Addison.
Dryden's translation of "Veni Creator" a cold and laboured performance,
is to be met with in many hymn-books. Abridgments of Ken's morning and
evening hymns are in all. These, with the midnight hymn, which is not
inferior to them, first appeared In 1697, appended to the third edition
of the author's _Manual of Prayers for Winchester Scholars_. Between
these and a large number of other hymns (on the attributes of God, and
for the festivals of the church) published by Bishop Ken after 1703 the
contrast is remarkable. The universal acceptance of the morning and
evening hymns is due to their transparent simplicity, warm but not
overstrained devotion, and extremely popular style. Those afterwards
published have no such qualities. They are mystical, florid, stiff,
didactic and seldom poetical, and deserve the neglect into which they
have fallen. Bishop Patrick's hymns were chiefly translations from the
Latin, most of them from Prudentius. The best is a version of "Alleluia
dulce carmen." Of the five attributed to Addison, not more than three
are adapted to public singing; one ("The spacious firmament on high") is
a very perfect and finished composition, taking rank among the best
hymns in the English language.[3]
From the preface to Simon Browne's hymns, published in 1720, we learn
that down to the time of Dr Watts the only hymns known to be "in common
use, either in private families or in Christian assemblies," were those
of Barton, Mason and Shepherd, together with "an attempt to turn some of
George Herbert's poems into common metre," and a few sacramental hymns
by authors now forgotten, named Joseph Boyse (1660-1728) and Joseph
Stennett. Of the 1410 authors of original British hymns enumerated in
Daniel Sedgwick's catalogue, published in 1863, 1213 are of later date
than 1707; and, if any correct enumeration could be made of the total
number of hymns of all kinds published in Great Britain before and after
that date, the proportion subsequent to 1707 would be very much larger.
The English Independents, as represented by Dr Isaac Watts, have a just
claim to be considered the real founders of modern English hymnody.
Watts was the first to understand the nature of the want, and, by the
publication of his _Hymns_ in 1707-1709, and _Psalms_ (not translations,
but hymns founded on psalms) in 1709, he led the way in providing for
it. His immediate followers were Simon Browne and Philip Doddridge.
Later in the 18th century, Joseph Hart, Thomas Gibbons, Miss Anne
Steele, Samuel Medley, Samuel Stennett, John Ryland, Benjamin Beddome
and Joseph Swain succeeded to them.
Watts.
Among these writers, most of whom produced some hymns of merit, and
several are extremely voluminous, Isaac Watts and Philip Doddridge are
pre-eminent. It has been the fashion with some to disparage Watts, as if
he had never risen above the level of his _Hymns for Little Children_.
No doubt his taste is often faulty, and his style very unequal, but,
looking to the good, and disregarding the large quantity of inferior
matter, it is probable that more hymns which approach to a very high
standard of excellence, and are at the same time suitable for
congregational use, may be found in his works than in those of any other
English writer. Such are "When I survey the wondrous cross," "Jesus
shall reign where'er the sun" (and also another adaptation of the same
72nd Psalm), "Before Jehovah's awful throne" (first line of which,
however, is not his, but Wesley's), "Joy to the world, the Lord is
come," "My soul, repeat His praise," "Why do we mourn departing
friends," "There is a land of pure delight," "Our God, our help in ages
past," "Up to the hills I lift mine eyes," and many more. It is true
that in some of these cases dross is found in the original poems mixed
with gold; but the process of separation, by selection without change,
is not difficult. As long as pure nervous English, unaffected fervour,
strong simplicity and liquid yet manly sweetness are admitted to be
characteristics of a good hymn, works such as these must command
admiration.
Doddridge.
Doddridge is, generally, much more laboured and artificial; but his
place also as a hymn-writer ought to be determined, not by his failures,
but by his successes, of which the number is not inconsiderable. In his
better works he is distinguished by a graceful and pointed, sometimes
even a noble style. His "Hark, the glad sound, the Saviour comes" (which
is, indeed, his masterpiece), is as sweet, vigorous and perfect a
composition as can anywhere be found. Two other hymns, "How gentle God's
commands," and that which, in a form slightly varied, became the "O God
of Bethel, by whose hand," of the Scottish "Paraphrases," well represent
his softer manner.
