different. _The Lydians and Mysians share in the worship of the Carian
Jove. These do so. As many, however, of different nations (ἔθνος) as
have become identical in language with the Carians do not do so._
And here comes a difficulty--one part of the facts connects, the other
disconnects the Carians from the Lycians. The language goes one way,
the customs another.
But this is not the only complication introduced by the _Carian_
family. The whole question of their origin is difficult, and that
of their affinities is equally so. It was from the islands to the
continent, rather than from the continent to the islands, that the
Carians spread themselves; and they did this as subjects of Minos,
and under the name of Leleges. As long as the system of Minos lasted,
these Carian Leleges paid no tribute; but furnished, when occasion
required, ships and sailors instead. And this they did effectually,
inasmuch as the Carian was one of the most powerful nations of its
day, and, besides that, ingenious in warlike contrivances. Of such
contrivances three were adopted by the Greeks, and recognised as the
original invention of the Carians. The first of these was the crest
for the helmet; the second, the _device_ for the shield; the third,
the _handle_ for the shield. Before the Carians introduced this
last improvement, the fighting-man hung his buckler by a leathern
thong, either on his neck or his left shoulder. Such was the first
stage in the history of Carian Leleges, who were insular rather than
continental, and Lelegian rather than Carian. It lasted for many years
after the death of Minos; but ended in their being wholly ejected from
the islands, and exclusively limited to the continent, by the Dorians
and Ionians of Greece.
This would connect the--
1. Carians with the aboriginal islanders of the Ægean--these being
_Leleges_.
2. Also with the Caunians.
3. Also with the Lycians. Unfortunately, the evidence is not
unqualified. It is complicated by--
_The native tradition._--The Carian race is not insular, but aboriginal
to the continent; bearing from the earliest times the name it bears
at the present time. As a proof of this, the worship of the Carian
Jupiter is common to two other, unequivocally continental nations--the
_Lydians_ and the _Mysians_. All three have a share in a temple
at Mylasa, and each of the three is descended from one of three
brothers--Car, Lydus, or Mysus--the respective eponymi of Caria, Lydia,
and Mysia.
All this is not written for the sake of any inference; but to
illustrate the difficulties of the subject. A new series of facts must
now be added--or rather two new ones.
1. There are special statements in the classics that the Phrygian,
Armenian, and Thracian languages were the same.
2. One of the three languages of the arrow-headed inscriptions has yet
to be identified with any existing tongue.
The reader is in possession of a fair amount of complications. They can
easily be increased.
Instead of enlarging on them, I suggest the following doctrine:--
1. That, notwithstanding certain conflicting statements, the
populations of Mysia, Lydia, Caria, and part of Lycia, were closely
allied.
2. That a language akin to the Armenian was spoken as far westwards as
eastern Phrygia.
3. That some third population, either subject to Persia or in alliance
with it, spoke the language of the Lycian inscriptions--properly
distinguished by Mr. Forbes and others from the ancient Lycian of the
Milyans--which last _may_ have been Semitic.
4. That the third language of arrow-headed inscriptions, supposing
its locality to have been Media, may have indented the north-eastern
frontier.
5. That, besides the Greek, two intrusive languages may have been
spoken in the north-west and south-western parts respectively, viz.--
_a._ The Thracian of the opposite coast of the Bosporus.
_b._ The Lelegian of the islands.
Of these, the former was, perhaps, Sarmatian, whilst the latter may
have borne the same relation to the Carian as the Malay of Sumatra does
to that of the Orang Binúa of the Malayan Peninsula.
It may be added, that the similarity of the name _Thekhes_, the
_mountain_ from which the 10,000 Greeks saw the sea, to the Turk
_Tagh_, suggests the likelihood of Turk encroachments having existed
as early as the time of Artaxerxes.
_Lastly_--The termination _-der_, in _Scaman-der_ (a bilingual
appellation) and _Mæan-der_, indicates Persian intrusion of an equally
early date.
Of the glosses collected by Jablonsky, none are illustrated by any
modern language, except the following:--
_English_ axe.
