[1] Besides the anonymous testimony prefixed to an ancient MS. of
Proclus, _De Myst._ viii. 3 seems to be quoted by the latter as
Iamblichus's. Cf. Meiners. "Judicium de libro qui de Myst. Aeg.
inscribitur," in _Comment. Soc. Reg. Sci. Gott._, vol. iv., 1781, p.
77.
IAMBLICHUS, of Syria, the earliest of the Greek romance writers,
flourished in the 2nd century A.D. He was the author of [Greek:
Babylôniaka], the loves of Rhodanes and Sinonis, of which an epitome is
preserved in Photius (cod. 94). Garmus, a legendary king of Babylon,
forces Sinonis to marry him and throws Rhodanes into prison. The lovers
manage to escape, and after many singular adventures, in which magic
plays a considerable part, Garmus is overthrown by Rhodanes, who becomes
king of Babylon. According to Suidas, Iamblichus was a freedman, and a
scholiast's note on Photius further informs us that he was a native
Syrian (not descended from Greek settlers); that he borrowed the
material for his romance from a love story told him by his Babylonian
tutor, and that he subsequently applied himself with great success to
the study of Greek. A MS. of the original in the library of the Escorial
is said to have been destroyed by fire in 1670. Only a few fragments
have been preserved, in addition to Photius's epitome.
See _Scriptores erotici_, ed. A. Hirschig (1856) and R. Hercher
(1858); A. Mai, _Scriptorum veterum nova collectio_, ii.; E. Rohde,
_Der griechische Roman_ (1900).
IANNINA (i.e. "the city of St John"; Gr. _Ioannina_; Turk _Yaniá_; also
written Janina, Jannina, and, according to its Albanian pronunciation,
Yanina), the capital of the vilayet of Iannina, Albania, European
Turkey. Pop. (1905) about 22,000. The largest ethnical groups in the
population are the Albanian and Greek; the purest form of colloquial
Greek is spoken here among the wealthy and highly educated merchant
families. The position of Iannina is strikingly picturesque. At the foot
of the grey limestone mass of Mount Mitzekeli (1500 ft.), which forms
part of the fine range of hills running north from the Gulf of Arta,
there lies a valley (the _Hellopia_ of antiquity) partly occupied by a
lake; and the city is built on the slopes of a slight eminence,
stretching down to the western shore. It has greatly declined from the
state of barbaric prosperity which it enjoyed from 1788 to 1822, when it
was the seat of Ali Pasha (q.v.), and was estimated to have from 30,000
to 50,000 inhabitants. The fortress--Demir Kule or Iron Castle, which,
like the principal seraglio, was built on a promontory jutting into the
lake--is now in ruins. But the city is the seat of a Greek archbishop,
and still possesses many mosques and churches, besides synagogues, a
Greek college (gymnasium), a library and a hospital. Sayades (opposite
Corfu) and Arta are the places through which it receives its imports.
The rich gold and silver embroidery for which the city has long been
famous is still one of the notable articles in its bazaar; but the
commercial importance of Iannina has notably declined since the cession
of Arta and Thessaly to Greece in 1881. Iannina had previously been one
of the chief centres of the Thessalian grain trade; it now exports
little except cheese, hides, bitumen and sheepskins to the annual value
of about £120,000; the imports, which supply only the local demand for
provisions, textile goods, hardware, &c., are worth about double that
sum.
The lake of Iannina (perhaps to be identified with the Pambotus or
Pambotis of antiquity) is 6 m. long, and has an area of 24 sq.m., with
an extreme depth of less than 35 ft. In time of flood it is united with
the smaller lake of Labchistas to the north. There are no affluents of
any considerable size, and the only outlets are underground passages or
_katavothra_ extending for many miles through the calcareous rocks.
