of the clerestory wall (except the two westmost bays) is built with
whitish freestone, while the windows are of small size and are pointed.
The clerestory of the nave thus corresponds with the raised part of that
of the choir in the stone used, but differs from it in the windows,
which are narrow. The parapet and corbel table of this part of the
building, and indeed throughout nearly the whole structure, are similar
to those of the choir, and in the later work have evidently been copied
from the earlier ones. In the transept the alterations are plainly seen
in the heightened portions of the north and south gables (see Figs. 229
and 230), which are carried out with red freestone ashlar, and in the
details of the upper window of the north transept and the rose window of
the south transept, which are all of a later character than the Norman
work of the lower parts of the transept. In the south transept there may
also be noticed a pointed doorway (Fig. 231) built with party-coloured
stones, which has been inserted by cutting into the old Norman arcade of
the interior. This is distinctly seen in the elevation of the interior
(Fig. 232). Probably, when this was done, the older doorway which
existed at the east end of the nave south aisle, in the usual position
for access to the cloister, was built up, the intention of having a
cloister being abandoned. Some traces of the impost of the arch of the
original doorway, carved with Norman enrichments, may still be seen.
[Illustration: FIG. 226.--Kirkwall Cathedral. Longitudinal Section from
West to East.]
The two westmost bays of the nave (see Fig. 228) are built almost
entirely from top to bottom with red freestone, having a slight
admixture of white stone. This indicates a considerable alteration, and
it will be found that these two bays were rebuilt at a late period, when
a new west
[Illustration: FIG. 227.--Kirkwall Cathedral. Section through Transept
from North to South.]
[Illustration: FIG. 228.--Kirkwall Cathedral. North Elevation.]
front was erected and the cathedral was extended westwards. It may be
mentioned that the cathedral stands alone in the middle of a large
churchyard. There are no other ecclesiastical structures connected with
it, such as cloisters or chapter house. The Bishop’s Palace,[168]
however, is not far off. It has been a fine stately edifice, but is now
greatly ruined.
Before considering more minutely the order of construction of the
cathedral, it is desirable to glance at the conditions under which it
was designed and carried out.
Under the rule of the Norsemen, in the ninth and tenth centuries, any
early symptoms of Christian influence which may have previously existed
in Orkney had died out. But after the conversion of the inhabitants of
Orkney to Christianity, about the year 1000, traces of Christian worship
became observable. The first actual Bishop of Orkney was William the
Old, who held the bishopric for sixty-six years, and died in 1168. He
must, therefore, have been consecrated in 1102. His see was first at
Birsay (see p. 135), but was removed to Kirkwall on the erection of the
cathedral in 1137-52. The Bishop of Orkney was one of the suffragans of
the metropolitan see of Throndhjeim, which was erected in 1154. It was
not till 1472 that the see was placed under the metropolitan Bishop of
St. Andrews.
The possession of the Orkneys was sometimes divided between two
relatives. In the beginning of the twelfth century two cousins, Hacon
and Magnus, shared the government; but in 1115 the latter was
treacherously slain in the island of Egilsay by Hacon, who thus obtained
the whole earldom.
Some time after, however, a new claimant for Magnus’ share arose in
Rognvald, the son of Magnus’ sister, who made a vow that if he succeeded
in establishing his claim he would erect a “stone minster” in honour of
his predecessor, St. Magnus, the latter having been canonised. Rognvald
was successful in his project, and immediately proceeded to fulfil his
vow by founding at Kirkwall a cathedral dedicated to St. Magnus.
The building was designed and superintended by the Norwegian Kol, the
father of Rognvald, who had the principal oversight of the whole work.
The relics of St. Magnus were brought from Christ’s Kirk, in Birsay, to
be deposited in the cathedral as soon as it was ready to receive them;
but in the meantime they rested in the Church of St. Olaf, an older
edifice which then existed at Kirkwall.[169]
The Cathedral of St. Magnus was thus designed and erected by a Norwegian
earl, while the bishopric was under the authority of the Norwegian
Metropolitan of Throndhjeim. It is thus practically a
[Illustration: FIG. 229.--Kirkwall Cathedral. View of North Transept and
Choir.]
[Illustration: FIG. 230.--Kirkwall Cathedral. View from South-East.]