Lydian _labr-ys._
Armenian _dabar._
Persian _tawar._
Kurd _teper._
_English_ fire.
Phrygian _pyr._
Armenian _pur._
Afghan _wur, or._
Kurd _ûr._
Greek, &c. πῦρ, _fire, &c._
_English_ dog.
Phrygian _kyn._
Armenian _shun._
Sanskrit _shune._
Lettish _suns._
_English_ bread.
Phrygian _bekos._
Armenian _khaz._
Akush _kaz._
_English_ water.
Phrygian _hydôr._
Armenian _tshur._
Greek, &c. ὕδωρ, _water, &c._
There is no denying that these affinities are Indo-European rather
than aught else, and that they are Armenian as well--an objection to
several of the views laid down in the preceding pages which I have no
wish to conceal. However, all questions of this kind are a balance of
conflicting difficulties. As a set-off to this, take the following
table, where the Armenian affinities are Turk, Dioscurian, and Siberian
also.
_English_ man.
Scythian _oior._
Uigur _er._
Kasan _ir._
Baskir _ir._
Nogay _ir._
Tobolsk _ir._
Yeneseian _eri._
Teleut _eri._
Kasach _erin._
Casikumuk _ioori._
Armenian _air._
_The watershed of the Oxus and Indus._--We are in the north-eastern
corner of Persia. The Púshta-Khur mountain, like many other hills of
less magnitude, contains the sources of two rivers, different in their
directions--of the Oxus that falls into the Sea of Aral; and of the
right branch of the Kúner, a feeder of the Cabúl river--itself a member
of the great water-system of the Indus. Its south-western prolongation
gives us the corresponding watershed. This is a convenient point for
the study of a difficult but interesting class of mountaineers, who
may conveniently be called _Paropamisans_ from the ancient name of
the Hindu-kúsh. Their northern limits are the heights in question.
Southwards they reach the Afghan frontier in the Kohistan of Cabúl.
Eastward they come in contact with India. There is no better way of
taking them in detail than that of following the water-courses, and
remembering the watersheds of the rivers.
I. _The Oxus._--At the very head-waters of the Oxus, and in contact
with the Kirghiz Turks of Pamer, comes the small population of Wokhan,
speaking a language neither Turk nor Persian--at least not exactly
Persian; and, next to Wokhan, Shughnan, where the dialect (possibly the
language) seems to change. Roshan, next (along the Oxus) to Shughnan,
seems to be in the same category. Durwaz, however, is simply Tajik. All
are independent, and all Mahometan.
II. _The Indus._--1. _The Indus._--The Gilghit[42] river feeds the
Indus--two other feeders that join it from the east being called the
Hunz and the Burshala, Nil, or Nagar. The population of each of these
rivers is agricultural, and is, accordingly, called _Dunghar_, a
Hindu, but no native term. Their Rajah is independent; their religion
a very indifferent Mahometanism. On the Gilghit and the parts below
its junction with the Hunz and Nagar rivers, the dialect (perhaps the
language) seems to change, and the people are known as _Dardoh_ (or
Dards) and _Chilass Dardoh_--the Daradæ of the Greek and the Daradas
of the Sanskrit writers. These, too, are imperfect Mahometans. The
Dards and Dunghers carry us as far as Little Tibet (Bultistan) and the
Cashmírian frontiers.
2. _The Jhelum._--This is the river of the famous valley of
Cashmír--the population whereof (with some hesitation) I consider
Paropamisan.
3. _The Cabul River._--1. _The Kúner._--The eastern watershed of the
Upper Kúner is common to the Gilghit river. The population is closely
akin to the Dardoh and Dungher; its area being Upper and Lower Chitral,
its language the Chitrali, its religion Shia Mahometanism.
South of the Chitral, on the _middle_ Kúner, the creed changes, and we
have the best known of the Paropamisans, the _Kaffres_ of Kafferistan,
reaching as far westwards and northwards as Kunduz and Badukshan--the
Kaffres, or Infidels, so called by their Mahometan neighbours, because
they still retain their primitive paganism.