Of the other followers in the school of Watts, Miss Anne Steele
(1717-1778) is the most popular and perhaps the best. Her hymn beginning
"Far from these narrow scenes of night" deserves high praise, even by
the side of other good performances on the same subject.
The influence of Watts was felt in Scotland, and among the first whom it
reached there was Ralph Erskine. This seems to have been after the
publication of Erskine's _Gospel Sonnets_, which appeared in 1732, five
years before he joined his brother Ebenezer in the Secession Church. The
_Gospel Sonnets_ became, as some have said, a "people's classic"; but
there is in them very little which belongs to the category of hymnody.
More than nineteen-twentieths of this very curious book are occupied
with what are, in fact, theological treatises and catechisms, mystical
meditations on Christ as a bridegroom or husband, and spiritual enigmas,
paradoxes, and antithetical conceits, versified, it is true, but of a
quality of which such lines as--
"Faith's certain by fiducial arts,
Sense by its evidential facts,"
may be taken as a sample. The grains of poetry scattered through this
large mass of Calvinistic divinity are very few; yet in one short
passage of seven stanzas ("O send me down a draught of love"), the fire
burns with a brightness so remarkable as to justify a strong feeling of
regret that the gift which this writer evidently had in him was not more
often cultivated. Another passage, not so well sustained, but of
considerable beauty (part of the last piece under the title "The
believer's soliloquy"), became afterwards, in the hands of John
Berridge, the foundation of a very striking hymn ("O happy saints, who
walk in light").
After his secession, Ralph Erskine published two paraphrases of the
"Song of Solomon," and a number of other "Scripture songs," paraphrased,
in like manner, from the Old and New Testaments. In these the influence
of Watts became very apparent, not only by a change in the writer's
general style, but by the direct appropriation of no small quantity of
matter from Dr Watts's hymns, with variations which were not always
improvements. His paraphrases of I Cor. i. 24; Gal. vi. 14; Heb. vi.
17-19; Rev. v. 11, 12, vii. 10-17, and xii. 7-12 are little else than
Watts transformed. One of these (Rev. vii. 10-17) is interesting as a
variation and improvement, intermediate between the original and the
form which it ultimately assumed as the 66th "Paraphrase" of the Church
of Scotland, of Watts's "What happy men or angels these," and "These
glorious minds, how bright they shine." No one can compare it with its
ultimate product, "How bright these glorious spirits shine," without
perceiving that William Cameron followed Erskine, and only added finish
and grace to his work,--both excelling Watts, in this instance, in
simplicity as well as in conciseness.
Scottish paraphrases.
Of the contributions to the authorized "Paraphrases" (with the
settlement of which committees of the General Assembly of the Church of
Scotland were occupied from 1745, or earlier, till 1781), the most
noteworthy, besides the two already mentioned, were those of John
Morrison and those claimed for Michael Bruce. The obligations of these
"Paraphrases" to English hymnody, already traced in some instances (to
which may be added the adoption from Addison of three out of the five
"hymns" appended to them), are perceptible in the vividness and force
with which these writers, while adhering with a severe simplicity to the
sense of the passages of Scripture which they undertook to render,
fulfilled the conception of a good original hymn. Morrison's "The race
that long in darkness pined" and "Come, let us to the Lord our God," and
Bruce's "Where high the heavenly temple stands" (if this was really
his), are well entitled to that praise. The advocates of Bruce in the
controversy, not yet closed, as to the poems said to have been entrusted
by him to John Logan, and published by Logan in his own name, also claim
for him the credit of having varied the paraphrase "Behold, the mountain
of the Lord," from its original form, as printed by the committee of the
General Assembly in 1745, by some excellent touches.
Methodist hymns.
