[1] _Jud. Har. Macamæ_, ed. Lagarde (Göttingen, 1883), p. 89, l. 61.
[2] See the passage quoted by Munk, _Mélanges de philosophie arabe et
juive_ (Paris, 1859), pp. 264 and 517.
[3] _Liber Juchassin_, ed. Filipowski (London, 1857), p. 217.
[4] _Hebr. Übersetzungen_ (Berlin, 1893), § 219, note 70; cf.
Kaufmann, _Studien über Sal.-ibn Gabirol_ (Budapest, 1899), p. 79,
note 2.
[5] See Munk, _op. cit._ pp. 515-516, transl. on pp. 263-264. Metre
had been already used by Dunash.
IBN HAUKAL, strictly IBN HAUQAL, a 10th century Arabian geographer.
Nothing is known of his life. His work on geography, written in 977, is
only a revision and extension of the _Masalik ul-Mamalik_ of
al-Istakhri, who wrote in 951. This itself was a revised edition of the
_Kitab ul-Ashkal_ or _Suwar ul-Aqalim_ of Abu Zaid ul-Balkhi, who wrote
about 921. Ibn Haukal's work was published by M. J. de Goeje (Leiden,
1873). An anonymous epitome of the book was written in 1233.
See M. J. de Goeje, "Die Istahri-Balhi Frage," in the _Zeitschrift der
deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft_, xxv. 42 sqq.
IBN HAZM [Abu Mahommed 'Ali ibn Ahmad ibn Hazm] (994-1064), Moslem
theologian, was born in a suburb of Cordova. He studied history, law and
theology, and became a vizier as his father had been before him, but was
deposed for heresy, and spent the rest of his life quietly in the
country. In legal matters he belonged first to the Shafi'ite school, but
came to adopt the views of the Zahirites, who admitted only the external
sense of the Koran and tradition, disallowing the use of analogy
(_Qiyas_) and _Taqlid_ (appeal to the authority of an imam), and
objecting altogether to the use of individual opinion (_Ra'y_). Every
sentence of the Koran was to be interpreted in a general and universal
sense; the special application to the circumstances of the time it was
written was denied. Every word of the Koran was to be taken in a literal
sense, but that sense was to be learned from other uses in the Koran
itself, not from the meaning in other literature of the time. The
special feature of Ibn Hazm's teaching was that he extended the
application of these principles from the study of law to that of
dogmatic theology. He thus found himself in opposition at one time to
the Mo'tazilites, at another to the Ash'arites. He did not, however,
succeed in forming a school. His chief work is the _Kitab ul-Milal
wan-Nihal_, or "Book of Sects" (published in Cairo, 1899).
For his teaching cf. I. Goldziher, _Die Zahiriten_, pp. 116-172
(Leipzig, (1884), and M. Schreiner in the _Journal of the German
Oriental Society_, lii. 464-486. For a list of his other works see C.
Brockelmann's _Geschichte der arabischen Literatur_, vol. i. (Weimar,
1898), p. 400. (G. W. T.)
IBN HISHAM [Abu Mahommed 'Abdulmalik ibn Hisham ibn Ayyub ul-Himyari]
(d. 834), Arabian biographer, studied in Kufa but lived afterwards in
Fostat (old Cairo), where he gained a name as a grammarian and student
of language and history. His chief work is his edition of Ibn Ishaq's
(q.v.) _Life of the Apostle of God_, which has been edited by F.
Wüstenfeld (Göttingen, 1858-1860). An abridged German translation has
been made by G. Weil (Stuttgart, 1864; cf. P. Brönnle, _Die
Commentatoren des Ibn Ishaq und ihre Scholien_, Halle, 1895). Ibn Hisham
is said to have written a work explaining the difficult words which
occur in poems on the life of the Apostle, and another on the
genealogies of the Himyarites and their princes. (G. W. T.)
IBN ISHAQ [Mahommed ibn Ishaq Abu 'Abdallah] (d. 768), Arabic historian,
lived in Medina, where he interested himself to such an extent in the
details of the Prophet's life that he was attacked by those to whom his
work seemed to have a rationalistic tendency. He consequently left
Medina in 733, and went to Alexandria, then to Kufa and Hira, and
finally to Bagdad, where the caliph Mansur provided him with the means
of writing his great work. This was the _Life of the Apostle of God_,
which is now lost and is known to us only in the recension of Ibn Hisham
(q.v.). The work has been attacked by Arabian writers (as in the
_Fihrist_) as untrustworthy, and it seems clear that he introduced
forged verses (cf. _Journal of the German Oriental Society_, xiv. 288
sqq.). It remains, however, one of the most important works of the age.