Now when we approach the Cabúl river itself, the direction of which,
from west to east, is nearly at right angles with the Kúner, the
characteristics of the Dardoh, Chitrali, and Kaffre populations
decrease--in other words, the area is irregular, and the populations
themselves either partially isolated or intermixed. Thus, along the
foot of the mountains north of the Cabúl river and west of the Kúner
comes the Lughmani country; the language being by no means identical
with the Kafir, and the Kafir paganism being reduced to an imperfect
Mahometan--_némchú Mussulman_, or _half Mussulman_, being the term
applied to the speakers of the Lughmani tongue of the valley of the
Nijrow and the parts about it.
The Der, Tirhye, and Pashai vocabularies of Leach all represent
Paropamisan forms of speech spoken by small and, more or less,
fragmentary populations.
The valley of the Lundye has, almost certainly, been within a recent
period, Paropamisan. Thus is it that Elphinstone writes of its chief
occupants:--“The Swatís, who are also called Deggauns, appear to be
of Indian origin. They formerly possessed a kingdom extending from
the western branch of the Hydaspes to near Jellabahad. They were
gradually confined to narrower limits by the Afghan tribes; and Swaut
and Búnér, their last seats, were reduced by the Eusofzyis in the
end of the fifteenth century. They are still very numerous in those
countries.” By _Indian_ I believe a population akin to that of Cashmeer
is _denoted_--I do not say _intended_. Another extract carries us
further still:--“The Shulmauni formerly inhabited Shulmaun, on the
banks of the Korrum. They afterwards moved to Tíra, and in the end of
the fifteenth century they were in Hustnugger, from which they were
expelled by the Eusofzyes. The old Afghan writers reckon them Deggauns,
but they appear to have used this word loosely. There are still a few
Shulmauni in the Eusofzye country who have some remains of a peculiar
language.”
Hence, the Paropamisans may safely be considered as a population of a
receding frontier, the encroachment upon their area having been Afghan.
With these the Asiatic populations end.
* * * * *
If we now look back upon the ground that has been gone over, we shall
find that the evidence of the human family having originated in one
particular spot, and having diffused itself from thence to the very
extremities of the earth, is by no means absolute and conclusive. Still
less is it certain that that particular spot has been ascertained.
The present writer _believes_ that it was somewhere in intratropical
Asia, and that it was _the single locality of a single pair_--without,
however, professing to have proved it. Even this centre is only
_hypothetical_--near, indeed, to the point which he looks upon as the
starting-place of the human migration, but by no means identical with
it. The Basks and Albanians he does not pretend to have affiliated; but
he does not, for this reason, absolutely isolate them. They have too
many _miscellaneous_ affinities to allow them to stand wholly alone.
In the way of physical conformation, the Hottentot presents the
_maximum_ of peculiarities. The speech, however, of the latter is
simply African; whilst, in form and colour, the Basks and Albanians
are European. A fly is a fly even when we wonder how it came into the
amber; and men belong to humanity even when their origin is a mystery.
This gives us a composition of difficulties, and it is by taking
this and similar phænomena into account, that the higher problems in
ethnology must be worked. Nothing short of a clear and comprehensive
view of the extent to which points of difference in one department
are compensated by points of likeness in another, will give us even a
philosophical hypothesis; all _partial_ argument from partial points
of disagreement being as unscientific as a similar overvaluation of
resemblances.
As for the detail of the chief difficulties, the writer believes
that he, unwillingly and with great deference, differs from the
best authorities, in making so little of the transition from
America to Asia, and so much of that between Europe and Asia. The
conviction that the Semitic tongues are simply African, and that all
the theories suggested by the term _Indo-European_ must be either
abandoned or modified, is the chief element of his reasoning upon this
point--reasoning far too elaborate for a small work like the present.