The theory supported by W. M. Leake (_Northern Greece_, London, 1835)
that the citadel of Iannina is to be identified with Dodona, is now
generally abandoned in favour of the claims of a more southern site. As
Anna Comnena, in describing the capture of the town ([Greek: ta
Ioannina]) by Bohemond in 1082, speaks of the walls as being
dilapidated, it may be supposed that the place existed before the 11th
century. It is mentioned from time to time in the Byzantine annals, and
on the establishment of the lordship of Epirus by Michael Angelus
Comnenus Ducas, it became his capital. In the middle ages it was
successively attacked by Serbs, Macedonians and Albanians; but it was in
possession of the successors of Michael when the forces of the Sultan
Murad appeared before it in 1430 (cf. Hahn, _Alban. Studien_, Jena
[1854], pp. 319-322). Since 1431 it has continued under Turkish rule.
Descriptions of Iannina will be found in Holland's _Travels_ (1815);
Hughes, _Travels in Greece_, &c. (1830); H. F. Tozer, _Researches in
the Highlands of Turkey_ (London, 1869). See also ALBANIA and the
authorities there cited.
IAPETUS, in Greek mythology, son of Uranus and Gaea, one of the Titans,
father of Atlas, Prometheus, Epimetheus and Menoetius, the
personifications of certain human qualities (Hesiod, _Theog._ 507). As a
punishment for having revolted against Zeus, he was imprisoned in
Tartarus (Homer, _Iliad_, viii. 479) or underneath the island of Inarime
off the coast of Campania (Silius Italicus xii. 148). Hyginus makes him
the son of Tartarus and Gaea, and one of the giants. Iapetus was
considered the original ancestor of the human race, as the father of
Prometheus and grandfather of Deucalion. The name is probably identical
with Japhet (Japheth), and the son of Noah in the Greek legend of the
flood becomes the ancestor of (Noah) Deucalion. Iapetus as the
representative of an obsolete order of things is described as warring
against the new order under Zeus, and is naturally relegated to
Tartarus.
See F. G. Welcker, _Griechische Götterlehre_, i. (1857); C. H.
Völcker, _Die Mythologie des Iapetischen Geschlechtes_ (1824); M.
Mayer, _Giganten und Titanen_ (1887).
IAPYDES, or IAPODES, one of the three chief peoples of Roman Illyria.
They occupied the interior of the country on the north between the Arsia
(Arsa) and Tedanius (perhaps the Zermanja), which separated them from
the Liburnians. Their territory formed part of the modern Croatia. They
are described by Strabo as a mixed race of Celts and Illyrians, who used
Celtic weapons, tattooed themselves, and lived chiefly on spelt and
millet. They were a warlike race, addicted to plundering expeditions. In
129 B.C. C. Sempronius Tuditanus celebrated a triumph over them, and in
34 B.C. they were finally crushed by Augustus. They appear to have had a
_foedus_ with Rome, but subsequently rebelled.
See Strabo iv. 207, vii. 313-315; Dio Cassius xlix. 35; Appian,
_Illyrica_, 10, 14, 16; Livy, _Epit._ lix. 131; Tibullus iv. 1. 108;
Cicero, _Pro Balbo_, 14.
IATROCHEMISTRY (coined from Gr. [Greek: iatros], a physician, and
"chemistry"), a stage in the history of chemistry, during which the
object of this science was held to be "not to make gold but to prepare
medicines." This doctrine dominated chemical thought during the 16th
century, its foremost supporters being Paracelsus, van Helmont and de la
Boë Sylvius. But it gave way to the new definition formulated by Boyle,
viz. that the proper domain of chemistry was "to determine the
composition of substances." (See CHEMISTRY: I. _History_; MEDICINE.)
IAZYGES, a tribe of Sarmatians first heard of on the Maeotis, where they
were among the allies of Mithradates the Great. Moving westward across
Scythia, and hence called Metanastae, they were on the lower Danube by
the time of Ovid, and about A.D. 50 occupied the plains east of the
Theiss. Here, under the general name of Sarmatae, they were a perpetual
trouble to the Roman province of Dacia. They were divided into freemen
and serfs (_Sarmatae Limigantes_), the latter of whom had a different
manner of life and were probably an older settled population enslaved by
nomad masters. They rose against them in A.D. 334, but were repressed by
foreign aid. Nothing is heard of Iazyges or Sarmatae after the Hunnish
invasions. Graves at Keszthely and elsewhere in the Theiss valley, shown
by their contents to belong to nomads of the first centuries A.D., are
referred to the Iazyges. (E. H. M.)