Attention must now be directed to the hymns produced by the "Methodist"
movement, which began about 1738, and which afterwards became divided,
between those esteemed Arminian, under John Wesley, those who adhered to
the Moravians, when the original alliance between that body and the
founders of Methodism was dissolved, and the Calvinists, of whom
Whitfield was the leader, and Selina, countess of Huntingdon, the
patroness. Each of these sections had its own hymn-writers, some of whom
did, and others did not, secede from the Church of England. The
Wesleyans had Charles Wesley, Robert Seagrave and Thomas Olivers; the
Moravians, John Cennick, with whom, perhaps, may be classed John Byrom,
who imbibed the mystical ideas of some of the German schools; the
Calvinists, Augustus Montague Toplady, John Berridge, William Williams,
Martin Madan, Thomas Haweis, Rowland Hill, John Newton and William
Cowper.
Charles Wesley.
Among all these writers, the palm undoubtedly belongs to Charles Wesley.
In the first volume of hymns published by the two brothers are several
good translations from the German, believed to be by John Wesley, who,
although he translated and adapted, is not supposed to have written any
original hymns; and the influence of German hymnody, particularly of the
works of Paul Gerhardt, Scheffler, Tersteegen and Zinzendorf, may be
traced in a large proportion of Charles Wesley's works. He is more
subjective and meditative than Watts and his school; there is a didactic
turn, even in his most objective pieces, as, for example, in his
Christmas and Easter hymns; most of his works are supplicatory, and his
faults are connected with the same habit of mind. He is apt to repeat
the same thoughts, and to lose force by redundancy--he runs sometimes
even to a tedious length; his hymns are not always symmetrically
constructed, or well balanced and finished off. But he has great truth,
depth and variety of feeling; his diction is manly and always to the
point; never florid, though sometimes passionate and not free from
exaggeration; often vivid and picturesque. Of his spirited style there
are few better examples than "O for a thousand tongues to sing," "Blow
ye the trumpet, blow," "Rejoice, the Lord is King" and "Come, let us
join our friends above"; of his more tender vein, "Happy soul, thy days
are ended"; and of his fervid contemplative style (without going beyond
hymns fit for general use), "O Thou who earnest from above," "Forth in
Thy name, O Lord, I go" and "Eternal beam of light divine." With those
whose taste is for hymns in which warm religious feelings are warmly and
demonstratively expressed, "Jesus, lover of my soul," is as popular as
any of these.
Olivers.
Of the other Wesleyan hymn-writers, Olivers, originally a Welsh
shoemaker and afterwards a preacher, is the most remarkable. He is the
author of only two works, both odes, in a stately metre, and from their
length unfit for congregational singing, but one of them, "The God of
Abraham praise," an ode of singular power and beauty.
Cennick, Hammond, Byrom.
The Moravian Methodists produced few hymns now available for general
use. The best are Cennick's "Children of the heavenly King" and
Hammond's "Awake and sing the song of Moses and the Lamb," the former of
which (abridged), and the latter as varied by Madan, are found in many
hymn-books, and are deservedly esteemed. John Byrom, whose name we have
thought it convenient to connect with these, though he did not belong to
the Moravian community, was the author of a Christmas hymn ("Christians
awake, salute the happy morn") which enjoys great popularity; and also
of a short subjective hymn, very fine both in feeling and in expression,
"My spirit longeth for Thee within my troubled breast."
Toplady.
The contributions of the Calvinistic Methodists to English hymnody are
of greater extent and value. Few writers of hymns had higher gifts than
Toplady, author of "Rock of ages," by some esteemed the finest in the
English language. He was a man of ardent temperament, enthusiastic zeal,
strong convictions and great energy of character. "He had," says one of
his biographers, "the courage of a lion, but his frame was brittle as
glass." Between him and John Wesley there was a violent opposition of
opinion, and much acrimonious controversy; but the same fervour and zeal
which made him an intemperate theologian gave warmth, richness and
spirituality to his hymns. In some of them, particularly those which,
like "Deathless principle, arise," are meditations after the German
manner, and not without direct obligation to German originals, the
setting is somewhat too artificial; but his art is never inconsistent
with a genuine flow of real feeling. Others (e.g. "When languor and
disease invade" and "Your harps, ye trembling saints") fail to sustain
to the end the beauty with which they began, and would have been better
for abridgment. But in all these, and in most of his other works, there
is great force and sweetness, both of thought and language, and an easy
and harmonious versification.
Berridge, Williams and R. Hill.
