjoy a greater degree of

happiness than they could derive from those increased means that would

result from increased exertion. I can bear testimony to their general

cheerfulness, contentedness, and good humour, for having visited their

villages at all seasons, and often when least expected or entirely

unknown, I have always found them either pleased and satisfied with

their lot when engaged at their work, or social and festive in their

hours of pleasure. One observation generally made and admitted, would

seem to militate against this part of the Javan character; they are

remarked to be envious and jealous of one another's success: but if

this trait of character be with difficulty reconciled to their general

reputation for contentedness and benevolence, it is surely still more

inconsistent with that indolent apathy with which they are often

charged.

It will appear throughout their history, that when strongly excited by

the animosities of the constant wars in which they were engaged, they

were frequently guilty of acts of great barbarity: such as decapitating

a vanquished enemy, and kicking his head about like a football. In

war and politics, much is not to be said in their favour, stratagem

and intrigue being relied upon in preference to discipline, courage,

or good faith: even the Chinese, during what is called the Chinese

war on Java (A.D. 1750), would appear to deserve a higher character

for bravery and good faith than the Javans. But it is reasonable

to attribute this, in some measure, to the degrading influence of

European despotism. A great disregard for the _little people_ is shewn

throughout their political history, as is particularly exemplified in

the instance of a mock battle that was fought between the Chinese and

Javans, near _Semárang_, in order to impose upon the Dutch. The Chinese

wished to know how they should act upon the occasion. "Attack the whole

army of the Javans by surprize," said the Javan negotiators," but be

careful not to kill any of the chiefs or great people, and it will be a

sham fight."

Of their nationality it may be observed, that ever since the first

arrival of Europeans, they have neglected no opportunity of attempting

to regain their independence. A reference to the chapters on history

will be sufficient to illustrate this, as well as to shew the national

feeling on the encroachments and assumptions of their European rulers.

In the great cause of national independence all would unite, but they

seem hardly to be sufficiently advanced in civilization to effect such

an object, without the risk of relapsing into many barbarities, from

the practice of which they have been weaned, by a long continuance of

established government and general tranquillity. Quiet and peaceable as

the Javans now are, were they once roused to insurrection, their blood

would rapidly boil, and they would no doubt be guilty of many excesses.

I might illustrate the Javan character still further by a comparison

of it with the Malayan, by shewing, from the remains of those customs

that are to be referred to an anterior and milder system, how much it

has been altered by the introduction of Mahomedanism, and by giving

an estimate of the effects produced upon it by the government of the

Dutch; but this would anticipate some observations which will be more

appropriate in other parts of this work.

Of the causes which have tended to lower the character of the Asiatics

in comparison with Europeans, none has had a more decided influence

than polygamy. To all those noble and generous feelings, all that

delicacy of sentiment, that romantic and poetical spirit, which

virtuous love inspires in the breast of an European, the Javan is a

stranger, and in the communication between the sexes he seeks only

convenience, and little more than the gratification of an appetite.

But the evil does not stop here: education is neglected and family

attachments are weakened. Among the privileged orders, the first

wife is generally selected by the friends of the party, from motives

of interest, and to strengthen family alliances, and the second is

rather to be considered as the object of the husband's choice. But if

his circumstances admit of it, he has no scruple to entertain other

women as concubines, who hold an honourable rank in his household. The

progeny from these connections is often immense. It has already been

stated, that a Javan chief has been known to have upwards of sixty

acknowledged children; and it too often happens, that in such cases

sons having been neglected in their infancy, become dissipated, idle

and worthless, and spring up like rank grass and overrun the country,

or serve but to fill up a long and useless retinue. Fortunately for

the peasantry, who are the mass of the population, they have escaped

this deteriorating institution; and perhaps much of the comparative

superiority of the character of the peasantry over that of the higher

orders is to be attributed to this advantage. The higher orders have

also been more exposed to the influence of Mahomedanism and European

innovation; and if the former has removed from their usages some traits

of barbarism, and tended to the developement of their intellectual

qualities, it has introduced Mahomedan vices; and the European power

having gradually obtained its supremacy over the island, rather by

stratagem and intrigue than by open conquest, it is probable that

the necessity under which the natives found themselves to resist its

encroachments by similar means, has powerfully contributed to corrupt

their natural ingenuousness. It is not at the court of the sovereign,

penned up as he now is, and kept like a bird in a cage by the intrigues

and power of the European authority, that we are to look for the

genuine character of the people; neither is it among those numerous

chiefs and petty chiefs attendant on the European authorities, who by

continual association have, in a great degree, assimilated with them.

What we have said of the Javans must therefore be considered, as more

particularly applicable to the peasantry or cultivators, who compose

three-fourths of the whole population, and is to be received with some

reserve in its application to the higher classes.

Thus far I have given a faithful representation of the people as they

appeared to me; but it may be amusing to the reader to read the Javan

character, as transcribed from the impressions of the Dutch. The

following is an official account[75] of this people given by a subject

of that nation, which has contributed so much to depress and degrade

them.

"If the Javan is a person of rank, or in affluent circumstances,

he will be found superstitious, proud, jealous, vindictive, mean,

and slavish towards his superiors, haughty and despotic towards his

inferiors and those unfortunate beings that are subject to his orders,

lazy and slothful.

"The lower class is indolent and insensible beyond conception, and

although certain persons, who presume to be perfectly acquainted with

the character of the Javan, maintain the contrary, still I am convinced

by daily experience, that the Javan in general is most shockingly lazy,

and that nothing but fear of his superior, and apprehension of being

punished, or momentary distress or want, can compel him to labour. If

left to himself, he will do no more than what is absolutely requisite

to furnish the necessaries of life, and as he needs but little, his

labour is proportionate: yet as soon as he has a sufficiency for four

days, or for the next day only, nothing will put him in motion again

but force or fear.

"Cowardly, vindictive, treacherous, inclined to rob and to murder

rather than work, cunning in evil practices, and unaccountably stupid

(supposed intentionally,) if any good is required of him. These are the

principal traits of the Javan character.