He also believes that the languages of Kafferistan, the Dardoh country,
and north-eastern Afghanistan, are transitional to the monosyllabic
tongues and those of Persia--in other words, that the modern Persian
is much more monosyllabic than is generally supposed. Yet even this
leaves a break. How far the most _western_ tongue of this class can be
connected with those of Europe, and how far the most _south_-western
one has Semitic affinities are questions yet to examine--questions
beset with difficulties. However, as the skeleton of system he believes
the present work to be true as far as it goes, and at the same time
convenient for the investigator. That there is much in all existing
classifications which requires to be unlearnt is certain. Lest any
one think this a presumptuous saying, let him consider the new and
unsettled state of the science, and the small number of the labourers
as compared with the extent of the field.
THE END.
FOOTNOTES
[27] Since this chapter was written, the news of the premature death
of the most influential supporter of the double doctrine of (a.) _the
unity of the American families amongst each other_, and (b.) _the
difference of the American race from all others_--Dr. Morton, of
Philadelphia,--has reached me. It is unnecessary to say, that the
second of these positions is, in the mind of the present writer, as
exceptionable as the first is correct. Nor is it likely to be otherwise
as long as the _eastern_ side of the Rocky Mountains is so exclusively
studied as it is by both the American and the English school. I have
little fear of the Russians falling into this error. With this remark
the objections against the very valuable labours of Dr. Morton begin
and end. His _Crania Americana_ is by far the most valuable book of
its kind. His _Crania Ægyptiaca_ and other minor works, especially his
researches on _Hybridism_, are all definite additions to ethnological
science. The impulse which he, personally, gave to the very active
study of the Human Species, which so honourably characterises his
countrymen, is more than an Englishman can exactly value. Perhaps,
it is second only to that given by Gallatin: perhaps, it is scarcely
second.
[28] Mr. Norris, for instance, of the Asiatic Society, has given
reasons for connecting the Australian tongues with those of the Dekhan.
[29] Taken, with much besides, from Mr. Brown’s Tables, in the Journal
of the Asiatic Society of Bengal.
[31] Considering the Burampúter and Ganges as separate rivers.
[32] Conveniently thrown into a single class, and called _Hyperboreans_.
[33] The great family of which the _Mantshús_ are the best-known
members.
[34] Not necessarily with _many_ syllables, but with _more than
one_--_hyper-mono-syllabic_.
[35] Observe--_not_ of the island of Ceylon.
[36] Of Orissa.
[37] The Cashmírian of Cashmír is in this predicament. It is not safe
to say that it is Hindu rather than Persian, or Paropamisan--a term
which will soon find its explanation.
[38] From the town of _Dioscurias_, in which Pliny says business was
carried on through 130 interpreters--so numerous were the languages and
dialects.
[39] The Phasis, Tshorok, &c.
[40] The Kur and Aras.
[41] The _Irôn_ and _Mizjeji_.
[42] From Moorcroft’s Travels in the Himalayan Provinces, and Vigne’s
Cashmír.
PRINTED BY RICHARD TAYLOR,
RED LION COURT, FLEET STREET.
=London, January 1863.=
Catalogue of Books
PUBLISHED BY MR. VAN VOORST.
INDEX.