Norwegian edifice, and is by far the grandest monument of the rule of
the Norsemen in Orkney.
In these circumstances, it is not to be expected that the architecture
should in every detail follow the contemporary styles which prevailed in
[Illustration: FIG. 231.--Kirkwall Cathedral. Doorway in South
Transept.]
Britain; but it is astonishing to find how closely the earlier parts
correspond with the architecture of Normandy, which was developed by a
kindred race--the successors of Rollo and his rovers, who settled in
that country at an earlier date.
[Illustration: FIG. 232.--Kirkwall Cathedral. Interior of Doorway in
South Transept. The shaded voussoirs are of yellow and the remainder of
red freestone.]
There can be little doubt that the Romanesque architecture which
prevailed in the North of Europe found its way at a comparatively late
[Illustration: FIG. 233.--Kirkwall Cathedral. View of the Crossing from
the Nave.]
date into Scandinavia. The Norman form of that style would naturally
follow the same course amongst the kindred races in Norway
[Illustration: FIG. 234.--Kirkwall Cathedral. Choir, looking East.]
and Denmark, just as it did in England and Scotland, and from Norway it
would be transplanted into Orkney. We find that the “transition” style
and pointed styles follow here a similar course to that observed in
other countries, although, no doubt, with certain modifications, such as
might be looked for at so great a distance from the centre of origin.
Sir Henry Dryden, who has given a great deal of study to Kirkwall
Cathedral, finds the differences of the architecture there as compared
with that of England so great that the usual terms in England are not
applicable; but we believe that, with some allowances, the same general
stages of progress can be observed at St. Magnus’ as in the South.
It is well known that French architects were sent for to carry out the
Cathedral of Upsala, while the architecture of the Cathedral of
Throndhjeim is English in character. A certain mixture of design is
traceable in the details of these northern structures, but the general
scope of the architecture follows that of the rest of Europe.
The Cathedral of St. Magnus was, as above mentioned, begun by Earl
Rognvald in 1137, and was, doubtless, carried on with as great
expedition as possible. It was a gigantic work to be undertaken in this
situation at the time, and difficulty arose with regard to funds. This,
however, was overcome by allowing the proprietors of lands in Orkney to
redeem their property by a single payment of a sum per acre, paid at
once, instead of according to the usual practice, on each succession.
The first parts of the cathedral built (shown by black tint on Plan)
were the three westmost or Norman bays of the choir, with their aisles,
both the transepts, the crossing (afterwards altered), intended to
receive a tower over it, and two bays of the nave, which served to form
an abutment for the crossing. These portions are all (where unaltered)
in the earliest style of Norman work in the edifice. The round piers and
responds of the choir, the two south piers and one north pier of the
nave (with their cushion caps) (Fig. 233), the main arches (with their
label mouldings in the choir and transept) (see Figs. 227 and 234), the
round arched and labelled windows in choir, transept, and nave (see Fig.
228), and the interlaced arcades in the latter (Fig. 235), all point to
a somewhat advanced period of Norman work.
The choir originally terminated with a central apse beyond the third
pier (as shown by dotted line), but it is impossible to say whether the
side aisles also had apses, or whether the aisle was continued round the
apse.
The Norman windows of the choir aisle have three external orders, with a
label ornament in the outer order. The single shafts have cushion caps,
and the windows are largely splayed internally.
An interlacing arcade of round arches, with single shafts and cushion
caps (some with volutes), runs round the north, south, and west sides
of
[Illustration: FIG. 235.--Kirkwall Cathedral. The Crossing and South
Transept.]
the transept. (See Fig. 235). The large arches leading into the east
chapels were formed originally, but the chapels were built later. The
lower string course of the transept is enriched with a four-leaved
flower. (See Fig. 232.)
[Illustration: FIG. 236.--Kirkwall Cathedral. Doorway in the North Aisle
of Nave, &c.]