"The _Maláyu_, speaking of him as an inhabitant of this island, because

I am unacquainted with the character of those living at a distance, is

possessed of a little more courage and activity, fond of small trade

and travelling, and but seldom a robber like the Javan, whom in other

respects he very much resembles. A _Maláyu_, who is a little cunning,

will, as soon as an opportunity offers, commit a fraud, especially when

he has had some loss which he wishes to retrieve."

Others of the colonists, and some particularly who are likely to have

greater influence with the restored government, entertained more

correct, because more favourable opinions of the Javans, coinciding

nearly with those which I have stated as my own.

The following extracts are intended to convey some notion of Javan

ethics. The first is from a popular work, called _Raja Kapa-kapa_[76].

"It is incumbent upon every man of condition to be well versed in the

history of former times, and to have read all the chiríta (written

compositions) of the country: first, the different _Ráma_, the _B'rata

yúdha_, _Arjúna wijáya_, _Bíma súchi_; secondly, the different

accounts of _Panji_; thirdly, the _Júgúl múda_, _Pralámbang_, and

_Jáya langkára_; also to know their different tunes, as well as the

mode of striking the _gámelan_; he must know how to count the years,

months, and days, and comprehend the _Sangkála_, understand the _Káwi_

language, and also must be clever in all

_Niúng'ging_ Painting;

_Ukir ukir_ Carving in wood;

_Pándi_ Iron-work;

_Kemásan_ Gold-work;

_Argénding_ Musical instrument making;

_M'ráng'gi_ Kris-sheath making;

_N'gapús_ Compositions (literary);

_Gárdji_ Sewing with the needle; working;

_Anyára-wedi retna_ Jewellery;

_Anyádur-rasa_ In gilding and the application of quicksilver.

And he must also be skilled in horsemanship, and in the management of

an elephant, and have courage to destroy all bad men, and drive away

all women of loose character."

The _Níti sástra_ is a work of the greatest celebrity on Java: the

original is in the _Káwi_ language, but there are many versions. The

following is translated from a modern version in the present language

of Java.

"Praise be to _Batára Gúru_, who is all powerful! to _Batára

Vishnu (wísnu)_, who purifieth the minds of men! and to _Batára

Súria_, who enlighteneth the world! May they render their divine

assistance to the author who composeth this work, _Níti Sástra_,

which contains an account of the truths to be found in the sacred

writings, and which are highly necessary to be known by all

public officers.

"A man who cannot regulate his conduct according to circumstances,

and to the situation in which he may be placed, is like unto

a man who has lost the senses of taste, and enjoyeth not the

advantage of _síri_, for such a man doth not shine in the world,

however fair may be his appearance.

"A man who is ignorant of the sacred writings, is as one who has

lost his speech; for when these become the conversation of other

men, he will be under the necessity of remaining silent.

"It is an abomination to the Divinity to worship him in an unclean

place; and the man who does so may be compared to one who eats

another man's bread without his consent. The food is unwholesome

to him, even as if he ate of his own bread with aversion, in

which case he resembles the poor man who overeats himself and

afterwards suffers from hunger.

"A woman who takes not a husband until her hair becomes grey and

her teeth fall out, is despicable in her own eyes, because men

will no longer feel any inclination to her.

"A man, to be accounted able, must know how to adapt his words

to his actions and his actions to his words, so that he may

give offence to no one, but render himself agreeable to his

companions: he must also know how to command in war, and to

inspire his followers with courage.

"In order to obtain this distinction, a man must conduct himself

towards his equals even as a lover conducts himself towards his

mistress; for as the lover cannot obtain his object without

flattery and indulgence, so must we strive to obtain the good

will of mankind by flattering them occasionally, and by indulging

them in those things to which they are most inclined, and which

consists, if we are in company with religious men, in treating of

religious matters, and if in company with warriors, in treating

about war. This will not only make them like us the better, but

at the same time, excite them to excel in their profession.

"The subtle nature of the snake, and the venom of its poison, as

well as the ferocious disposition of the tiger, may be removed

by sympathetic remedies; the wild elephant may also be tamed by

means of the well-known small iron hook: but the fierceness of

the warrior, when once in close engagement, is not to be tamed,

unless his enemy surrender; and even then not entirely, for

although the vanquished surrender, it is to be inferred that he

still harbours resentment for the loss of his freedom, and the

conqueror must keep a lively watch over the vanquished, lest he

still oppose him.

"It is well known that waters, however deep, may be fathomed; but

the thoughts of men cannot be sounded. In order to know the

nature of another, we must attentively observe his appearance,

his manner of speaking, and his judgment; and if a man gives

himself out as a holy man, it must be proved by his observance

of the service of the Deity and his knowledge of the sacred

writings.

"Such a man is distinguished, who is able to expound all abstract

expressions.

"A rich man, who maketh not use of his riches in procuring for

himself good food and clothing, is an abomination, and ought not

to be admitted into the society of the learned or men of rank;

neither ought a man, who has learnt a profession or studied

religion, but who still continues attached to his idle and

vicious propensities.

"The man who advances in years, and he who is too lazy to labour,

and does nothing but eat and sleep, is like a sheep, which is

useless except on account of its flesh.

"It is said, that neither the ravens nor the _gadárbo_ birds, are

good for man; but much less are such men who having once embraced

a holy life, return to worldly pursuits, or such as can find

it in their hearts to seduce the wives and daughters of their

friends to commit adultery.

"The water in a vessel which is only partly full will by the least

agitation splash on the sides: experience also proves, that the

cow which has the loudest voice gives the least milk. So it is

with men: those who have least understanding or wealth make the

greatest noise and show; but in reality they are inferior, and

all they say and do vanisheth like smoke.

"Friends must be faithful and forbearing towards each other,

otherwise the consequences will be fatal to both. Of this we have

an example in the fable of the tiger and the forest.

"The forest and the tiger lived together in close friendship, so

that no one could approach the forest, for the tiger was always

in the way; nor the tiger, for the forest always afforded him

shelter. Thus they remained both undisturbed, on account of the

mutual security they afforded to each other; but when the tiger

abandoned the forest and roamed abroad, the people seeing that

the tiger had quitted it, immediately cut down the forest and

converted it into plantations: the tiger, in the meantime, taking

shelter in a village, was seen by the people, who soon found

means to kill him. In this manner, both parties, by abandoning

their mutual duties to each other, were lost.