IBADAN, a town of British West Africa, in Yorubaland, Southern Nigeria,
123 m. by rail N.E. of Lagos, and about 50 m. N.E. of Abeokuta. Pop.
1910 estimated at 150,000. The town occupies the slope of a hill, and
stretches into the valley through which the river Ona flows. It is
enclosed by mud walls, which have a circuit of 18 m., and is encompassed
by cultivated land 5 or 6 m. in breadth. The native houses are all low,
thatched structures, enclosing a square court, and the only break in the
mud wall is the door. There are numerous mosques, _orishas_
(idol-houses) and open spaces shaded with trees. There are a few
buildings in the European style. Most of the inhabitants are engaged in
agriculture; but a great variety of handicrafts is also carried on.
Ibadan is the capital of one of the Yoruba states and enjoys a large
measure of autonomy. Nominally the state is subject to the _alafin_
(ruler) of Oyo; but it is virtually independent. The administration is
in the hands of two chiefs, a civil and a military, the _bale_ and the
_balogun_; these together form the highest court of appeal. There is
also an _iyaloda_ or mother of the town, to whom are submitted all the
disputes of the women. Ibadan long had a feud with Abeokuta, but on the
establishment of the British protectorate the intertribal wars were
stopped. In 1862 the people of Ibadan destroyed Ijaya, a neighbouring
town of 60,000 inhabitants. A British resident and a detachment of Hausa
troops are stationed at Ibadan.
See also YORUBAS, ABEOKUTA and LAGOS.
IBAGUÉ, or SAN BONIFACIO DE IBAGUÉ, a city of Colombia, and capital of
the department of Tolima, about 60 m. W. of Bogotá and 18 m. N.W. of the
Nevado de Tolima. Pop. (1900, estimate) 13,000. Ibagué is built on a
beautiful plain between the Chipalo and Combeima, small affluents of the
Cuello, a western tributary of the Magdalena. Its elevation, 4300 ft.
above the sea, gives it a mild, subtropical climate. The plain and the
neighbouring valleys produce cacao, tobacco, rice and sugar-cane. There
are two thermal springs in the vicinity, and undeveloped mines of
sulphur and silver. The city has an endowed college. It is an important
commercial centre, being on the road which crosses the Quindio pass, or
_paramo_, into the Cauca valley. Ibagué was founded in 1550 and was the
capital of the republic for a short time in 1854.
IBARRA, a city of Ecuador and capital of the province of Imbabura, about
50 m. N.N.E. of Quito, on a small fertile plain at the northern foot of
Imbabura volcano, 7300 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1900, estimate) 5000.
It stands on the left bank of the Tahuando, a small stream whose waters
flow north and west to the Pacific through the Mira, and is separated
from the higher plateau of Quito by an elevated transverse ridge of
which the Imbabura and Mojanda volcanoes form a part. The surrounding
country is mountainous, the valleys being very fertile. Ibarra itself
has a mild, humid climate, and is set in the midst of orchards and
gardens. It is the see of a bishop and has a large number of churches
and convents, and many substantial residences. Ibarra has manufactures
of cotton and woollen fabrics, hats, sandals (_alpargates_), sacks and
rope from _cabulla_ fibre, laces, sugar and various kinds of distilled
spirits and cordials made from the sugar-cane grown in the vicinity.
Mules are bred for the Colombian markets of Pasto and Popayan. Ibarra
was founded in 1597 by Alvaro de Ibarra, the president of Quito. It has
suffered from the eruptions of Imbabura, and more severely from
earthquakes, that of 1859 causing great damage to its public buildings,
and the greater one of the 16th of August 1868 almost completely
destroyed the town and killed a large number of its inhabitants. The
village of Carranqui, 1¼ m. from Ibarra, is the birthplace of Atahualpa,
the Inca sovereign executed by Pizarro, and close by is the small lake
called Yaguarcocha where the army of Huaynacapac, the father of
Atahualpa, inflicted a bloody defeat on the Carranquis. Another
aboriginal battle-field is that of Hatuntaqui, near Ibarra, where
Huaynacapac won a decisive victory and added the greater part of Ecuador
to his realm. The whole region is full of _tolas_, or Indian burial
mounds.