It seems likely that soon after the completion of the above portions
attention was given to the continuation of the nave westwards for
several bays. The piers have the same round form as the original ones,
but the caps are no longer octagonal, but round (see Figs. 224 and 233),
and instead of the cushion form, the caps are moulded. The north
[Illustration: FIG. 237.--Kirkwall Cathedral. South Aisle of Nave.]
aisle wall opposite the three bays, west from the crossing, would appear
to have been built early (see Figs. 228 and 229). The buttresses are of
the flat Norman form, the three eastmost windows are moulded in three
orders, with a label enrichment like the choir aisle windows, while the
two windows to the west of above, although round, have mouldings of a
first pointed character, and were, doubtless, finished at a later time
(see aisle window in Fig. 236). In the south aisle of the nave the east
window is similar to those of the north side, but the others, extending
as far as the south doorway, have, in the interior, mouldings indicating
a more advanced date. (Fig. 237.) Externally, these windows have been
restored. There would appear to have been a good deal of time spent over
these aisle walls extending as far as the north and south doorways, and
the main piers and arches within them were probably erected at the same
period. Both of the above aisle walls have a Norman interlacing arcade
(see Fig. 237) running along the interior below the windows. In these
arcades, and those of the transepts, various varieties of chevron
ornament occur. The north aisle doorway (see Fig. 236) is Norman in
detail, but seems to have been restored at a late date. The interior
mouldings are similar to those of the three west doorways. The doorway
in the south aisle retains its old Norman arch and shafts in the
interior, but has been altered externally (Fig. 238). The nave piers may
have been continued as far as the above doors about this time, together
with the triforium, but the upper part of the nave walls and the
vaulting are later.
After the Norman period above described, a distinct change of style is
observable. This is prominently seen in the piers and arches of the
crossing (see Figs. 233 and 235), which are of an advanced transition
style, and appear to have been introduced in lieu of the old Norman
piers. Possibly, however, the older piers are preserved and encased in
the new. The latter (Fig. 239) are arranged in the form of clustered
shafts, approaching first pointed in plan. The bases and caps of the
shafts are of transition character, being very like those of Jedburgh
Abbey, a good transition example. Some, however, have a tendency to
foliage, but all are much damaged. The arches are in distinct orders,
like first pointed work, and the inner order of those next the nave and
choir is enriched with a large boldly relieved chevron ornament (see
Fig. 233). The windows in the choir nearest the main arches of the
crossing, and the triforium openings into the transept, appear to have
been altered and rebuilt at the time of this operation. The upper part
of the north transept was probably raised and its windows inserted at
this time, as they are of transition character; but the raising of the
south transept and introduction of the rose window in it is of a
somewhat later date. This circular window (see Fig. 235) is very similar
to that in the east window of the choir. The chapels on the east side of
the transept are also of the transition period. Both internally,
including the vaulting, and externally, including the pointed windows
(see Figs. 229 and 230), the work of these chapels is very advanced
transition in style. Of course, it must be understood that the style is
referred to, not the date. The transition style may not have penetrated
to Orkney till a long time after it had been abandoned further south,
possibly not till the middle of the thirteenth century. The space
between the south chapel and the choir aisle has been built up and
formed into a small vaulted chamber, which has no
[Illustration: FIG. 238.--Kirkwall Cathedral. South Doorway of Nave.]
opening communicating with the chamber in the south chapel. It enters
from a window in the aisle changed into a door. The use of this chamber
is unknown. The large windows in the triforium of the transept,
adjoining the crossing, are cut across by the aisle roofs. This arises
from the aisle roofs having been raised at a late period. The vaulting
of the original choir, and the vaulting shafts, with their corbels (see
Section, Fig. 226), probably also belong to the transition period.
The completion of the nave, as far as the original west wall, was
probably next undertaken. The piers (as above mentioned), although round
on plan like the original ones, have round moulded caps like those
further east. The arches over the piers were, no doubt, executed at the
[Illustration: FIG. 239.--Kirkwall Cathedral.]
same time, and the triforium carried up. The latter consists of three
orders of plain arches, with chamfer on edge, except some on the north
side, which have a bead and fillet on edge, thus indicating a somewhat
advanced date.
It is not easy to say when the clerestory and vaulting of the nave were
executed; but, from the circumstance that the clerestory is built with
whitish stone, similar to the raised part of the clerestory of the
choir, we are inclined to believe that it was carried out about the
same period as the heightening and vaulting of the choir, to be
afterwards referred to.
Steps are introduced at the bottom of the nave triforium arches, which,
however, can scarcely be seen from below. Their object is to raise the
floor of the triforium, so as to give height for the aisle vaults.
