PERU UNDER REPUBLICAN GOVERNMENT
[Illustration: MONUMENT DOS DE MAYO.]
The Independence of Peru was the crowning glory of the Spanish-American
revolution. Here, in the heart and centre of colonial monarchism, where
the very existence of society seemed to be threatened in the event of a
change of government, and the vigilance of the authorities was so active
that a single word in favor of liberty, spoken in an unguarded moment,
was sufficient to place its author under the fatal ban of the Holy
Office, the patriotic spirit had, nevertheless, grown and developed,
awaiting only a fair chance to dominate an overpowering environment. The
Viceroy Pezuela realized the force of national sentiment when he
hesitated to send his troops against General San Martin at Huaura,
although the royalist army then at his command numbered eight thousand
men, and he had every advantage over the precarious position of the
patriots. The defection of the “Numancia” regiment, following on the
capture of the _Esmeralda_ and the victory of Cerro de Pasco, seemed to
overwhelm the Spanish authorities with a sense of insecurity, as if they
realized that these reverses signified a more powerful force at work to
destroy the government than was apparent in the small army of the
Liberator.
The fight in Peru was won in the secret councils of the patriotic party
before the opposing forces met on the battlefield. When the standard of
the Liberating Army was unfurled on the plain of Ayacucho, it mattered
little that the royalist strength doubled that of the patriots, and that
the viceroy himself appeared in the field, his silver helmet glistening
at the head of his troops; the spirit of the warrior prepared for
glorious victory or sublime sacrifice which animated every soldier of
the republican army was not apparent in the royalist ranks; the officers
in command of the king’s forces were discontented because they were
obliged to obey a foreign leader, General Canterac being a Frenchman of
haughty manners and exacting discipline; the Indians were all patriots
at heart and had been pressed into the royal service against their will:
a presentiment of defeat had spread through the viceroy’s camp the night
before the battle, in spite of the royalists’ superior numbers, and
there was none of the exaltation which carried their opponents into the
combat with the exuberant confidence expressed in the order: “Forward,
with the step of victory!”
The glad news of the final triumph of the patriotic cause was carried
rapidly to every part of the country, and the joy of the people found
expression in enthusiastic demonstrations of all kinds. In every city
and town, religious services were held to render thanks to God for the
success which had crowned the efforts of the nation to establish its
freedom. The Liberator Bolivar was proclaimed by Congress president of
the new republic for life, and the Colombian troops were voted a
magnificent reward for their services in behalf of the independence of
Peru. Henceforth the country that had been held most strictly under the
bondage of Spanish conditions and customs was to be governed by its own
people, in harmony with the principles for which its patriots had so
courageously contended, and according to laws formulated and decreed on
the responsibility of its own constituted authorities.
In the days of the viceroyalty the colonial offices of importance had
been filled chiefly by Spaniards, the natives of the colony thus having
had little opportunity to learn administrative methods. They were now to
undertake the organization of a system of government which was not only
unfamiliar to them, but which, considering the national temperament and
traditions, it would be impossible to establish without overcoming
tremendous obstacles.
As soon as the victory of Ayacucho was assured, General Sucre led his
army to Cuzco, and this ancient city was once more the scene of
celebrations in honor of a great conquest; though, while the former had
meant the destruction and slavery of the original inhabitants, this one
signified their emancipation and protection. It was fitting that the
capital of the Inca empire which had been subjugated by Spain three
hundred years before, should be the first city to receive the patriots
who had won its independence, and that the children of the new Peru
should link their destiny with the descendants of its oldest
civilization on this historic ground, both of them proud to claim the
title of Peruvians.
After a short stay in Cuzco, General Sucre proceeded to Alto Peru, where
he was chosen to preside over the first congress of the new republic,
named Bolivia in honor of the Liberator, who was also invited to become
its president for life. In acknowledgment of this distinction, General
Bolivar went to Chuquisaca, afterward called Sucre to compliment the
hero of Ayacucho, and took charge of the government, drawing up the
famous constitution that received his name, and which he afterward
tried, unsuccessfully, to impose on Peru. He abdicated the presidency in
favor of General Sucre within a year and returned to Lima, where a
council of government had ruled during his absence. The Liberator did
not remain long in Peru, however, retiring from the country permanently
on the 3d of September, 1827, to go to Colombia. General Andrés Santa
Cruz became the president of the council of government after Bolivar’s
abdication. He convoked Congress to meet for the election of the
president of the republic and to frame the national constitution. The
question of establishing a satisfactory government code occupied the
attention of successive administrations for twenty-five years, during
which eight constitutions, based on republican ideas of government, were
promulgated, the last, decreed in 1860, being still in force.