(G. W. T.)
IBN JUBAIR [Abu-l Husain Mahommed ibn Ahmad ibn Jubair] (1145-1217),
Arabian geographer, was born in Valencia. At Granada he studied the
Koran, tradition, law and literature, and later became secretary to the
Mohad governor of that city. During this time he composed many poems. In
1183 he left the court and travelled to Alexandria, Jerusalem, Medina,
Mecca, Damascus, Mosul and Bagdad, returning in 1185 by way of Sicily.
The _Travels of Ibn Jubair_ were edited by W. Wright (Leiden, 1852);
and a new edition of this text, revised by M. J. de Goeje, was
published by the Gibb Trustees (London, 1907). The part relating to
Sicily was published, with French translation and notes, by M. Amari
in the _Journal asiatique_ (1845-1846) and a French translation alone
of the same part by G. Crolla in _Museon_, vi. 123-132. (G. W. T.)
IBN KHALDUN [Abu Zaid ibn Mahommed ibn Mahommed ibn Khaldun]
(1332-1406), Arabic historian, was born at Tunis. He studied the various
branches of Arabic learning with great success. In 1352 he obtained
employment under the Marinid sultan Abu Inan (Faris I.) at Fez. In the
beginning of 1356, his integrity having been suspected, he was thrown
into prison until the death of Abu Inan in 1358, when the vizier
al-Hasan ibn Omar set him at liberty and reinstated him in his rank and
offices. He here continued to render great service to Abu Salem (Ibrahim
III.), Abu Inan's successor, but, having offended the prime minister, he
obtained permission to emigrate to Spain, where, at Granada, he was
received with great cordiality by Ibn al Ahmar, who had been greatly
indebted to his good offices when an exile at the court of Abu Salem.
The favours he received from the sovereign excited the jealousy of the
vizier, and he was driven back to Africa (1364), where he was received
with great cordiality by the sultan of Bougie, Abu Abdallah, who had
been formerly his companion in prison. On the fall of Abu Abdallah Ibn
Khaldun raised a large force amongst the desert Arabs, and entered the
service of the sultan of Tlemçen. A few years later he was taken
prisoner by Abdalaziz ('Abd ul 'Aziz), who had defeated the sultan of
Tlemçen and seized the throne. He then entered a monastic establishment,
and occupied himself with scholastic duties, until in 1370 he was sent
for to Tlemçen by the new sultan. After the death of 'Abd ul 'Aziz he
resided at Fez, enjoying the patronage and confidence of the regent.
After some further vicissitudes in 1378 he entered the service of the
sultan of his native town of Tunis, where he devoted himself almost
exclusively to his studies and wrote his history of the Berbers. Having
received permission to make the pilgrimage to Mecca, he reached Cairo,
where he was presented to the sultan, al-Malik udh-Dhahir Barkuk, who
insisted on his remaining there, and in the year 1384 made him grand
cadi of the Malikite rite for Cairo. This office he filled with great
prudence and probity, removing many abuses in the administration of
justice in Egypt. At this time the ship in which his wife and family,
with all his property, were coming to join him, was wrecked, and every
one on board lost. He endeavoured to find consolation in the completion
of his history of the Arabs of Spain. At the same time he was removed
from his office of cadi, which gave him more leisure for his work. Three
years later he made the pilgrimage to Mecca, and on his return lived in
retirement in the Fayum until 1399, when he was again called upon to
resume his functions as cadi. He was removed and reinstated in the
office no fewer than five times.
In 1400 he was sent to Damascus, in connexion with the expedition
intended to oppose Timur or Tamerlane. When Timur had become master of
the situation, Ibn Khaldun let himself down from the walls of the city
by a rope, and presented himself before the conqueror, who permitted him
to return to Egypt. Ibn Khaldun died on the 16th of March 1406, at the
age of sixty-four.