The next alteration of the cathedral effected a complete revolution in
the eastern portion of the edifice. The apse was taken down, and the
choir, with its aisles, was extended by three bays to the eastward. (See
Fig. 234.) The junction of the extended work with the old is quite
apparent in the large pier on the left.
The style of this extension of the choir has in many points a strong
resemblance to advanced first pointed work, but it exhibits some
peculiarities of detail. The piers of the new bays consist of clustered
shafts, but the arrangement of the shafts is peculiar, having rounds and
hollows passing into one another, and with fillets on edge, more like
decorated work than first pointed. The bases are of early form, and the
caps, which generally resemble first pointed work, have also features
which recall the French “Crochet caps” of the period.
Possibly some of the Frenchmen engaged at Upsala or Throndhjeim may have
been brought over to the work at St. Magnus’, and have here left the
mark of their French extraction. Some of the caps, which have a square
abacus, have small leaves introduced at the junction of the circle with
the square--an arrangement common in bases, but very unusual in
capitals. (See Main Pier, Fig. 240.)
The main arches over the piers (see Fig. 234) are not pointed, but
semi-circular (a form of common occurrence in Scotland). Otherwise the
sections of the mouldings, and the arrangement of the orders in distinct
divisions, are quite first pointed in style.
The triforium consists of plain chamfered semi-circular arches and jambs
in three orders, with plain impost mouldings, being a continuation of
the design of the triforium of the earlier part of the choir.
The clerestory has simple pointed windows, moulded on sconsion, but
without cusps, at the same level as the Norman windows in the western
part of the choir.
A vaulting shaft is carried up between the piers. It springs from the
pier caps, and is very small up to the triforium, where it thickens and
runs up to the triforium caps, and above that point is carried up as a
triple shaft to the cap which receives the springing of the vault.
The clerestory windows appear to have been built before the vaulting was
arranged, seeing that they are placed very low in the red part of the
wall. But when the vaulting was designed, it was found desirable to
raise the walls so as to get proper height for the arches. This was done
in whitish stone, and shows distinctly on the exterior, as above stated.
A row of Norman corbels on the north side marks the original height of
the clerestory wall. These corbels appear to have been moved from the
Norman part of the choir, and inserted in their present position when
the choir
[Illustration: FIG. 240.--Kirkwall Cathedral. East End of South Aisle of
Choir.]
was lengthened. A few corbels remain in their original position on the
south side of the choir. The vaulting of the old part of the choir was
also altered at the time when the new vaulting was built. The design of
the extended choir aisles corresponds with that of the choir, and is
very beautiful, though somewhat foreign in character. (See Fig. 240.)
The ribs of the choir and aisle vaults have all bold sections of first
pointed form.
The east end of the cathedral is of this period. The great east window
(see Fig. 234) fills the whole space available. This window, including
its mouldings, measures (according to Sir H. Dryden) 37 feet 2½ inches
by 16 feet 7½ inches. It is well designed, and has side shafts of first
pointed form, while the tracery is perhaps a little more advanced. The
great rose in the arch, which expands over the whole of the mullions and
arches of the tracery, is (as pointed out by Sir H. Dryden) quite
peculiar and unique. The three-arched recesses under the east window
indicate that the altar stood free from the wall. On the exterior, the
junction of the new buttresses with the old Norman ones is distinctly
seen. (See Fig. 230.) The former are of red freestone, and project with
water tables in stages, while the latter are flat and shallow. The side
windows have plain splays in the jambs, and have no caps, one
round-headed window on the south side has two lights, and a doorway is
formed beneath it. A large base course goes round the choir and marks
the new work. It is also continued round the transept chapels at a lower
level. Besides the raising of the clerestory walls, above referred to,
the aisle walls of the choir have also been raised. On the north side
(see Fig. 229) this is effected by leaving the old parapet and building
a second parapet above it, while on the south side (see Fig. 230) the
old parapet has been removed and the wall heightened with red ashlar,
and a new parapet placed at the higher level. Several square windows
have been cut in the lower part of the north choir wall. These are
modern, and are not shown in the sketch. Their object is to admit light
under a gallery which has been inserted in the north aisle. The floor of
the choir has been raised, and is now reached by several steps from the
transept; but the steps to the sanctuary are believed to have been where
shown on the plan. As already mentioned, the clerestory and vaulting of
the six eastmost bays of the nave was probably executed soon after the
choir was finished, the outer wall of the clerestory being built with
the same whitish stone as the heightened part of the choir. The windows
are small and of plain-pointed form, like those of the choir. Some of
them have the appearance of having been cut up into the vaulting, as if
they had been inserted or heightened after the vaulting was built. It is
to be remarked that while the parapets of the nave and choir are on the
same level on the exterior, the vaulting of the nave is several feet
lower than that of the choir.