General La Mar succeeded Bolivar in the presidency; but as his native
province, Quito, had been separated from Peru by the Liberator, and
included in the new republic of Colombia, his election was declared null
and void by a clause of the constitution, which provided that the
president should be a Peruvian by birth. He hoped, however, to annex his
native territory to Peru and thus legalize his position; and the
opportunity to make the attempt came as a result of his interference in
the affairs of Bolivia, which caused the abdication of General Sucre and
the election of General Andrés Santa Cruz as president of that country.
Bolivar resented the proceeding and declared war on Peru, to which La
Mar responded by marching into Guayaquil with an army of four thousand
men and taking possession of the city. He was forced to retreat before
the Colombian army and withdrew to Piura, where he received news of his
deposition from the presidency and of the election of General Gamarra, a
native of Cuzco, who was inaugurated on August 31, 1829.
The military spirit was too strong, and the principles of representative
government were too little understood in the beginning of the new life
of Peru to admit of a strict conformity to the republican constitution;
and it is not surprising that the descendants of a race of soldiers,
with all the traditions implanted by an absolute monarchy, should err at
first in their interpretation of political freedom. It was to be
expected that the heroes of the Independence would be chosen to fill the
highest places of honor in the new government, although the very nature
and disposition of a successful military leader often disqualify him for
the duties of civil administration. The earlier presidents were all men
who had fought for the Independence, and with the exception of La Fuente
(vice-president in La Mar’s cabinet and president in the interim),
Orbegoso, and Vidal, they had been identified with the victory of
Ayacucho.
In the frequent changes of government that occurred during the first ten
years of the republic, some of the administrations were of short
duration and of little historical importance. President Gamarra was
despotic and arbitrary, and aroused the opposition of the more liberal
members of Congress, who, led by the deputy from Tacna, Don Francisco de
Paula Gonzalez Vigil, openly protested on the floor of the House against
the unconstitutional conduct of the chief executive. It was the
beginning of a persistent struggle to overcome militarism and to
establish the government of Peru on a basis more consistent with the
ideals of a modern republic. President Gamarra was in turn succeeded, in
1833, by President Orbegoso, whose administration was disturbed by
continuous revolts in consequence of the irregularity of his election,
and the jealousy of rival candidates. On the 23rd of January, 1835,
General Salaverry, commander of the garrison of Callao, who had been
promoted to the rank of brigadier-general for his services in support of
President Orbegoso during previous revolts, suddenly declared himself
against the government, which he said was dishonored by illegal arrests
and acts of injustice. He was a high-minded, though impetuous, young
officer, and he won many followers, being able to secure command of the
government, which he directed with good purpose and ability; his
authority was recognized for several months in all the republic except
Arequipa, where Orbegoso had his stronghold. The latter sought the
assistance of President Santa Cruz of Bolivia, and the overthrow of
Salaverry was accomplished after a series of engagements in which the
Bolivian army was repeatedly checked; the battle of Socabaya, which took
place on February 7, 1836, brought the struggle to an end, Salaverry
being taken prisoner and condemned to be shot. This sentence was carried
into effect in the central plaza of Arequipa ten days later. General
Santa Cruz then proclaimed the Peru-Bolivian Confederation, which was
divided into three states, northern and southern Peru and Bolivia;
Orbegoso was made president of northern Peru and General Herrera of
southern Peru, while General Santa Cruz became supreme director of the
confederation with the powers of a dictator.
[Illustration: DON MANUEL PARDO. THE FIRST CIVIL PRESIDENT OF PERU.]
The Peru-Bolivian Confederation, inaugurated on the 1st of May, 1837,
was not only unpopular in Peru and Bolivia, but it led to war with
Chile. The Chilean invasion has been called the Nemesis of Salaverry, as
the Chilean ships were full of exiled Peruvians, glad to have this
opportunity to fight against Santa Cruz, the author of Salaverry’s
defeat and death. Orbegoso deserted Santa Cruz and retired to Guayaquil.
The Chilean forces were commanded by General Bulnes, who defeated the
army of Santa Cruz in the battle of Yungay, in 1839, the “Supreme
Protector” making his escape to Guayaquil, whence he sailed to France.
The confederation was dissolved by General Santa Cruz prior to his
leaving the country, and General Gamarra was proclaimed president of the
republic for a second time. His ambition led him to invade Bolivia,
where he was defeated and killed, in the battle of Ingavi in 1841.