Accentuated List of Lepidoptera _p._ 6
Adams & Baikie’s Manual Nat. Hist. 11
Adams’s Genera of Mollusca 5
Aikin’s Arts and Manufactures 13
Anatomical Manipulation 12
Ansted’s Ancient World 9
---- Elementary Course of Geology 9
---- Geologist’s Text-Book 9
---- Gold-Seeker’s Manual 9
---- Scenery, Science, and Art 13
Babington’s Flora of Cambridgeshire 7
---- Manual of British Botany 7
Baptismal Fonts 13
Bate and Westwood’s British Crustacea 4
Beale on Sperm Whale 3
Bell’s British Quadrupeds 3
---- British Reptiles 4
---- British Stalk-eyed Crustacea 4
Bennett’s Naturalist in Australasia 10
Bloomfield’s Farmer’s Boy 14
Boccius on Production of Fish 4
Bonaparte’s List of Birds 3
Brightwell’s Life of Linnæus 13
Burton’s Falconry on the Indus 3
Church and Northcote’s Chem. Analysis 8
Clark’s Testaceous Mollusca 5
Clermont’s Quadrupeds & R. of Europe 3
Couch’s Illustrations of Instinct 11
Cumming’s Isle of Man 12
Cups and their Customs 13
Currency 15
Dallas’s Elements of Entomology 5
Dawson’s Geodephaga Britannica 6
Domestic Scenes in Greenland & Iceland 13
Douglas’s World of Insects 6
Dowden’s Walks after Wild Flowers 8
Drew’s Practical Meteorology 10
Drummond’s First Steps to Anatomy 11
Economy of Human Life 15
Elements of Practical Knowledge 13
England before the Norman Conquest 13
Entomologist’s Annual 5
Fly Fishing in Salt and Fresh Water 4
Forbes’s British Star-fishes 5
Forbes’s Malacologia Monensis 5
---- and Hanley’s British Mollusca 5
---- and Spratt’s Travels in Lycia 12
Garner’s Nat. Hist. of Staffordshire 12
Gosse’s Aquarium 12
---- Birds of Jamaica 3
---- British Sea-Anemones, &c. 12
---- Canadian Naturalist 12
---- Handbook to Marine Aquarium 12
---- Manual of Marine Zoology 12
---- Naturalist’s Rambles on Dev. Coast 12
---- Omphalos 9
---- Tenby 12
Gray’s Bard and Elegy 14
Greg and Lettsom’s British Mineralogy 9
Griffith & Henfrey’s Micrographic Dict. 10
Harvey’s British Marine Algæ 7
---- Thesaurus Capensis 7
---- Flora Capensis 7
---- Index Generum Algarum 7
---- Nereis Boreali-Americana 8
---- Sea-side Book 12
Henfrey’s Botanical Diagrams 7
---- Elementary Course of Botany 7
---- Rudiments of Botany 7
---- Translation of Mohl 7
---- Vegetation of Europe 7
---- & Griffith’s Micrographic Dict. 10
---- & Tulk’s Anatomical Manipulation 11
Henslow, Memoir of 10
Hewitson’s Birds’ Eggs 3
---- Exotic Butterflies 6
Hunter’s Essays, by Owen 10
Instrumenta Ecclesiastica 13
Jeffreys’s British Conchology 5
Jenyns’s Memoir of Henslow 10
---- Observations in Meteorology 10
---- Observations in Natural History 10
---- White’s Selborne 12
Jesse’s Angler’s Rambles 4
Johnston’s British Zoophytes 5
---- Introduction to Conchology 5
---- Terra Lindisfarnensis 8
Jones’s Aquarian Naturalist 10
Jones’s Animal Kingdom 11
---- Natural History of Animals 11
Knox’s (A. E.) Rambles in Sussex 3
Knox (Dr.), Great Artists & Great Anat. 11
Latham’s Descriptive Ethnology 11
---- Ethnology of British Colonies 11
---- Ethnology of British Islands 11
---- Ethnology of Europe 11
---- Man and his Migrations 11
---- Varieties of Man 11
Leach’s Synopsis of British Mollusca 5
Letters of Rusticus 12
Lettsom and Greg’s British Mineralogy 9
Lowe’s Faunæ et Floræ Maderæ 8
---- Manual Flora of Madeira 8
Malan’s Catalogue of Eggs 3
Martin’s Cat. of Privately Printed Books 15
Melville and Strickland on the Dodo 3
Meyrick on Dogs 13
Micrographic Dictionary 10
Mohl on the Vegetable Cell 7
Moule’s Heraldry of Fish 4
Newman’s British Ferns 8
---- History of Insects 5
---- Letters of Rusticus 12