"A child ought, in every respect, to follow in the footsteps of its

father; but this is seldom the case, either among men or animals

in general. Among the latter, however, there are three sorts

which follow their parents in every respect: all kinds of fish,

frogs, and tortoises. The first and second spawn in water, which

is carried away until the young are produced, when they again

join their parents: the last lay their eggs in holes, and as soon

as the young are hatched they follow the old ones into the water.

"Man, although he is borne in his mother's womb a long time, and

after his birth is taken care of and nourished, still seldom

follows in the footsteps of his parents. If his father is a holy

man, he ought to follow the same profession; but instead of this,

children do not generally attend to the advice of their parents,

nor to the lessons of the sacred writings, or those given by holy

or good men.

"That men of rank should do every thing in their power to attach

the lower class of people to them, is not only proper but

necessary, in order to keep them faithfully to their duty. To

this end, therefore, men of rank ought to be indulgent and

liberal towards their inferiors, like a woman who implores the

assistance of man to bring forth children and support her; but

not like a tigress that brings forth its cubs, nor the snake

which brings forth so many young, that sometimes having no food

for them or for herself, she devours them.

"Man is pleased with the _dódot_ cloth (apparel), and women are

proud of their bosom; but a good man prefers the sacred writings,

which may lead him to the life to come.

"Property obtained by man's own labour is valuable, but more

valuable is that which is obtained by a man's blood in time of

war: of less value is property inherited from a man's parents. Of

little value is the property taken from a man's parents or his

wife, but still less valuable is that which comes to a man from

his children.

"It is the duty of the chief of the nation to inquire into every

thing which can affect his subjects; to know whether they are

prosperous or not, if every one attends to his duty, if they are

skilful in the execution of it or not, and in all cases to take

measures accordingly, never losing sight of justice. He must,

as far as possible, be lenient in the punishment of the guilty,

and liberal in the reward of the deserving; particularly in the

field of battle, when in sight of the enemy, when presents ought

then to be distributed to the soldiers (_prajúrit_), in order

to animate them; for if ever so justly treated, they will not,

except they have been obliged by their commander, either be so

faithful, or risk so much in an attack against the enemy.

"Highly prejudicial is it for the chiefs to discover fear before

their enemies, for in that case the men will also be afraid; but

when the chiefs conduct themselves in such a manner as to shew

they do not fear the enemy, then the men are animated by their

example.

"A chief should keep his plan of attack as secret as possible,

because the knowledge of it may enable the enemy to be on his

guard, and turn the measures taken to his own advantage. He ought

not to challenge his enemy to give battle, as in that case the

enemy will have an opportunity of preparing himself for the same:

but he should attempt to surprize him, and rush upon him like

a fire, that quickly and without much noise consumeth all with

which it comes in contact.

"The most formidable enemy of a man is his own conscience, which

always brings his crimes before his eyes, without leaving him the

means of avoiding it.

"The most valuable and lasting friendship is that which exists

between persons of the same rank.

"The severest misfortune which a man can suffer, is to be deprived

by force, of the land upon which he lives and which he has

cultivated, or to have his wife and children taken from him by

force.

"Man loveth nothing more than his own children, and he always

esteems his own feelings in preference to those of others.

"Of all birds the _chíong_ (miner) is the most highly prized,

because it has a beautiful appearance and can imitate the speech

of man.

"A woman who loves her husband so tenderly, that at his death she

wishes to die with him, or surviving never marries again, but

lives as if she were dead to the world, is valued above all

others of her sex.

"The lessons of our parents are like the lessons of the ten wise

masters. No master con be called wise, unless he attends to

what is written, as well on sacred as on worldly subjects. Such

a master may be justly called a superior mortal; for it is a

difficult task to learn and to attend to the same, even as

difficult as to catch and tame a wild elephant on the edge of a

precipice without injury.

"Melancholy is it to see a young man of condition unacquainted with

the sacred writings; for, be he ever so gracefully formed or

elegant in his manners, he remains defective; like the _wúrawári_

flower, which, notwithstanding its fine appearance and bright red

colour, emits no fragrance whatever.

"No man can be called good or bad, until his actions prove him so.

Thus if a man declares that he has never taken any but delicious

food, it will be shewn in his appearance. If he is stout and well

looking, then may he be credited; but if, on the contrary, he is

poor and lean, then it is impossible that he should have lived on

good food.

"In like manner, when a man pretends to be the friend of mankind,

it must be proved by his behaviour when he receives the visits of

others. If he receives his guests with kindness and hospitality,

then is he the friend of mankind, otherwise he is not so. And

further, if a man pretends to have fasted and prayed, and to have

become a holy man, it will be known whether he is really so,

by the success which attends the prayers which he puts up for

another: if the Deity hears them not, then is he a deceiver.

"A caterpillar has its poison in its head, a scorpion in its tail,

and a snake in its teeth, but it is unknown in what part of the

body the poison of man is concealed: a bad man is therefore

considered poisonous in his whole frame.

"A child which is indulged by its parents in every thing, is like

a young fish in a clear and pure stream, in which it grows and

sports, unconscious whither it may lead.

"As the strength of a bird is in its wings, so does the power of a

prince consist in his subjects; but then only through the means

of persons properly informed on the following points. First, how

a country ought to be properly administered; secondly, how to

please a prince; thirdly, how to prepare all delicacies for him;

and fourthly, how to preserve discipline and direct the conduct

of an army.

"The dread of the subject should be such, that the orders of the

prince should be to him like a clap of thunder, that may be heard

far and wide.

"A man who does evil to his companions acts against the sacred

writings and the lessons of his instructor: he can never

enjoy prosperity, but will meet with misfortunes in all his

proceedings. Such a man is like a piece of porcelain, which when

it falls to the ground breaks into many pieces and can never be

rendered perfect.

"A field without pasture is not frequented by cattle, neither does

a river without water contain fish. An instructor who knoweth

not how to perform the duties of his situation can have but few

disciples, and a prince who pays little regard to his country and

subjects, will in time not only lose his fame and glory, but his

authority also.

