We shall conclude these pages by again referring to our theory of the
weather, in connection with an event which every friend of humanity and
every lover of natural science is bound deeply to deplore.
From the present position of the lunar nodes and apogee, the vortices of
our earth do not ascend into very high latitudes. Now, according to the
principles laid down, the frequency of storms tends to lower the
temperature in the warm regions of the earth, and to elevate it in the
polar regions. Let us suppose the northern limit of the vortices to be
in latitude 70d. There will be, in this case, a greater prevalence of
northerly winds _within_ this circle of latitude, to supply the drain to
the southward, and the back currents by passing above will descend at
the pole, partaking of the temperature due to that elevation. The
character of the arctic seasons may therefore be considered as partly
dependent on the average direction of the wind. Suppose again, the
extreme limits of the vortices to be about latitude 80d, the relative
areas of the two circles are as 4 to 1; so that in this last case the
exclusive range of the northerly winds is limited to one-fourth of the
first area. South of 80d the wind will frequently come from the south,
and by mixing with the local atmosphere of that latitude, will tend to
ameliorate the small area to the northward. And the greater atmospheric
commotion when confined to such a small circle of latitude, must assist
materially to break up the polar ice; which would tend still more to
equalize the temperature.
By referring to our table, we see that the mean conjunction of the pole
of the lunar orbit and the moon's apogee, was in longitude 128d on April
10, 1846, and let it be remembered that when the conjunction takes place
due south or in longitude 270d, the vortices attain their greatest
latitude north. When, on the contrary, the conjunction takes place due
north or in longitude 90d,[48] the northern limits of the vortices are
then in the lowest latitude possible.
Sir John Franklin sailed in May 1845, and was certainly at the entrance
of Wellington sound, near latitude 75d, April 3d, 1846, as the dates on
the graves testify. That season, according to the theory, was a cold
one; for the vortices could not reach so far to the northward in that
year, and consequently there were no storms, properly speaking. It would
probably be late in the summer of 1846, before the expedition was
liberated, and as the prevailing winds would be from the northward, he
would have little choice, but to stand to the westward if the state of
the ice permitted. In his instructions he was to use every effort to
penetrate to the southward and westward of Cape Walker, and he probably
conformed to them under the circumstances, and passed the winter in the
ice, in that neighborhood. And in 1847 we do not anticipate, from the
theory, that he would make much progress westward.
In 1848, Sir James Ross was sent out with the first relief-ship; but was
not able to reach the entrance of Wellington channel because of compact
ice from there to Leopold Island. This was about the beginning of
September--a time when the northern channels are usually the most open.
On the 11th, they ran the ships into Port Leopold, and the next day the
ice shut them in for the winter. From the character of the season, we
may infer that if Franklin did not enter Wellington channel in 1847, as
is most probable, neither did he in 1848. Perhaps he was not able to get
his ships far to the westward, as we infer from the theory. Still, as
the time was not very protracted, he would wait patiently another season
and husband his resources.
In 1849, Sir James Ross cut his ships clear of the ice August 28th, and
crossed over to Wellington channel, where he found the land-ice still
fast, showing that this season was also a bad one in accordance with the
theory. On the 1st of September he met the first gale of wind, at which
time the _Inner Vortex_ was at its extreme north latitude, and rapidly
extending its limits by the motion of the perigee.
This vortex describes a smaller orbit than either the central or the
outer vortex, and consequently reaches into higher latitudes. But the
time was badly chosen, as the whole series of years since Franklin left
has been unfavorable for the early rupture of the ice. Sir James Ross
having been drifted out of Lancaster sound by the gale, finally bore up
for England towards the close of September 1849.
The same year, the North Star with additional supplies was working up
Baffin's bay; but on account of the unusual quantities of ice, and the
frosts "which glued the floes together," she was unable to force a
passage through the middle ice, and wintered on the east side of
Baffin's bay, in latitude 76d 33'--her thermometer marking 64d below
zero, as the coldest of the winter. In 1850, the perigee of the moon
attained its northern limit, but the position of the node was bad; still
this year and 1851, were the best of the series. The North Star
succeeded in getting out of the ice on the 1st of August--a very early
date for that high latitude--and on the 8th had crossed over to
Possession bay; but being prevented by the land-ice, she bore up for
Pond bay and there landed the provisions. The same year (1850) several
vessels entered Lancaster sound. Sir John Ross also reached Melville
Island; from which it is evident that this season was far better than
any preceding. According to Captain Penny, this year a floe of ice at
least two years old, filled Wellington strait; but was diminished in
breadth at a subsequent visit. He also saw a boundless open sea from the
_western_ entrance of Wellington strait; but of course the ships could
not reach it, for the floe before mentioned. Following the indications
of the theory, we consider it almost certain that Franklin went to the
westward and not through Wellington channel; that he made but slow
progress until 1850, when finding the sea more open to the northward,
and attributing it more to local influences than to any change in the
season, he considered it a better course to extricate the expedition, by
pushing on towards Behring's straits than to attempt the frozen channels
he had already passed through. But the seasons again getting worse after
1850, he was again arrested in the polar basin by the ice and islands
off the northern coast of America.