Northcote & Church’s Chem. Analysis 8
Owen’s British Fossil Mammals 9
---- on Skeleton of Extinct Sloth 9
Paley’s Gothic Moldings 14
---- Manual of Gothic Architecture 14
Poor Artist 13
Prescott on Tobacco 13
Prestwich’s Geological Inquiry 9
---- Ground beneath us 9
Samuelson’s Earthworm and Housefly 10
---- Honey-Bee 10
Sclater’s Tanagers 3
Seemann’s British Ferns at One View 7
Selby’s British Forest Trees 8
Shakspeare’s Seven Ages of Man 14
Sharpe’s Decorated Windows 14
Shield’s Hints on Moths and Butterflies 6
Siebold on True Parthenogenesis 6
Smith’s British Diatomaceæ 8
Sowerby’s British Wild Flowers 6
---- Poisonous Plants 6
Spratt and Forbes’s Travels in Lycia 12
Stainton’s Butterflies and Moths 6
---- History of the Tineina 6
Strickland’s Ornithological Synonyms 4
---- Memoirs 9
---- and Melville on the Dodo 3
Sunday Book for the Young 13
Tugwell’s Sea-Anemones 5
Tulk and Henfrey’s Anat. Manipulation 11
Vicar of Wakefield, Illustr. by Mulready 14
Wallich’s North-Atlantic Sea-Bed 10
Watts’s Songs, Illustrated by Cope 14
Ward (Dr.) on Healthy Respiration 12
Westwood and Bate’s British Crustacea 4
White’s Selborne 12
Wilkinson’s Weeds and Wild Flowers 7
Williams’s Chemical Manipulation 8
Wollaston’s Insecta Maderensia 6
---- on Variation of Species 11
Yarrell’s British Birds 3
---- British Fishes 4
---- on the Salmon 4
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THE ANGLER NATURALIST.
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OOTHECA WOLLEYANA.
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JEFFREYS’S BRITISH CONCHOLOGY.
VOLS. II., III., IV.--MARINE UNIVALVES, BIVALVES, AND NUDIBRANCHS.
JOHN VAN VOORST, 1 PATERNOSTER ROW.
* * * * * *
Transcriber's note:
In Chapter II, Mr. D. Wilson’s table showing relative proportions of
skulls was split into two tables to fit a 75-character width.
Punctuation errors were corrected.
Inconsistent hyphenation was retained.
To match the spelling of chapter topics in Contents with that in the
main text,
on page v, two occurrences of “history” were changed from “History”
(Physical history of Man; Physical history) and two occurrences
of “Extract” were changed from “extract” (Extract from Knox;
Extract); and
on page vi, “area” was changed from “areas” (size of area) and
“Area” was changed from “area” (Monosyllabic Area).
On page 18, “te ipsum” was changed from “teipsum” (Nosce te ipsum).
On page 38, “Lawrence” was changed from “Lawrance” (the work of
Lawrence).
On page 49, “Troglodytes” was changed from “Trolodytes” (than the
_Troglodytes Gorilla_).
On page 95, “Mediterranean” was changed from “Mediterannean” (from
the Mediterranean).
On page 97, “Kaffre” was changed from “Caffre” (to the Kaffre).
On page 101, “Papuás” was changed from “Papuá”.
On page 107, “architectural” was changed from “architectual”
(architectural impulses).
On page 158, “hypothesis” was changed from “hypotheses” (Finnic
hypothesis).
On page 216, “Norris” was changed from “Norriss” (Mr. Norris also).
On page 220, “Buddhist” was changed from “Bhuddhist” (nor Buddhist).
On page 237, “his mother’s” was changed from “mothers” (his mother’s
mothers).
On page 241, “Mysus” was changed from “Myrus” (Car, Lydus, or Mysus).
On page 243, space was inserted before “_-der_” (termination _-der_).
In footnote [19], “pp.” was changed from “p.” (pp. 224–228).
In Mr. Van Voorst’s Catalogue,
on page 6, “Vols.” was changed from “Vol.” (Vols. I. to VII.).
on page 8, “DESERTAS” was changed from “DEZERTAS”.
on page 15, “Parts” was changed from “Part” (Parts 1 to 10).