"It is well known that a man cannot take the goods of this world

with him to the grave, and that man after this life is punished

with heaven or hell, according to the merits of his actions in

this life: a man's duty, therefore, requires of him to remember

that he must die; and if he has been merciful and liberal in

this life to the poor, he will be rewarded hereafter. Happy is

the man who divides his property equally between himself and the

indigent, who feeds the poor and clothes the naked, and relieves

all who are in distress; he has hereafter to expect nothing but

good.

"The following animals, as being injurious to the health of man,

are not proper to be used by him as food: rats, dogs, frogs,

snakes, worms, monkeys, lizards, and the like.

"A handsome man is an ornament to the community, and one that has

good manners besides, is an ornament to his prince; but he who

understands the sacred writings is the pride of the community and

a delight to his prince.

"A prince who wishes to know his subjects well, ought to be

attentive to their manners, actions, and courage; and as gold

is known by the touchstone, or broken into pieces in order to

ascertain its intrinsic value, so ought a prince to try his

subjects, before he intrust them with the charge of his women

or treasure, and make himself acquainted with their valour and

knowledge: for a person who does not possess the qualifications

required for this purpose, is unworthy to associate with people

of condition, and much less to be the servant of a prince.

"If a man violates the law, he may for the first offence be

punished by a pecuniary fine, for the second by punishment

affecting his person, but for the third offence he may be

punished with death.

"A joy generally followed by sorrow is that which we feel in

borrowing money. We feel happy in having obtained what we wished,

but as soon as our creditors come for their money, our joy is

converted into grief; and that is the greatest when the money is

spent, and we have not wherewith to satisfy our creditors: then

arise quarrels and ill will, and yet no sooner are these settled

than we again have recourse to the old habit of lending and

borrowing.

"Laughing and joking at our companions is also a bad custom, for it

generally begets quarrels, and is thus the cause of grief.

"Should medicine be mixed with poison, we would naturally separate

the poisonous parts before we swallowed it, and we would also

clean rusty metal in time before it becomes rusty and corroded.

In the same manner we should distinguish between the good and bad

actions of man, rewarding knowledge and opposing evil: and be it

recollected, that a woman, however low her birth, if her manners

are amiable and her person good, may without impropriety be made

the wife of a great man.

"Riches only tend to torment the mind of man, and sometimes even

to death; they are therefore, with justice, disregarded and

despised by the wise. They are collected with pain and troubles

in afterwards administering them; for if we neglect to watch

them properly, thieves will come and steal them, and the loss

occasions as much grief as the point of death.

"Therefore is it advisable to give part of our property to the poor

and indigent, who will thence naturally become under obligations

to us, and not only assist in guarding our property against

all accidents, but pray that our property may increase, being

themselves interested in our success, and our names will be

blessed by our children and grandchildren.

"As dykes cannot long resist the force of water, unless the water

is allowed a free current and a place to pass through, so riches

cannot long be enjoyed, unless employed for charitable purposes;

but, on the contrary, they will turn to the injury of the

possessor, both here and hereafter, who will be exposed to the

wrath of all the nine deities.

"_Batára gúru_ is cool, still colder is the moon; but the coolness

of neither is to be compared to that which is instilled by the

voice of a holy man. Fire is hot, still hotter is the sun; but

neither is to be compared to the heat of a man's heart.

"Like those flies and birds, which fly in the air to procure food,

and still continue to feed on filth and dirt, is the man of bad

character; for although he may have the means of procuring an

honest subsistence, still will he continue to take what he should

not, by unlawful means, to the prejudice of others. But a good

man wishes the success of another, and is happy when his brother

prospers.

"As the moon and stars enlighten the night, and the sun

enlighteneth the day, so do the Holy Scriptures enlighten the

hearts of men; and a son who is superior in knowledge to his

father, is a light to his family.

"A child accustomed to nothing but amusement, neglects the lessons

of its parents. The child on this account, often abandoned to its

fate, becomes a dangerous subject; it is therefore essential that

a child should be kept under subjection while it is yet time to

prevent its committing any bad acts. For this purpose these rules

should be attended to:

"A child under five years of age may be indulged in many things;

but afterwards it must be kept under strict subjection, and

instructed in the knowledge of the Holy Writings until its tenth

year, when a commencement may be made to instil that sort of

knowledge which will form the intellects for the benefit of

society. After the sixteenth year further instruction must be

given in the higher and more important branches of knowledge.

"Man should always be on his guard against the commission of wicked

acts, for the end of them is always pain and misery.

"A man must, on no account, listen to the advice of a woman, be she

ever so good; for the end of it will be death and shame: but he

must always consult his own mind in what he has to do or not to

do, never losing sight of the lessons of his instructors. Thus,

not only will he obtain knowledge, but his actions will be good.

"Riches, beauty, knowledge, youth, and greatness often lead a man

into error; he, therefore, who is blessed with any of them ought

to be, at the same time, humble and generous, for then he will

excel; otherwise, his virtues will be hidden.

"As the man who advances by fair means from poverty to riches, or

from insignificance to greatness, is rewarded in this world, so

will he who is generous and kind-hearted be rewarded hereafter

in heaven. So will the warrior killed in battle, who is like a

conqueror, enjoy all the delights imaginable; while a deserter is

despised by all men, and covered with shame and disgrace, because

he deserted his comrades in the moment of danger.

"No man ought to be termed a hero but he who has already conquered

a hundred heroes; nor should any man be termed a holy man until

he can boast of surpassing in virtue a hundred holy men: for as

long as a hero has not conquered a hundred heroes, or a holy man

has not surpassed a hundred other holy men in virtue, he can

neither be considered as a real hero or holy man.

"The signs of the approaching end of this world will be all kinds

of depravity among mankind; that is to say, the wise will turn

foolish, the holy men will become worldly, children will abandon

their parents, princes will lose their empires, the little will

become great, and commit depredations; in short, every thing will

be in confusion, and an entire revolution take place.