Berridge, William Williams (1717-1791) and Rowland Hill, all men
remarkable for eccentricity, activity and the devotion of their lives to
the special work of missionary preaching, though not the authors of many
good hymns, composed, or adapted from earlier compositions, some of
great merit. One of Berridge, adapted from Erskine, has been already
mentioned; another, adapted from Watts, is "Jesus, cast a look on me."
Williams, a Welshman, who wrote "Guide me, O Thou great Jehovah," was
especially an apostle of Calvinistic Methodism in his own country, and
his hymns are still much used in the principality. Rowland Hill wrote
the popular hymn beginning "Exalted high at God's right hand."
Cowper and Newton.
If, however, the number as well as the quality of good hymns available
for general use is to be regarded, the authors of the _Olney Hymns_ are
entitled to be placed at the head of all the writers of this Calvinistic
school. The greater number of the _Olney Hymns_ are, no doubt, homely
and didactic; but to the best of them, and they are no inconsiderable
proportion, the tenderness of Cowper and the manliness of John Newton
(1725-1807) give the interest of contrast, as well as that of sustained
reality. If Newton carried to some excess the sound principle laid down
by him, that "perspicuity, simplicity and ease should be chiefly
attended to, and the imagery and colouring of poetry, if admitted at
all, should be indulged very sparingly and with great judgment," if he
is often dry and colloquial, he rises at other times into
"soul-animating strains," such as "Glorious things of thee are spoken,
Zion, city of our God"; and sometimes (as in "Approach, my soul, the
mercy seat") rivals Cowper himself in depth of feeling. Cowper's hymns
in this book are, almost without exception, worthy of his name. Among
them are "Hark, my soul, it is the Lord," "There is a fountain filled
with blood," "Far from the world, O Lord, I flee," "God moves in a
mysterious way" and "Sometimes a light surprises." Some, perhaps, even
of these, and others of equal excellence (such as "O for a closer walk
with God"), speak the language of a special experience, which, in
Cowper's case, was only too real, but which could not, without a degree
of unreality not desirable in exercises of public worship, be applied to
themselves by all ordinary Christians.
19th-century hymns.
R. Grant.
Bowdler.
During the first quarter of the 19th century there were not many
indications of the tendency, which afterwards became manifest, to
enlarge the boundaries of British hymnody. _The Remains of Henry Kirke
White_, published by Southey in 1807, contained a series of hymns, some
of which are still in use; and a few of Bishop Heber's hymns and those
of Sir Robert Grant, which, though offending rather too much against
John Newton's canon, are well known and popular, appeared between 1811
and 1816, in the _Christian Observer_. In John Bowdler's Remains,
published soon after his death in 1815, there are a few more of the
same, perhaps too scholarlike, character. But the chief hymn-writers of
that period were two clergymen of the Established Church--one in
Ireland, Thomas Kelly, and the other in England, William Hurn--who both
became Nonconformists, and the Moravian poet, James Montgomery
(1771-1854), a native of Scotland.
Kelly.
Kelly was the son of an Irish judge, and in 1804 published a small
volume of ninety-six hymns, which grew in successive editions till, in
the last before his death in 1854, they amounted to 765. There is, as
might be expected, in this great number a large preponderance of the
didactic and commonplace. But not a few very excellent hymns may be
gathered from them. Simple and natural, without the vivacity and
terseness of Watts or the severity of Newton, Kelly has some points in
common with both those writers, and he is less subjective than most of
the "Methodist" school. His hymns beginning "Lo! He comes, let all adore
Him," and "Through the day Thy love hath spared us," have a rich,
melodious movement; and another, "We sing the praise of Him who died,"
is distinguished by a calm, subdued power, rising gradually from a
rather low to a very high key.
Hurn.
Hurn published in 1813 a volume of 370 hymns, which were afterwards
increased to 420. There is little in them which deserves to be saved
from oblivion; but one at least, "There is a river deep and broad," may
bear comparison with the best of those which have been produced upon the
same, and it is rather a favourite, theme.
Montgomery.
The _Psalms and Hymns_ of James Montgomery were published in 1822 and
1825, though written earlier. More cultivated and artistic than Kelly,
he is less simple and natural. His "Hail to the Lord's Anointed," "Songs
of praise the angels sang" and "Mercy alone can meet my case" are among
his most successful efforts.