IBERIANS (Iberi, [Greek: Ibêres]), an ancient people inhabiting parts of
the Spanish peninsula. Their ethnic affinities are not known, and our
knowledge of their history is comparatively slight. It is almost
impossible to make any statement in regard to them which will meet with
general agreement. At the same time, the general lines of Iberian
controversy are clear enough The principal sources of information about
the Iberians are (1) historical, (2) numismatic, (3) linguistic, (4)
anthropological.
1. _Historical._--The name seems to have been applied by the earlier
Greek navigators to the peoples who inhabited the eastern coast of
Spain; probably it originally meant those who dwelt by the river Iberus
(mod. _Ebro_). It is possible (Boudard, _Études sur l'alphabet ibérien_
(Paris, 1852) that the river-name itself represents the Basque phrase
_ibay-erri_ "the country of the river." On the other hand, even in older
Greek usage (as in Thuc. vi. 1) the term Iberia is said to have embraced
the country as far east as the Rhone (see Herodorus of Heraclea, _Fragm.
Hist. Gr._ ii. 34), and by the time of Strabo it was the common Greek
name for the Spanish peninsula. Iberians thus meant sometimes the
population of the peninsula in general and sometimes, it would appear,
the peoples of some definite race ([Greek: genos]) which formed one
element in that population. Of the tribal distribution of this race, of
its linguistic, social and political characteristics, and of the history
of its relation to the other peoples of Spain, we have only the most
general, fragmentary and contradictory accounts. On the whole, the
historical evidence indicates that in Spain, when it first became known
to the Greeks and Romans there existed many separate and variously
civilized tribes connected by at least apparent identity of race, and by
similarity (but not identity) of language, and sufficiently
distinguished by their general characteristics from Phoenicians, Romans
and Celts. The statement of Diodorus Siculus that the mingling of these
Iberians with the immigrant Celts gave rise to the Celtiberians is in
itself probable. Varro and Dionysius Afer proposed to identify the
Iberians of Spain with the Iberians of the Caucasus, the one regarding
the eastern, and other the western, settlements as the earlier.
2. _Numismatic._--Knowledge of ancient Iberian language and history is
mainly derived from a variety of coins, found widely distributed in the
peninsula,[1] and also in the neighbourhood of Narbonne. They are
inscribed in an alphabet which has many points of similarity with the
western Greek alphabets, and some with the Punic alphabet; but which
seems to retain a few characters from an older script akin to those of
Minoan Crete and Roman Libya.[2] The same Iberian alphabet is found also
rarely in inscriptions. The coinage began before the Roman conquest was
completed; the monetary system resembles that of the Roman republic,
with values analogous to _denarii_ and _quinarii_. The coin inscriptions
usually give only the name of the town, e.g. PLPLIS (Bilbilis), KLAQRIQS
(Calagurris), SEQBRICS (Segobriga), TMANIAV (Dumania). The types show
late Greek and perhaps also late Punic influence, but approximate later
to Roman models. The commonest reverse type, a charging horseman,
reappears on the Roman coins of Bilbilis, Osca, Segobriga and other
places. Another common type is one man leading two horses or brandishing
a sword or a bow. The obverse has usually a male head, sometimes
inscribed with what appears to be a native name.
3. _Linguistic._--The survival of the non-Aryan language among the
Basques around the west Pyrenees has suggested the attempt to interpret
by its means a large class of similar-sounding place-names of ancient
Spain, some of which are authenticated by their occurrence on the
inscribed coins, and to link it with other traces of non-Aryan speech
round the shores of the Western Mediterranean and on the Atlantic
seaboard of Europe. This phase of Iberian theory opens with K. W.