"In the beginning every thing was at rest and quiet. During the

first thousand years princes began to start up, and wars arose

about a woman named _Déwi Darúki_: at this period writing was

first introduced. One thousand five hundred years after this

another war began, about a woman named _Déwi Sínta_. Two thousand

years after this a third war broke out, about a woman named _Déwi

Drupádi_: and two thousand five hundred years afterwards another

war took place, about the daughter of a holy man not named in

history.

"Every man can thus see what has been the first cause of war.

Even as the roots of trees and the course of rivers cannot run

straight, but wind here and there, so cannot a woman be upright:

for the saying is, that a raven can sooner turn white, and the

_tanjang_-plant (a water lily) grow from a rock, than a woman can

be upright.

"A perfect man should be, in firmness and ability, equal to eight

women; and to satisfy a woman, a man must be able to please her

in nine different manners.

"A bad man is like a fire, which inflames every thing which

approaches it; we, therefore, ought never to go near it with

an intention to extinguish it. A good man, on the contrary, is

like a sweet-scented tree, which continues to produce flowers

and fruit, pleasant to the taste and smell of every one, and the

fragrance of which remains in the wood even after the tree is cut

down and rooted out.

"When a harlot begins to feel shame, then is her improvement

approaching; but when a holy man begins to meddle with worldly

affairs, then is he about to become a worldly man himself.

"When a prince allows encroachments to be made on his territories,

it is a sign that the loss of both his court and lands is nigh at

hand.

"A man may receive instruction from his _gúru_ (instructor) until

his twentieth year: after which he should apply himself to study

until his thirtieth year; at which time he ought to know every

thing necessary, as well for this world as for that to come.

"The art of elocution may properly be reckoned superior to all

others, because happiness and misery, fortune or misfortune, very

often depend upon it: it is, therefore, necessary to use prudence

in speech.

"A man who does not eat _síri (betel_) does not shine.

"Married people who have no children ought to lead a retired life,

and people without fortune should not attempt to make a shining

appearance: they should look pale and melancholy, like unto the

dullness and quiet of a country without a prince.

"These are the qualities necessary to constitute a good

housewife:--She must be well-made and well-mannered, gentle,

industrious, rich, liberal, charming, of good birth, upright, and

humble. A stingy, curious, dirty, foul-mouthed, vulgar, false,

intriguing, lazy, or stupid woman, is not only entirely unfit for

a housewife, but will never be beloved by a husband."

Intimately connected with the character, moral and intellectual, of

a people, are its civil and political institutions. In a country

like Java, the frame of society is so simple, the hand of power

is so universally felt or seen; rank, wealth, and authority are

so identified, and the different classes of the community are so

referable to each other, by contrast or reciprocal influence, that it

was impossible to give any account of the state of the peasantry, or

of the tenure and distribution of the land, without introducing some

notices concerning government and revenue. As there is little division

of labour among a rude people, so there is no division of power in a

despotism: the despot is proprietor, all the rest is property.

The Island of Java appears at different times to have been divided

into states of greater or smaller extent. History informs us, that it

was at one period under the sway of one principal chief, and at others

subject to two or more. In the former case, the provinces into which

it was divided were administered, as they are still, by subordinate

and delegated governors; and in the latter, many of them composed

independent sovereignties. In all these cases, the form of government

and the privileges of the people were the same; the only difference

between a state co-extensive with the Island, and one limited to a few

districts, consisting in the different extent of territory or number of

subjects at command. In looking at the map, the divisions of the Island

now under European dominion, and those under the native princes, can

easily be traced. Bantam (the sultan of which surrendered his rights to

the British government for a pension of a few thousand dollars), and

Chéribon, an extensive province to the eastward of Batavia, enjoyed

till lately a nominal independence; but the only great native power

on Java, till the establishment of _Yúg'ya-kerta_ about sixty years

ago, was that of the _Susuhúnan_, or as he is termed, the Emperor of

Java; and a slight sketch of his government, of the maxims by which it

is regulated, and the officers it employs, will be sufficient for my

present purpose.

The sovereign is termed either _Susuhúnan_ or Sultan, both

denominations adopted since the establishment of Mahomedanism: the

titles previously employed were _Kiaí Gedé_, _Prábu_, _Browijáya_,

&c. as will be perceived on reference to the list of Hindu princes in

the historical details. The line of succession to the throne is from

father to son, but the rights of primogeniture are not always allowed

or observed. If there is no direct descent, the claims of collateral

branches of the reigning dynasty are settled by no law or uniform

custom. Females have sometimes held offices of power, but have never

occupied the throne since the establishment of Mahomedanism. The chiefs

of districts and the heads of villages are sometimes women; in that

case widows continued in the office of their deceased husbands.

The government is in principle a pure unmixed despotism; but there

are customs of the country of which the people are very tenacious,

and which the sovereign seldom invades. His subjects have no rights

of liberty of person or property: his breath can raise the humblest

individual from the dust to the highest distinction, or wither the

honours of the most exalted. There is no hereditary rank, nothing to

oppose his will. Not only honours, posts, and distinctions, depend

upon his pleasure, but all the landed property of his dominions

remains at his disposal, and may, together with its cultivators, be

parcelled out by his order among the officers of his household, the

members of his family, the ministers of his pleasures, or the useful

servants of the state. Every officer is paid by grants of land, or by a

power to receive from the peasantry a certain proportion of the produce

of certain villages or districts.

When a sovereign enjoys unlimited power, he generally in eastern

countries surrenders it for ease and pleasure, and his servant, under

the name of Vizier or some other title, becomes the despot. The highest

executive officer or prime minister in the Javan government is called

_Ráden Adipáti_: he usually rules the country while his master is

satisfied with flattery, with pomp, and the seraglio. He is intrusted

with power so great, as even, in particular cases, to extend to the

royal family. All communications to and from the sovereign are made

through him: he receives all reports from different parts of the

country, and issues all orders. The power and importance of this office

has, however, naturally lessened of late years, since the European

government has assumed the right of nominating the person who shall

fill it: the sovereign naturally reposes less confidence in a prime

minister so nominated than in one of his own choice; and if he does

not take an active part himself in the politics of his court, he is

generally under the influence of an ambitious member of his own family,

by which means the _Ráden Adípati_, or prime minister, though left to

conduct the details of government, is often ignorant of many of the

intrigues carried on in the place.