The great work by which he is known is a "Universal History," but it
deals more particularly with the history of the Arabs of Spain and
Africa. Its Arabic title is _Kitab ul'Ibar, wa diwan el Mubtada wa'l
Khabar, fi ayyam ul 'Arab wa'l'Ajam wa'l Berber_; that is, "The Book
of Examples and the Collection of Origins and Information respecting
the History of the Arabs, Foreigners and Berbers." It consists of
three books, an introduction and an autobiography. Book i. treats of
the influence of civilization upon man; book ii. of the history of the
Arabs and other peoples from the remotest antiquity until the author's
own times; book iii. of the history of the Berber tribes and of the
kingdoms founded by that race in North Africa. The introduction is an
elaborate treatise on the science of history and the development of
society, and the autobiography contains the history, not only of the
author himself, but of his family and of the dynasties which ruled in
Fez, Tunis and Tlemçen during his lifetime. An edition of the Arabic
text has been printed at Bulaq, (7 vols., 1867) and a part of the work
has been translated by the late Baron McG. de Slane under the title of
_Histoire des Berbères_ (Algiers, 1852-1856); it contains an admirable
account of the author and analysis of his work. Vol. i., the
_Muqaddama_ (preface), was published by M. Quatremère (3 vols., Paris,
1858), often republished in the East, and a French translation was
made by McG. de Slane (3 vols., Paris, 1862-1868). The parts of the
history referring to the expeditions of the Franks into Moslem lands
were edited by C. J. Tornberg (Upsala, 1840), and the parts treating
of the Banu-l Ahmar kings of Granada were translated into French by M.
Gaudefroy-Demombynes in the _Journal asiatique_, ser. 9, vol. xiii.
The _Autobiography_ of Ibn Khaldun was translated into French by de
Slane in the _Journal asiatique_, ser. 4, vol. iii. For an English
appreciation of the philosophical spirit of Ibn Khaldun see R. Flint's
_History of the Philosophy of History_ (Edinburgh, 1893), pp. 157-170.
(E. H. P.; G. W. T.)
IBN KHALLIKAN [Abu-l 'Abbas Ahmad ibn Khallikan] (1211-1282), Arabian
biographer, was born at Arbela, the son of a professor reputed to be
ascended from the Barmecides of the court of Harun al-Rashid. When
eighteen he went to Aleppo, where he studied for six years, then to
Damascus, and in 1238 to Alexandria and Cairo. In 1252 he married and
became chief cadi of Syria in Damascus in 1261. Having held this office
for ten years, he was professor in Cairo until 1278, when he again took
office in Damascus for three years. In 1281 he accepted a professorship
in the same city, but died in the following year.
His great work is the _Kitab Wafayat ul-A'yan_, "The Obituaries of
Eminent Men." It contains in alphabetical order the lives of the most
celebrated persons of Moslem history and literature, except those of
Mahomet, the four caliphs and the companions of Mahomet and their
followers (the _Tabiun_). The work is anecdotal and contains many
brief extracts from the poetry of the writers. It was published by F.
Wüstenfeld (Göttingen, 1835-1843), in part by McG. de Slane (Paris,
1838-1842), and also in Cairo (1859 and 1882). An English translation
by McG. de Slane was published for the Oriental Translation Fund in 4
vols. (London, 1842-1871). Thirteen extra biographies from a
manuscript in Amsterdam were published by Pijnappel (Amsterdam, 1845).
A Persian translation exists in manuscript, and various extracts from
the work are known. Several supplements to the book have been written,
the best known being that of Mahommed ibn Shakir (d. 1362), published
at Cairo 1882. A collection of poems by Ibn Khallikan is also extant.
(G. W. T.)
IBN QUTAIBA, or KOTAIBA [Abu Mahommed ibn Muslim ibn Qutaiba] (828-889),
Arabian writer, was born at Bagdad or Kufa, and was of Iranian descent,
his father belonging to Merv. Having studied tradition and philology he
became cadi in Dinawar and afterwards teacher in Bagdad, where he died.
He was the first representative of the eclectic school of Bagdad
philologists that succeeded the schools of Kufa and Basra (see ARABIA:
_Literature_, section "Grammar"). Although engaged also in theological
polemic (cf. I. Goldziher, _Muhammedanische Studien_, ii. 136, Halle,
1890), his chief works were directed to the training of the ideal
secretary. Of these five may be said to form a series. The _Adab
ul-Katib_ ("Training of the Secretary") contains instruction in writing
and is a compendium of Arabic style. It has been edited by Max Grünert
(Leiden, 1900). The _Kitab ush-Sharab_ is still in manuscript. The
_Kitab ul-Ma'arif_ has been edited by F. Wüstenfeld as the _Handbuch der
Geschichte_[1] (Göttingen, 1850); the _Kitab ush-Shi'r wash-Shu'arai_
("Book of Poetry and Poets") edited by M. J. de Goeje (Leiden, 1904).[2]
The fifth and most important is the _'Uyun ul-Akhbar_, which deals in
ten books with lordship, war, nobility, character, science and
eloquence, asceticism, friendship, requests, foods and women, with many
illustrations from history, poetry and proverb (ed. C. Brockelmann,
Leiden, 1900 sqq.).
For other works (which were much quoted by later Arabian writers) see
C. Brockelmann, _Gesch. der arabischen Literatur_, vol. i. (Weimar,
1898), pp. 120-122. (G. W. T.)