Regarding the old and new continents as in reality a connected body of
land, with a polar depression, we may expect that the great range of
American mountains is continued in a straight line, from the mouth of
the McKenzie river, obliquely across the Polar sea, and connects with
the Ural; and that along the axis of the chain, protuberant masses will
emerge above the sea level, constituting an archipelago of islands, from
Nova Zembla to the McKenzie; and that these islands, causing an
accumulation of ice, and arresting its general tendency to the
southward, is the barrier which Sir John Franklin was finally stopped
by, in a situation where he could neither advance nor return. With the
map before us, and the data afforded by former voyages, and guided by
these theoretical views, respecting the prevailing direction of the
winds and the character of the seasons, we should locate Sir John
Franklin near latitude 80d, and longitude 145d, in 1851; and as the
seasons would afterwards become more severe, we may consider that he
has not been since able to change his locality, and dare not desert his
ships.
No mere stranger can feel a deeper interest than the author, in view of
the hard fortunes of these hardy explorers, and he would not lightly
advance such opinions, did he not suppose they were in some degree
reliable. In 1832, he himself crossed the Atlantic, for the purpose of
offering himself to the Geographical Society of London, intending to be
landed as far northward as possible, with a single companion,[49] from
which point he purposed to follow the coast line on foot, with cautious
discretion as to seasons, confident that, with arms and ammunition, he
could support himself for many years. It has always been a grave error
in all these northern land expeditions, that they have been too
unwieldy, too much encumbered with the comforts and luxuries of
civilization at the outset, and too much loaded with a philosophical
paraphernalia, for a pioneering survey,--and cherishing too fondly the
idea that the wide shores of the Arctic sea could be explored in a
single season. Had the British government established a few posts in the
Arctic regions in the beginning,--one, for instance, in Lancaster sound,
another in Behring's Straits, and a third near the mouth of the
Coppermine, volunteers of sufficient scientific attainments might have
been procured, to banish themselves to these inhospitable regions for a
term of years, if assured of triennial supplies; and in this way, by
summer boat-parties and winter expeditions, over land or ice, the
explorations could have been gradually extended, and a greater knowledge
of the polar regions might have been acquired, with an immense saving
both of life and money. In 1832 the author's plan was deranged, by
finding that Captain Back was about setting out in quest of Ross, who
had then been some four years absent. This officer had all his party
engaged when the author waited upon him in Liverpool, and no notice was
taken of a modified plan which he forwarded to the Society at his
suggestion. It was therefore abandoned.
The above fact is alluded to, in order to show the author's sincerity in
expressing his belief that, with a previous preparation of mind and body
for a sojourn in those frigid climes, a sufficient subsistence may be
derived from the country itself. Advantage must, of course, be taken of
the times of abundance, and due preparation made for the season of
scarcity. Averaging the extremes, there is little doubt but that both
land, and air, and water, afford an abundance of food for man in the
Arctic zone, and that, when spurred by necessity, it is within his power
to obtain it. We ought not therefore to despond, or give up efforts to
rescue those who have well earned the sympathy of the world, by what
they must have already suffered. _These northern seas will yet be
explored._ The very difficulty of accomplishing it, will itself give it
a charm, which in this restless age will operate with increasing power.
And should efforts now be relaxed, and in some future time the evidence
be brought to light that some of the party yet existed, long after all
efforts to rescue them had been abandoned, the fact would be a dark spot
on the escutcheon of England, which time could not erase.
Since these pages were written, accounts have been received from Captain
McClure, of H. M. ship Investigator, which fully confirm the preceding
remarks on the character of the seasons in the Arctic circle; and, more
recently, despatches have been received from the discovery-ship,
Amphytrite, in relation to the past season in Behring's straits, which
also confirms the theory.
The Investigator (now supposed to be frozen up in lat. 74d 5' N., and
long 117d 54' W.,--the last despatch being dated April 10, 1853) passed
round the northern shores of America into the channels communicating
with Lancaster sound, in 1850, but was unable to extricate herself in
1852, and, probably, yet remains in the harbor she made in the winter of
1851, in the position above named. No trace of Sir John Franklin's
expedition was, however, found, and, indeed, according to our theory,
the Investigator was not on the most promising ground. We contend that
Franklin has penetrated the pack of apparently perennial ice, which is
continually pressing to the southward, and blocking up the passages
between the northern islands, or skirting the coast line of the
continent; which pack has since increased, and effectually stopped all
egress from the open central portions of the polar sea. If Sir John
Franklin is ever heard from, this pack _must be penetrated_, and a
powerful steamer ought to be sent immediately by the British government,
to be ready in Behring's straits early enough to take advantage of the
first openings, and make a bold push _due north_, so as to get as
speedily as possible into the open waters to the north of the pack.