The gradations of power and rank are as follow.

After the royal family, which includes the prince or sovereign, called

_Susuhúnan_ or _Sultan_, and the sons and daughters of the sovereign,

called _Pangérans_, the heir apparent being called _Pángéran Adipáti_,

come the nobility, and at their head the _Ráden Adipáti_.

The nobility or privileged orders may be classed under the two general

divisions of _Bopátis_, and their immediate assistants or _Pátehs_,

and _Mántris_ or public officers. _Bopáti_ is the general term given

to the governors of provinces, being the plural of _Adipáti_. This,

however, is rather a title of office than of mere rank, as these

governors are sometimes _Tumúng'gungs_, _An'gebáis_, and of still

inferior rank. _Adipáti_ appears to be the highest title below royalty.

The dignity of this title, as well as that of others, is again raised,

by prefixing the epithet _Kiai_ (venerable) or _Mas_ (golden), as

_Kiai-adipáti_, _Kiaí-tumúng'gung_, _Mas-adipáti_, _Mas-tumúng'gung_.

_Ráden-tumúng'gung_ is also occasionally used, to express a rank above

an ordinary _Tumúng'gung_, in the same manner as _Ráden Adipáti_.

These officers, when appointed to the administration of provinces, are

called Regents by the Dutch. Since the innovations of Europeans, the

distinctions above referred to have been a good deal confounded. In the

_Súnda_ districts, where the absolute sway of the native sovereign has

long ceased to be felt, and in the eastern provinces, which are subject

to Europeans, the Regent assumes the state of a petty sovereign, and

is the fountain of honour. The power and rank attached to particular

titles, especially those of inferior importance, differs in some degree

in almost every province.

The sons of the Regents, or of those who may be properly termed the

nobles of the country, are usually called _Rádens_, and in the _Súnda_

districts invariably so; but there is properly no hereditary nobility,

no hereditary titles, although few people have a greater respect for

family descent than the Javans; custom and consideration, in this as in

other cases, generally supplying the place of law.

Nearly the same form of government is followed in the administration of

each particular province as is observed in the general administration

of the country, every _Adipáti_, or governor of a province, having a

_Páteh_, or assistant, who acts as his minister. In general there is a

_Páteh-luar_, and a _Páteh-dalam_; one for conducting affairs abroad or

public business, the other for the superintendence of the household.

The same union of the judicial, revenual, and executive authority,

which exists in the sovereign, descends to the governor of a province;

and if there are subdivisions of the province, it descends to each

head of the subdivision. This is also the case with each village;

the consequence of which is, that every chief, of whatever rank, has

an almost absolute power over those below him. The only exception

to this, and the only part of the Javan constitution which wears the

appearance of liberty, is the mode of appointing the heads of villages;

these are elected by the people, as will be hereafter more particularly

described.

In every considerable province or district there are several

subdivisions over which an inferior chief presides: the district of

_Semárang_, for instance, has several. Although this absolute authority

is vested in the different chiefs, according to their ranks, it is

dangerous for a public functionary, whatever be his rank, and even for

the _Susuhúnan_ himself, to violate what is called the custom of the

country; and the ancient Hindu institutions are revered and generally

followed by all classes. The priests also exercise a considerable

influence; and although the power of the _Jáksa_, or law officer, is

essentially reduced since the establishment of Mahomedanism, and a

great part of his authority transferred to the _Panghúlu_ or Mahomedan

priest, he is still efficient, as far as concerns the police and minor

transactions. The observations which follow on the administration

of justice and the judicial instructions established by the British

government, will explain the present nature of his duties.

In the suite of every governor of a province, of his _Páteh_, or

assistant, and of every public functionary of importance, are numerous

petty chiefs, generally classed as _Mantris_, but having various

titles, as _Demángs_, _Lúras_, _Klíwons_, &c. varying in authority and

relative rank in different districts.

Three-fourths of the island having been long subjected to the

European authority, and the provinces which still remain under native

administration having been divided under two distinct authorities,

and their original constitution otherwise departed from, it would be

impossible to lay down a scale of rank for the different titles of

honour, which should be applicable to every part of the island, but the

subject will be resumed in a future chapter.

The following observations of Mr. Hogendorp, who resided on Java

not many years before the arrival of the English, and was employed

in a commission of inquiry into the state of the island, are

extracted from a report or memoir which he drew up for the use of the

Dutch government, recommending a policy similar to that which we

subsequently pursued. They contain a just account of the principles of

the Javan government, and of the state of the Regents under the Dutch

Company. After remarking, in perhaps too broad and unqualified terms,

that the structure of the government is feudal, he proceeds to state:

"The first principles of the feudal system, which form the basis of the

whole edifice, are: that the land is the property of the sovereign;

that the inhabitants are his slaves, and can therefore possess no

property, all that they have and all that they can obtain belonging to

the sovereign, who allows them to keep it no longer than he chooses;

and that the will of the prince is the supreme law.

"These are the real fundamental principles of the feudal system: for

though the English and French kings could not always maintain their

despotic sway, but were sometimes opposed, hostilely attacked, and

even forced by arms to treat for terms with their subjects, this was

only the natural consequence of the acknowledged rule, that _tyranny

destroys itself_; and it is only necessary to revert to what James and

Charles of England, in so late a period, thought their divine rights

of royalty, to ascertain what were the rudiments of the feudal form

of government: and even now, notwithstanding the numerous changes

and revolutions which have happened in England, the most surprizing

traces of that system are to be found, since in that country, so free,

no individual soever possesses a foot of land in absolute property

(allodium), but merely from the king (feodum), to whom only belongs

the _dóminum absolutum et directum_, although subsequent laws and

regulations have rendered this title more imaginary than real.

"The same system of government has been continued in the Company's

districts, under the pretext of allowing the natives to retain their

own laws and customs, but in reality from ignorance and self-interest.

Although they were too ignorant to effect any improvement, they knew

perfectly well that this plan was the best adapted to promote their own

interest and advantage.