Collections of hymns.
During this period, the collections of miscellaneous hymns for
congregational use, of which the example was set by the Wesleys,
Whitfield, Toplady and Lady Huntingdon, had greatly multiplied; and with
them the practice (for which, indeed, too many precedents existed in the
history of Latin and German hymnody) of every collector altering the
compositions of other men without scruple, to suit his own doctrine or
taste; with the effect, too generally, of patching and disfiguring,
spoiling and emasculating the works so altered, substituting neutral
tints for natural colouring, and a dead for a living sense. In the
Church of England the use of these collections had become frequent in
churches and chapels, principally in cities and towns, where the
sentiments of the clergy approximated to those of the Nonconformists. In
rural parishes, when the clergy were not of the "Evangelical" school,
they were generally held in disfavour; for which, even if doctrinal
prepossessions had not entered into the question, the great want of
taste and judgment often manifested in their compilation, and perhaps
also the prevailing mediocrity of the bulk of the original compositions
from which most of them were derived, would be enough to account. In
addition to this, the idea that no hymns ought to be used in any
services of the Church of England, except prose anthems after the third
collect, without express royal or ecclesiastical authority, continued
down to that time largely to prevail among high churchmen.
Heber, Milman, Keble.
Mant.
Newman.
Two publications, which appeared almost simultaneously in 1827--Bishop
Heber's _Hymns_, with a few added by Dean Milman, and John Keble's
_Christian Year_ (not a hymn-book, but one from which several admirable
hymns have been taken, and the well-spring of many streams of thought
and feeling by which good hymns have since been produced)--introduced a
new epoch, breaking down the barrier as to hymnody which had till then
existed between the different theological schools of the Church of
England. In this movement Richard Mant, bishop of Down, was also one of
the first to co-operate. It soon received a great additional impulse
from the increased attention which, about the same time, began to be
paid to ancient hymnody, and from the publication in 1833 of Bunsen's
_Gesangbuch_. Among its earliest fruits was the _Lyra apostolica_,
containing hymns, sonnets and other devotional poems, most of them
originally contributed by some of the leading authors of the _Tracts for
the Times_ to the _British Magazine_; the finest of which is the
pathetic "Lead, kindly Light, amid th' encircling gloom," by Cardinal
Newman--well known, and universally admired. From that time hymns and
hymn-writers rapidly multiplied in the Church of England, and in
Scotland also. Nearly 600 authors whose publications were later than
1827 are enumerated in Sedgwick's catalogue of 1863, and about half a
million hymns are now in existence. Works, critical and historical, upon
the subject of hymns, have also multiplied; and collections for church
use have become innumerable--several of the various religious
denominations, and many of the leading ecclesiastical and religious
societies, having issued hymn-books of their own, in addition to those
compiled for particular dioceses, churches and chapels, and to books
(like _Hymns Ancient and Modern_, published 1861, supplemented 1889,
revised edition, 1905) which have become popular without any sanction
from authority. To mention all the authors of good hymns since the
commencement of this new epoch would be impossible; but probably no
names could be chosen more fairly representative of its characteristic
merits, and perhaps also of some of its defects, than those of Josiah
Conder and James Edmeston among English Nonconformists; Henry Francis
Lyte and Charlotte Elliott among evangelicals in the Church of England;
John Mason Neale and Christopher Wordsworth, bishop of Lincoln, among
English churchmen of the higher school; Arthur Penrhyn Stanley, Edward
H. Plumptre, Frances Ridley Havergal; and in Scotland, Dr Horatius
Bonar, Dr Norman Macleod and Dr George Matheson. American hymn-writers
belong to the same schools, and have been affected by the same
influences. Some of them have enjoyed a just reputation on both sides
of the Atlantic. Among those best known are John Greenleaf Whittier,
Bishop Doane, Dr W. A. Muhlenberg and Thomas Hastings; and it is
difficult to praise too highly such works as the Christmas hymn, "It
came upon the midnight clear," by Edmund H. Sears; the Ascension hymn,
"Thou, who didst stoop below," by Mrs S. E. Miles; two by Dr Ray Palmer,
"My faith looks up to Thee, Thou Lamb of Calvary," and "Jesus, Thou joy
of loving hearts," the latter of which is the best among several good
English versions of "Jesu, dulcedo, cordium"; and "Lord of all being,
throned afar," by Oliver Wendell Holmes.