If the author could make himself heard at Washington, he would also urge
the government to lose no time in following our own expedition under Dr.
Kane, who, if he finds a clear entrance from Smith's sound into the
Arctic sea, may be induced to push on, and endeavor to make his way
through the pack towards Behring's straits, and thus fall into the same
snare as Franklin. According to the theory, the higher the passage into
the Arctic sea, the less will it be incumbered with ice, and,
consequently, Smith's sound is the best both to enter and return by; and
had the author not already smarted enough by having his professions
derided, he would have submitted these views to the patrons of that
expedition before it sailed.
The scientific world is, in reality, chargeable with the disastrous
results of Franklin's expedition. The polar basin is hemmed in by the
coast line of Europe, Asia, and America, in about latitude 70d north,
for the greatest part of the entire circumference. And this coast line,
and the islands adjacent, will cause the polar ice to accumulate and
form a frozen belt along these shores, in consequence of the constant
tendency of the earth's rotation to press the ice to the southward. The
fact that an open passage exists between this belt and the shore in
summer time, is no objection, as the tides, river currents, and warm
land breezes, may very well explain this. The learned have insisted, and
do yet insist, that the earth's rotation can produce no motions in the
Arctic sea, and, under this delusion, Franklin has passed into the
comparatively open waters inside the pack, perhaps has lost his ships;
yet it is very possible that the party may have escaped, and derived a
subsistence from the more genial waters of the central portion of that
ocean unto this day.
We have already alluded to the difference of level between the Atlantic
and Pacific waters. It is well known that the currents in the
Spitzbergen and Greenland seas is to the southward, and that Parry, in
his attempt to reach the pole, was foiled by this very current,
frequently setting him back in twenty-four hours more than his party
could travel in the same time over the ice. Through Baffin's and
Hudson's bay the northern waters are also continually bearing their
frozen freight southward. We are, therefore, entitled to ask, what
supplies this immense drain? Behring's straits are only about sixty
miles wide, and twenty-five fathoms deep; the supply, therefore, through
this channel is totally inadequate, yet there is no other channel into
the Arctic sea where the current is inward. We have already explained
the reason why the current through Behring's straits is an exception to
the general rule, yet still confirming the principle by referring it to
the configuration of the land enclosing the Pacific ocean. The whole
south Pacific lies open to the pole, and the inertia of the immense mass
of mobile waters pressing northward, and continually contracted by the
form of the American and Asiatic coasts, is not balanced by a contrary
impulse of the waters of the north Pacific, inasmuch as this ocean
becomes narrower as it extends northward, and the only passage to the
frozen ocean is through the narrow straits of Behring. The axifugal
force of rotation due to the northern waters is, therefore, overborne
by the vast preponderance due to the southern waters, and, hence, the
northern Pacific may be considered as relatively at a higher level, and
there will be a current northward through Behring's straits, as we find
it. The same cause accumulates the waters under the equator, thus giving
a higher level to the Pacific than to the Atlantic at the isthmus of
Panama, where the difference of level is found by actual measurement to
be five or six feet. This fact has never before been explained; but the
cause is too obvious to admit of question.
That the sea is deeper than was formerly admitted, is now fully
confirmed. We have before alluded to the results obtained by Captain
Denham, of H. M. ship Herald, who found bottom at 7,706 fathoms, or
about nine English miles. Now, whether that spherical shell, which we
have contended to be the true form of the solid earth, be continuous and
entire; or, whether it may not be wanting in localities of limited
extent where the ocean would be absolutely unfathomable, we know not;
but if such be the internal constitution of our globe, there will be, no
doubt, many channels of communication between the internal and external
ocean, and, as a consequence of the earth's rotation, the axifugal
current of the Arctic sea may be supplied by an upward current from the
interior of the globe; and this current may have a higher temperature
than the surface waters of that sea, and thus the middle portions may,
in truth, remain open the whole year round, and be teeming with animal
life. According to Captain Penny's observations in 1850, whales and
other northern animals existed to the westward, where he saw the open
sea stretch out without a bound before him.
It has been a question mooted by some, that Franklin's ships might be
overtaken, at an early stage of the voyage, by a storm, and foundered
amidst the ice. The theory would give a negative answer to this
question. Stiff gales may prevail far to the north when the vortices do
not reach so high; but no storm, properly speaking, will be found far
beyond their northern limit. After the coming winter (1853), the
vortices will gradually penetrate farther and farther to the northward,
and the years 1857, 1858, and 1859, will be highly favorable for
northern discovery, accompanied, however, with the necessary draw-back
of tempestuous weather.