"The princes of Java, as well as those of Europe in former times, and

as a natural effect of the same cause, were also almost continually

at war with their chief vassals, until the Dutch power and influence

re-established and maintained the general tranquillity. This, however,

has never had any effect on the system of government itself, and the

subject who dethroned his sovereign and then succeeded him, thought

that he had thereby obtained the same _divine right_ of property in the

lands and persons of his subjects, as his predecessor had possessed.

"The princes allotted the lands to their chiefs and immediate

dependents, as rewards for military and other services. These chiefs

(termed by the Dutch regents) again subdivided the lands among others

of inferior rank, on the same conditions, and so on, down to the poor

labourer who cultivated the land, but to whom a very small proportion

of the fruits of his labour was left for his own support.

"The exclusive administration of the country was conferred on the

regents, an appellation given to the native chiefs, who had acquired

their lands from the Dutch, by contract or agreement, binding them

annually to deliver partly for payment and partly not, a quantity, in

some cases fixed, in others uncertain, of the produce of such lands,

obliging them also to the performance of feudal services, both of a

military and other nature.

"The titles of these regents are either _Adipáti_, _Tumúng'gung_, or

_Ang'ebái_. The Prince of _Madúra_, styled _Panambáhan_, and the Prince

of _Súmenap_, who is called _Pangéran_, are however only regents as

well as the rest. The Prince of _Madúra_ enjoys that tide as being of

the imperial family, and the Prince of _Súmenap_ purchased his by a

large payment to a Governor-General.

"These regents are only officers of government, and possess not the

smallest right to hereditary possession or succession. Yet when one of

them dies, he is in general replaced by one of his sons, considered

most fit for the office, provided he can afford to pay the customary

present to the governor of the north-east coast of Java; for if he is

unable to do this, or if any other person offers a more considerable

sum, a pretence is easily found to exclude the children in favour of

the more liberal purchaser.

"These presents form a principal part of the emoluments of the governor

of the north-east coast, and consequently all new appointments of

regents are for his advantage. The present chief regent of _Samárang_

paid 50,000 dollars for his promotion, and all the children of his

predecessor were superseded. The others pay in proportion to the value

of their regencies; and as this is arbitrary and uncertain, it is

easily to be conceived, that they find means to recover the amount of

their place-money[77].

"These Regents although very proud, are, with very few exceptions,

ignorant and idle persons, who give themselves little concern about

their lands and their people; of whom, indeed, they frequently know

nothing, but only endeavour to squeeze and extort from them as much as

possible, both for their own subsistence and pleasure, and to satisfy

the cupidity of government and of their immediate superiors. They leave

the administration of affairs entirely to their _Pátehs_, who are also

appointed by the Dutch, and are held accountable for every thing[78].

"To their brothers, wives, children, and other near relations, they

assign villages or _désas_, sufficient for their maintenance, for

all these consider themselves born not to work, and look upon the

peasantry as only made for the purpose of providing for their support.

"In order to collect the rice and other kinds of produce, which they

are by contract obliged to deliver to the Company as contingents, they

compel the inhabitants of the district to furnish as much of it as is

at all possible, without any fixed ratio or calculation, and without

any kind of payment, leaving them scarcely what is absolutely necessary

for their own support and that of their families, and even sometimes

not nearly so much, especially in the event of failure in the crops;

on which occasions the miserable inhabitants desert by hundreds to

other districts, where, at least in the first instance, they may expect

a less rigorous treatment. Several regents also, when distressed for

money, are compelled by want, to let out many of their best _désas_

to the Chinese: these bloodsuckers then extort from such villages as

much as they can possibly contrive, while the inhabitants of the other

_désas_ are alone obliged to deliver the contingent required from the

whole aggregate. It may easily be conceived, how oppressively this

demand must fall upon those unhappy individuals; and how greatly these

and other acts of injustice, which are the natural consequences of the

present faulty administration, must tend to the ruin of the country, it

would be superfluous reasoning to prove."

The only restraint upon the will of the head of the government is the

custom of the country, and the regard which he has for his character

among his subjects. To shew what that character ought to be, what is

expected of a good prince, and what are the reciprocal duties of a

prince, prime minister, and people, I may here quote a few sentences

out of the _Níti Prája_, a work in very high esteem, and constantly

referred to by the Javans.

"A good prince must protect his subjects against all unjust

persecutions and oppressions, and should be the light of his subjects,

even as the sun is the light of the world. His goodness must flow clear

and full, like the mountain stream, which in its course towards the sea

enriches and fertilizes the land as it descends. He must consider that

as the withered foliage of the trees awaiteth the coming of rain to

flourish anew, so are his subjects waiting for his benevolence, to be

provided with food, with raiment, and with beautiful women. If, on the

contrary, a prince neglects to extend his benevolence and protection

towards his subjects, he exposes himself to be abandoned by them, or at

any rate to lose their confidence; for it is an undeniable truth, that

no one will be faithful or attached to a man upon whom no dependence

can be placed.

"When a prince gives audience to the public his conduct must be

dignified. He must sit upright and not in a bending posture, and say

little, neither looking on one side or the other, because, in this

case, the people would not have a proper sight of him. He must assume a

pleasing appearance, which will enable him to observe his subjects who

surround him, and then enquire if any one has any thing to say to him;

and if there is, he must animate him to speak openly.

"In his discourse he must not speak loud, but low, and with dignity,

and not more than is necessary for the purpose; for it does not become

a prince to withdraw his words if once given, and much less to give

them another turn.

"It is, above all, the duty of a prince to take notice of every thing

going on in his country and among his subjects, and, if possible,

to turn every thing to a good end: if he passes over unnoticed the

least crime, he may create numerous enemies. It is further the duty

of a prince, besides knowing the merits of his subjects and the state

of his country, to explain all abstract and difficult expressions,

particularly such as occur in writings.