The more modern "Moody and Sankey" hymns (see Moody, D. L.) popularized
a new Evangelical type, and the Salvation Army has carried this still
farther.
7. _Conclusion._--The object aimed at in this article has been to trace
the general history of the principal schools of ancient and modern
hymnody, and especially the history of its use in the Christian church.
For this purpose it has not been thought necessary to give any account
of the hymns of Racine, Madame Guyon and others, who can hardly be
classed with any school, nor of the works of Caesar Malan of Geneva
(1787-1864) and other quite modern hymn-writers of the Reformed churches
in Switzerland and France.
On a general view of the whole subject, hymnody is seen to have been a
not inconsiderable factor in religious worship. It has been sometimes
employed to disseminate and popularize particular views, but its spirit
and influence has been, on the whole, catholic. It has embodied the
faith, trust and hope, and no small part of the inward experience, of
generation after generation of men, in many different countries and
climates, of many different nations, and in many varieties of
circumstances and condition. Coloured, indeed, by these differences, and
also by the various modes in which the same truths have been apprehended
by different minds and sometimes reflecting partial and imperfect
conceptions of them, and errors with which they have been associated in
particular churches, times and places, its testimony is, nevertheless,
generally the same. It has upon it a stamp of genuineness which cannot
be mistaken. It bears witness to the force of a central attraction more
powerful than all causes of difference, which binds together times
ancient and modern, nations of various race and language, churchmen and
nonconformists, churches reformed and unreformed; to a true fundamental
unity among good Christians; and to a substantial identity in their
moral and spiritual experience. (S.)
The regular practice of hymnody in English musical history dates from
the beginning of the 16th century. Luther's verses were adapted
sometimes to ancient church melodies, sometimes to tunes of secular
songs, and sometimes had music composed for them by himself and
others. Many rhyming Latin hymns are of earlier date whose tunes are
identified with them, some of which tunes, with the subject of their
Latin text, are among the Reformer's appropriations; but it was he who
put the words of praise and prayer into the popular mouth, associated
with rhythmical music which aided to imprint the words upon the memory
and to enforce their enunciation. In conjunction with his friend
Johann Walther, Luther issued a collection of poems for choral singing
in 1524, which was followed by many others in North Germany. The
English versions of the Psalms by Sternhold and Hopkins and their
predecessors, and the French version by Clement Marot and Theodore
Beza, were written with the same purpose of fitting sacred minstrelsy
to the voice of the multitude. Goudimel in 1566 and Claudin le Jeune
in 1607 printed harmonizations of tunes that had then become standard
for the Psalms, and in England several such publications appeared,
culminating in Thomas Ravenscroft's famous collection, _The Whole Book
of Psalms_ (1621); in all of these the arrangements of the tunes were
by various masters. The English practice of hymn-singing was much
strengthened on the return of the exiled reformers from Frankfort and
Geneva, when it became so general that, according to Bishop Jewell,
thousands of the populace who assembled at Paul's Cross to hear the
preaching would join in the singing of psalms before and after the
sermon.
The placing of the choral song of the church within the lips of the
people had great religious and moral influence; it has had also its
great effect upon art, shown in the productions of the North German
musicians ever since the first days of the Reformation, which abound
in exercises of scholarship and imagination wrought upon the tunes of
established acceptance. Some of these are accompaniments to the tunes
with interludes between the several strains, and some are
compositions for the organ or for orchestral instruments that consist
of such elaboration of the themes as is displayed in accompaniments to
voices, but of far more complicated and extended character. A special
art-form that was developed to a very high degree, but has passed into
comparative disuse, was the structure of all varieties of counterpoint
extemporaneously upon the known hymn-tunes (chorals), and several
masters acquired great fame by success in its practice, of whom J. A.