Humboldt (_Prüfung der Untersuchungen über die Urbewohner Hispaniens
vermittelst der waskischen Sprache_, Berlin, 1821), who contended that
there existed once a single great Iberian people, speaking a distinct
language of their own; that an essentially "Iberian" population was to
be found in Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica, in southern France, and even
in the British Isles; and that the Basques of the present day were
remnants of this race, which had elsewhere been expelled or absorbed.
This last was the central and the seminal idea of the work, and it has
been the point round which the battle of scholarship has mainly raged.
The principal evidence which Humboldt adduced in its support was the
possibility of explaining a vast number of the ancient topographical
names of Spain, and of other asserted Iberian districts, by the forms
and significations of Basque. In reply, Graslin (_De l'Ibérie_, Paris,
1839), maintained that the name Iberia was nothing but a Greek misnomer
of Spain, and that there was no proof that the Basque people had ever
occupied a wider area than at present; and Bladé (_Origine des Basques_,
Paris, 1869) took the same line of argument, holding that Iberia is a
purely geographical term, that there was no proper Iberian race, that
the Basques were always shut in by alien races, that their affinity is
still to seek, and that the whole Basque-Iberian theory is a figment.
His main contention has met with some acceptance,[3] but the great
current of ethnographical speculation still flows in the direction
indicated by Humboldt.
4. _Anthropological._--Humboldt's "Iberian theory" depended partly on
linguistic comparisons, but partly on his observation of widespread
similarity of physical type among the population of south-western
Europe. Since his time the anthropological researches of Broca, Thurnam
and Davis, Huxley, Busk, Beddoe, Virchow, Tubino and others have proved
the existence in Europe, from Neolithic times, of a race, small of
stature, with long or oval skulls, and accustomed to bury their dead in
tombs. Their remains have been found in Belgium and France, in Britain,
Germany and Denmark, as well as in Spain; and they bear a close
resemblance to a type which is common among the Basques as well as all
over the Iberian peninsula. This Neolithic race has consequently been
nicknamed "Iberians," and it is now common to speak of the "Iberian"
ancestry of the people of Britain, recognizing the racial
characteristics of "Iberians" in the "small swarthy Welshman," the
"small dark Highlander," and the "Black Celts to the west of the
Shannon," as well as in the typical inhabitants of Aquitania and
Brittany.[4] Later investigators went further. M. d'Arbois de
Jubainville, for example (_Les Premiers habitants de l'Europe_, Paris,
1877), maintained that besides possessing Spain, Gaul, Italy and the
British Isles, "Iberian" peoples penetrated into the Balkan peninsula,
and occupied a part of northern Africa, Corsica and Sardinia; and it is
now generally accepted that a race with fairly uniform characteristics
was at one time in possession of the south of France (or at least of
Aquitania), the whole of Spain from the Pyrenees to the straits, the
Canary Islands (the Guanches) a part of northern Africa and Corsica.
Whether this type is more conveniently designated by the word _Iberian_,
or by some other name ("Eur-african," "Mediterranean," &c.) is a matter
of comparative indifference, provided that there is no misunderstanding
as to the steps by which the term _Iberian_ attained its meaning in
modern anthropology.
AUTHORITIES.--K. W. von Humboldt, "Über die cantabrische oder
baskische Sprache" in Adelung, _Mithridates_ iv. (1817), and _Prüfung
d. Untersuchungen ü. die Urbewohner Hispaniens vermittelst der
waskischen Sprache_ (Berlin, 1821); L. F. Graslin, _De l'Ibérie_
(Paris, 1838); T. B. G. M. Bory de St Vincent, _Essai géologique sur
le genre humain_ (1838); G. Lagneau, "Sur l'ethnologie des peuples
ibériens," in _Bull. soc. anthrop._ (1867), pp. 146-161; J. F. Bladé,
_Études sur l'origine des Basques_ (Paris, 1869), _Défense des
études_, &c. (Paris, 1870); Phillips, _Die Einwanderung der Iberer in
die pyren. Halbinsel_ (Vienna, 1870), _Über das iberische Alphabet_
(Vienna, 1870); W. Boyd Dawkins, "The Northern Range of the Basques,"
in _Fortnightly Rev._ N.S. xvi. 323-337 (1874); W. T. van Eys, "La
Langue ibérienne et la langue basque," in _Revue de linguistique_, pp.