The three western doorways (Fig. 241) and the pointed doorway in the
south transept (see Fig. 231) must be assigned to a period rather later
than the choir. The wall containing the three west doorways is built
out
[Illustration: FIG. 241.--Kirkwall Cathedral. West Doorways.]
of the square with the nave walls. It is supposed to have been erected
outside the church, with the view of lengthening it, while the original
west front stood at a point distant one bay from it. The new west wall
seems to have been left unfinished for a considerable time, the upper
part of the west front having, from its style, evidently been built at a
much later period than the doorways. When the new west wall was
completed, the old west front would be removed. This necessitated the
building of the westmost pair of piers. While this operation was in
progress, the next pair of piers and arch above have yielded, and the
piers remain much inclined to the west.
[Illustration: FIG. 242.--Kirkwall Cathedral. Interior of West
Doorways.]
The three west doorways and that in the south transept are specially
remarkable from their presenting probably the finest examples in Great
Britain of the use of coloured stones in the construction. This is
chiefly observable in the exterior, but is also carried out in the
interior of these doorways (Fig. 242). The north doorway (Fig. 245) and
central doorway (Fig. 244) of the west front have the colours arranged
in concentric rings in the arches, red and yellow alternating. In the
south doorway (Fig. 243) the same colours radiate and alternate, and in
the doorway of the south transept the red and yellow stones are arranged
chequerwise. (See Fig. 231.) Fig. 246 shows the plan of the central
doorway.
[Illustration: FIG. 243.--Kirkwall Cathedral. Plan and Elevation of
South Doorway of West End.]
[Illustration: FIG. 244.--Kirkwall Cathedral. Elevation at Central
Doorway of West End.]
[Illustration: FIG. 245.--Kirkwall Cathedral. Plan and Elevation of
North Doorway of West End.]
The shafts have all been detached, as shown in the plans. They have been
renewed; but, as Sir H. Dryden suggests, no doubt correctly, they were
probably at first in red and yellow stone alternately.
The caps have been very elaborately carved with foliage, which is now
much decayed. It looks later than the enrichments of the arches, which
consist of early ornaments, such as the dog-tooth and chevron, much
undercut. These enrichments, and the foliage which ran up the jambs of
the doorway, are now greatly decayed, especially the portions carved in
the yellow stone. In the case of the south transept doorway, the
stonework, which is much wasted, has been roughly repaired with cement.
The central doorway has five orders of mouldings, and the north and
south doorways four orders. The south transept doorway has also four
orders.
[Illustration: FIG. 246.--Kirkwall Cathedral. Plan of Central Doorway of
West End.]
Notwithstanding the damage they have sustained, these doorways are still
amongst the most charming portions of the edifice; and, as regards the
coloured decoration of their masonry, they stand almost alone in this
country.
In the interior the west doorways and responds of piers (Fig. 242) are
constructed with alternate bands of red and yellow stone, and the
sconsion moulding is enriched with a ball ornament. The sconsion of the
doorway of the north nave aisle has a similar enrichment, showing that
it must have been restored at a late date, as already mentioned.
The buttresses between the west doorways are, so far as original, also
carried up in alternate red and yellow courses. (See Fig. 241.) The
upper part of the gablet over the centre doorway is of the seventeenth
century, and bears the shield of Sir George Hay of Kinfauns, who rented
the lands of the bishopric in the beginning of the seventeenth century.
A crozier is added to the shield in connection with the lands of the
see. (See enlarged sketch in Fig. 244.)
The upper part of the west front is of late construction, having
probably been carried out when the two west bays of the nave were built.
These bays, as above mentioned, were added to the cathedral at a late
period, and are almost entirely built with red freestone. The piers are
designed in imitation of the old nave piers, but the caps and bases have
different mouldings, and the plinth of the base is round, while that of
the older bases is square. (See Fig. 242.)