Reinken (1623-1722), Johann Pachelbel (1653-1706), Georg Boehm and the
great J. S. Bach are specially memorable. The hymnody of North Germany
has for artistic treatment a strong advantage which is unpossessed by
that of England, in that for the most part the same verses are
associated with the same tunes, so that, whenever the text or the
music is heard, either prompts recollection of the other, whereas in
England tunes were always and are now often composed to metres and not
to poems; any tune in a given metre is available for every poem in the
same, and hence there are various tunes to one poem, and various poems
to one tune.[4] In England a tune is named generally after some
place--as "York," "Windsor," "Dundee,"--or by some other unsignifying
word; in North Germany a tune is mostly named by the initial words of
the verses to which it is allied, and consequently, whenever it is
heard, whether with words or without, it necessarily suggests to the
hearer the whole subject of that hymn of which it is the musical
moiety undivorceable from the literary half. Manifold as they are,
knowledge of the choral tunes is included in the earliest schooling of
every Lutheran and every Calvinist in Germany, which thus enables all
to take part in performance of the tunes, and hence expressly the
definition of "choral." Compositions grounded on the standard tune are
then not merely school exercises, but works of art which link the
sympathies of the writer and the listener, and aim at expressing the
feeling prompted by the hymn under treatment.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: I. Ancient.--George Cassander, _Hymni ecclesiastici_
(Cologne, 1556); Georgius Fabricius, _Poëtarum veterum
ecclesiasticorum_ (Frankfort, 1578); Cardinal J. M. Thomasius,
_Hymnarium in Opera_, ii. 351 seq. (Rome, 1747); A. J. Rambach,
_Anthologie christlicher Gesänge_ (Altona, 1817); H. A. Daniel,
_Thesaurus hymnologicus_ (Leipzig, 5 vols., 1841-1856); J. M. Neale,
_Hymni ecclesiae et sequentiae_ (London, 1851-1852); and _Hymns of the
Eastern Church_ (1863). The dissertation prefixed to the second volume
of the _Acta sanctorum_ of the Bollandists; Cardinal J. B. Pitra,
_Hymnographie de l'église grecque_ (1867), _Analecta sacra_ (1876); W.
Christ and M. Paranikas, _Anthologia Graeca carminum Christianorum_
(Leipzig, 1871); F. A. March, _Latin Hymns with English Notes_ (New
York, 1875); R. C. Trench, _Sacred Latin Poetry_ (London, 4th ed.,
1874); J. Pauly, _Hymni breviarii Romani_ (Aix-la-Chapelle, 3 vols.,
1868-1870); Pimont, _Les Hymnes du bréviaire romain_ (vols. 1-3,
1874-1884, unfinished); A. W. F. Fischer, _Kirchenlieder-Lexicon_
(Gotha, 1878-1879); J. Kayser, _Beiträge zur Geschichte der ältesten
Kirchenhymnen_ (1881); M. Manitius, _Geschichte der christlichen
lateinischen Poesie_ (Stuttgart, 1891); John Julian, _Dictionary of
Hymnology_ (1892, new ed. 1907). For criticisms of metre, see also
Huemer, _Untersuchungen über die ältesten christlichen Rhythmen_
(1879); E. Bouvy, _Poètes et mélodes_ (Nîmes, 1886); C. Krumbacher,
_Geschichte der byzantinischen Literatur_ (Munich, 1897, p. 700 seq.);
J. M. Neale, Latin dissertation prefixed to Daniel's _Thesaurus_, vol.
5; and D. J. Donahoe, _Early Christian Hymns_ (London, 1909).
II. Medieval.--Walafrid Strabo's treatise, ch. 25, _De hymnis, &c._;
Radulph of Tongres, _De psaltario observando_ (14th century);
Clichtavaens, _Elucidatorium ecclesiasticum_ (Paris, 1556); Faustinus
Arevalus, _Hymnodia Hispanica_ (Rome, 1786); E. du Méril, _Poésies
populaires latines antérieures au XIII^e siècle_ (Paris, 1843); J.
Stevenson, _Latin Hymns of the Anglo-Saxon Church_ (Surtees Society,
Durham, 1851); Norman, _Hymnarium Sarisburiense_ (London, 1851); J. D.
Chambers, _Psalter, &c._, according to the Sarum use (1852); F. J.