3-15 (1874); W. Webster, "The Basque and the Kelt," in _Journ.
Anthrop. Inst._ v. 5-29 (1875); F. M. Tubino, _Los Aborigines ibericos
o los Berberos en la peninsula_ (Madrid, 1876); A. Luchaire, _Les
Origines linguistiques de l'Aquitaine_ (Paris, 1877); W. Boyd Dawkins,
_Early Man in Britain_ (London, 1880); A. Castaing, "Les Origines des
Aquitains," _Mém. Soc. Eth._ N.S. 1, pp. 183-328 (1884); G. C. C.
Gerland, "Die Basken und die Iberer" in Gröber, _Grundriss d. roman.
Philologie_, 1, pp. 313-334 (1888); M. H. d'Arbois de Jubainville,
_Les Premiers habitants de l'Europe_ (1889-1894); J. F. Bladé, _Les
Vascons avant leur établissement en Novempopulanie_, Agen. (1891); W.
Webster, "The Celt-iberians," _Academy_ xl. 268-269 (and consequent
correspondence) (1891); J. Rhys, "The Inscriptions and Language of the
Northern Picts," _Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot._ xxvi. 263-351 (1892); F.
Fita, "El Vascuence en las inscripciones ógmicas," _Bol. Real. Acad.
Hist. Madrid_ (June 1893), xxii. 579-587; G. v. d. Gabelentz,
"Baskisch u. Berberisch," _Sitz. k. preuss. Akad. Wiss._ 593-613
(Berlin, 1893), _Die Verwandtschaft der Baskischen mit der
Berber-Sprache Nordafrikas nachgewiesen_ (Braunschweig, 1894); M. H.
d'Arbois de Jubainville, "Les Celtes en Espagne," _Rev. celtique_,
xiv. 357-395 (1894); G. Buschan, "Über die iberische Rasse,"
_Ausland_, lxvi. 342-344 (1894); F. Olóriz y Aguilera, _Distribucion
geografica del indice cefalico en España_ (Madrid, 1894), "La Talla
humana en España" in _Discursos R. Acad. Medicina_ xxxvi. 389 (Madrid,
1896); R. Collignon, "La Race basque," _L'Anthropologie_, v. 276-287
(1894); T. de Aranzadi, "Le Peuple basque, résumé" _Bull. soc.
d'anth._ 510-520 (1894), "Consideraciones acerca de la raza basca"
_Euskel-Erria_ xxxv. 33, 65, 97, 129 (1896); H. Schuchhardt,
_Baskische Studien_, i. "Über die Entstehung der Bezugsformen des
baskischen Zeitworts"; _Denkschriften der K. Akad. der Wiss._,
Phil.-Hist., Classe, Bd. 42, Abh. 3. (Wien, 1893); Ph. Salmon, _Rev.
mens. Éc. d'anthr._ v. 155-181, 214-220 (1895); R. Collignon, "Anthr.
du S.-O. de la France," _Mém. Soc. Anthr._ § 3. 1. 4. p. 1-129 (1895),
_Ann. de géogr._ v. 156-166 (1896), and with J. Deniker, "Les Maures
de Sénégal," _L'Anthr._ vii. 57-69 (1897); G. Hervé, _Rev. mens. Éc.
d'anthr._ vi. 97-109 (1896); G. Sergi, _Africa: Anthropologia della
stirpe Camitica_ (Turin, 1897), _Arii ed Italici_ (1898); L. de Hoyos
Sainz, "L'Anthropologie et la préhistorique en Espagne et en Portugal
en 1897," _L'Anthropologie_, ix. 37-51 (1898); J. Deniker (see
Collignon) "Les Races de l'Europe," _L'Anthropologie_, ix. 113-133
(1898); M. Gèze, "De quelques rapports entre les langues berbère et
basque," _Mém. soc. arch. du Midi de la France_, xiii. See also the
works quoted in the footnotes; and the bibliography under BASQUES.
(J. L. M.)