"It is a disgrace to a prime minister for any hostile attack to be

made on the country intrusted to his charge without his knowledge, or

that he should be careless or inattentive to the same, rather thinking

how to obtain the favour of his prince than to secure the safety of

the country. So it is when he does not understand how to administer

the country properly, or fails to invent what is useful; when he makes

many promises, but fulfils few; when he is careless with regard to

public affairs, and talks much about what is of no consequence, seeking

to be admired by the people, and putting on fair appearances when

his intentions do not correspond; when he cares nothing about the

misfortunes of his inferiors, provided he gets money himself; when,

finally, he is not faithful, but deceitful. Such a prime minister is

like the hawk, which soars high in the air, but descends low on the

earth to seize and steal its food.

"But a good prime minister is he who is upright in his heart, moderate

in his fear of the prince, faithfully obedient to all his orders,

kind-hearted, not oppressive to the people, and always exerting himself

to the utmost for the happiness of the people and the welfare of the

country.

"And a prime minister is good beyond measure who can always please

his prince in every thing that is good; who knows every thing that is

going on in the country, and takes proper measures accordingly; who

always exerts himself to avert whatever is likely to be injurious; who

considers nothing too trifling to merit his attention; who accumulates

not wealth, but offers to his prince whatever comes in his way that

is curious; who heeds not his own life in effecting what is right;

who considers neither friends, family, nor enemies, but does justice

alike to all; who cares not when he is praised or reviled, but trusts

to the dispensations of Providence; who possesses much experience;

who can bear poverty, and cares not for the enjoyment of pleasures;

who is polite to every one; who with good will gives alms to the poor

and helpless; who consults much with his brother officers, with whom

he ought always to advise on affairs of business. Against such a

prime minister it is impossible for any one to speak, for he will be

feared at the same time that the people will become attached to him:

the people will then live quiet and happy, perform their labours with

cheerfulness, and wish that his administration may be lasting.

"A prime minister ought, nevertheless, not to be too confident in this,

but always remain on his guard against the designs of bad men.

"There are many examples of such prime ministers: among which is _Rája

Jájahan_, (prime minister of _Mesir_ Egypt,) to whom all the people of

the country, great and small, were much attached.

"Whenever his brother officers intended to visit the prince for the

purpose of paying their respects, they always assembled at the prime

minister's house, where they generally partook of a meal: after this

they proceeded to the court, followed by the prime minister on foot,

dressed in white, with only three attendants, carrying a spear and

other articles of state before him. By this conduct he supposed that he

was screened from reproach, and that he was freed from enemies; but at

the very time there were enemies conspiring against his life, as was

afterwards discovered: therefore ought a prime minister not only to be

virtuous, but cautious also, and always armed against his enemies, in

the same manner as a sportsman arms himself against wild beasts.

"A subject going into the presence of his prince must be clean and

well-dressed, wearing proper _chelána_ (pantaloons.) He must have a

good girdle and a sharp _krís_, and be anointed with aromatic oils. He

must range himself with his equals, and convince them of his abilities

and good breeding; because from this it is that he has to expect favour

or disgrace, grief or joy, happiness or misery; for a prince can either

exalt or humble him.

"A prince is like a _dálang (wáyang_ player,) his subjects like

_wáyangs_, and the law is as the wick of the lamp used in these

entertainments: for a prince can do with his subjects what he pleases,

in the same manner as the _dálang_ acts with his _wáyangs_, according

to his own fancy; the prince having the law, and the _dálang_ the lamp,

to prevent them from going out of the right way.

"In like manner, as it is incumbent on the _dálang_ to make magnanimity

and justice the principal subjects of his representation, in order that

the spectators may be instructed and animated thereby, so should a

prince, a prime minister, and chief officers of the court, direct the

administration of the country with such propriety, that the people may

attach themselves to them; they must see that the guilty are punished,

that the innocent be not persecuted, and that all persons falsely

accused be immediately released, and remunerated for the sufferings

they may have endured."

The judicial and executive powers are generally exercised by the same

individual. The written law of the island, according to which justice

is administered and the courts are regulated, is that of the _Koran_,

as modified by custom and usage. The Javans have now been converted to

the Mahomedan religion about three centuries and a half, dating from

the destruction of the Hindu kingdom of _Majapáhit_, in the year 1400

of the Javan æra. Of all the nations who have adopted that creed, they

are among the most recent converts; and it may be safely added, that

few others are so little acquainted with its doctrines, and partake so

little of its zeal and intolerance. The consequence is, that although

the Mahomedan law be in some instances followed, and it be considered

a point of honour to profess an adherence to it, it has not entirely

superseded the ancient superstitions and local customs of the country.

The courts of justice are of two descriptions: those of the _Panghúlu_

or high priest, and those of the _Jáksa_. In the former the Mahomedan

law is more strictly followed; in the latter it is blended with the

customs and usages of the country. The former take cognisance of

capital offences, of suits of divorce, of contracts and inheritance;

they are also, in some respects, courts of appeal from the authority

of the _Jáksa_. The latter take cognisance of thefts, robberies,

and all inferior offences; its officers are employed in taking down

depositions, examining evidence, inspecting the general police of

the country, and in some measure acting as public prosecutors: these

last functions are implied in the title of the office itself, _jáksa_

meaning to guard or watch[79].

At the seat of government are supreme courts of the _Panghúlu_

and _Jáksa_: to these there is an appeal from similar but inferior

tribunals, established within each province. Petty tribunals, under

like names, are even established under the jurisdiction of a _Demáng_,

or chief of a subdivision, and sometimes of a _Bákol_, or head of a

village; but in these the authority of the _Panghúlu_ and _Jáksa_

extend no further than to take down evidence to be transmitted to some

higher authority, to settle petty disputes, and perform the ordinary

ceremonies of religion, inseparable among the Javans, as well as all

other Mahomedans, from the administration of justice.

Such however is the nature of the native government, that these

officers are considered rather as the law assessors or council of

the immediate superior officer of the executive government, than as

independent ministers of justice. In such cases as come before them,

they examine the evidence, and point out the law and custom to the

executive officer, who is himself generally too ignorant and indolent

to undertake it. When the evidence is gone through, and the point of

law ascertained, the whole is brought before him, at whose discretion

it rests to pass judgment. It is however admitted, that in matters of

little moment, where his passions and interests are not concerned, the

division is frequently left to the law officers; but in all matters of

importance he will not fail to exercise his privileges of interference.