Mone, _Lateinische Hymnen des Mittelalters_ (Freiburg, 3 vols.,
1853-1855); Ph. Wackernagel, _Das deutsche Kirchenlied von der
ältesten Zeit bis zum Anfang des 17. Jahrhunderts_, vol. i. (Leipzig,
1864); E. Dümmler, _Poëtae latini aevi Carolini_ (1881-1890); the
_Hymnologische Beiträge: Quellen und Forschungen zur Geschichte der
lateinischen Hymnendichtung_, edited by C. Blume and G. M. Dreves
(Leipzig, 1897); G. C. F. Mohnike, _Hymnologische Forschungen_;
Klemming, _Hymni et sequentiae in regno Sueciae_ (Stockholm, 4 vols.,
1885-1887); _Das katholische deutsche Kirchenlied_ (vol. i. by K.
Severin Meister, 1862, vol. ii. by W. Baumker, 1883); the "Hymnodia
Hiberica," _Spanische Hymnen des Mittelalters_, vol. xvi. (1894); the
"Hymnodia Gotica," _Mozarabische Hymnen des altspanischen Ritus_, vol.
xxvii. (1897); J. Dankó, _Vetus hymnarium ecclesiasticae Hungariae_
(Budapest, 1893); J. H. Bernard and R. Atkinson, _The Irish Liber
Hymnorum_ (2 vols., London, 1898); C. A. J. Chevalier, _Poésie
liturgique du moyen âge_ (Paris, 1893).
III. Modern.--J. C. Jacobi, _Psalmodia Germanica_ (1722-1725 and 1732,
with supplement added by J. Haberkorn, 1765); F. A. Cunz, _Geschichte
des deutschen Kirchenliedes_ (Leipzig, 1855); Baron von Bunsen,
_Versuch eines allgemeinen Gesang- und Gebetbuches_ (1833) and
_Allgemeines evangelisches Gesang- und Gebetbuch_ (1846); Catherine
Winkworth, _Christian Singers of Germany_ (1869) and _Lyra Germanica_
(1855); Catherine H. Dunn, _Hymns from the German_ (1857); Frances E.
Cox, _Sacred Hymns from the German_ (London, 1841); Massie, _Lyra
domestica_ (1860); _Appendix on Scottish Psalmody_ in D. Laing's
edition of Baillie's _Letters and Journals_ (1841-1842); J. and C.
Wesley, _Collection of Psalms and Hymns_ (1741); Josiah Miller, _Our
Hymns, their Authors and Origin_ (1866); John Gadsby, _Memoirs of the
Principal Hymn-writers_ (3rd ed., 1861); L. C. Biggs, Annotations to
_Hymns Ancient and Modern_ (1867); Daniel Sedgwick, _Comprehensive
Index of Names of Original Authors of Hymns_ (2nd ed., 1863); R. E.
Prothero, _The Psalms in Human Life_ (1907); C. J. Brandt and L.
Helweg, _Den danske Psalmedigtning_ (Copenhagen, 1846-1847); J. N.
Skaar, _Norsk Salmehistorie_ (Bergen, 1879-1880); H. Schück, _Svensk
Literaturhistoria_ (Stockholm, 1890); Rudolf Wolkan, _Geschichte der
deutschen Literatur in Böhmen_, 246-256, and _Das deutsche Kirchenlied
der böhm. Brüder_ (Prague, 1891); Zahn, _Die geistlichen Lieder der
Brüder in Böhmen, Mähren u. Polen_ (Nuremberg, 1875); and J. Müller,
"Bohemian Brethren's Hymnody," in J. Julian's _Dictionary of
Hymnology_.
For account of hymn-tunes, &c., see W. Cowan and James Love, _Music of
the Church Hymnody and the Psalter in Metre_ (London, 1901); and
Dickinson, _Music in the History of the Western Church_ (New York,
1902); S. Kümmerle, _Encyklopädie der evangelischen Kirchenmusik_ (4
vols., 1888-1895); Chr. Palmer, _Evangelische Hymnologie_ (Stuttgart,
1865); and P. Urto Kornmüller, _Lexikon der kirchlichen Tonkunst_
(1891).