During his absence from Peru, Colonel Manuel Ignacio Vivanco seized the
reins of government, declaring Gamarra’s election illegal. He was
deposed by General Castilla, Gamarra’s commander-in-chief.
On the death of President Gamarra, Don Manuel Menendez assumed supreme
power, but his election was disputed by La Fuente and Vivanco, who
supported General Vidal for the presidency, while, in the meantime,
General Torrico took more violent measures and deposed Menendez,
declaring himself president. The greatest confusion followed, Vidal
taking the field against Torrico, who was defeated. General Vidal,
however, was more desirous of restoring order and peace than covetous of
political honors, and in order to avoid further dissension, he resigned
in favor of President Menendez; though a few days later his action was
nullified by that of a new faction that declared in favor of General
Vivanco, who assumed the government on the 8th of April, 1844. The
unsettled political condition was a natural consequence of President
Gamarra’s death in Bolivia, and it continued until a leader appeared who
possessed the resolution and strength necessary to establish order and
authority.
General Ramón Castilla, who was elected president of Peru in 1845,
accomplished a great deal in promoting the welfare of his country.
Possessing extraordinary administrative ability, he reorganized the
various branches of public service, suppressed the taxation of the
Indians, definitely abolished slavery, advanced education and undertook
the construction of public works of great importance. During this
administration, the first railways in Peru were built, between Lima and
Callao (in 1848), also between Lima and Chorillos, and the first
telegraphic service was established. The finances of the government were
regulated by subjecting the national expenditures to an estimate
sanctioned by Congress. Municipal improvements were encouraged
throughout the republic, and the prefects of the various departments
vied with one another in the construction of good roads, commodious
public buildings and other progressive enterprises. Steam navigation,
which had been initiated between Valparaiso and Callao in 1840, was
extended to Panamá, the service being increased. The navy was
reorganized and five new war vessels, operated by steam, were added to
the squadron. The wealth of the republic increased in consequence of a
great demand for the guano of the Chincha Islands, which became a source
of immense revenue, and the government was thus enabled to arrange for
the payment of the interest on the national debt:—a loan of one million
two hundred thousand pounds sterling had been made in London in 1822,
and another of six hundred thousand pounds in 1825, both at six per
cent, which with the accumulated interest made a debt of nearly four
million pounds. Negotiations were concluded by which the interest on
this sum could be paid regularly.
[Illustration: THE MORRO OF ARICA.]
After six years of peaceful government President Castilla was succeeded
by President Echenique, whose administration lasted from 1851 to 1855,
when he was deposed and President Castilla was reëlected. During his
second term, this indefatigable statesman continued to devote his
efforts to the improvement of the public service. Especial attention was
given to the construction and discipline of the prisons. The foundations
of the present penitentiary of Lima were laid in accordance with plans
prepared and submitted by Dr. Mariano Paz Soldan, who had the work in
charge. When, in 1862, the reins of government were passed to his
successor, Grand Marshal Don Miguel San Román, President Castilla
retired from office with everything to his credit that a patriot who has
rendered good service to his country may claim. Three years later he
became president of the Senate, at seventy years of age. By the terms of
the constitution of 1860, the presidential period, which formerly lasted
for six years, was reduced to four, the president not being permitted
henceforth to succeed himself by reëlection for a second term. President
San Román, son of the martyred patriot of Umachiri, lived only a few
months after his election, and was succeeded by Vice-President Pezet,
during whose administration a conflict arose with Spain, with dire
consequences to the prestige of the president. The Chincha Islands were
seized by a Spanish fleet on the pretext of guaranteeing certain unjust
claims, and President Pezet, who found himself unable to offer
resistance, was obliged to make a settlement with Spain which was so
unfair to Peru that it called forth vigorous protest and led to a
revolution. The second vice-president, General Pedro Diez Canseco and
Colonel Mariano Ignacio Prado were the leaders of the movement against
President Pezet, who, rather than plunge his country into civil war,
resigned office, Colonel Prado being proclaimed dictator in November,
1865.
One of the first acts of Dictator Prado was to form an alliance with
Ecuador, Bolivia, and Chile to combat the aggressive designs of Spain.
After an engagement between the allies and the Spaniards at Abtao, in
the Chiloe archipelago, the latter proceeded to Valparaiso, which they
bombarded, thence going on to Callao, where after a five hours’ fight
they were defeated and obliged to withdraw, never to return. Chile
expressed the greatest admiration for the bravery and patriotism shown
by the Peruvians, the Chilean minister in Lima writing to his government
in praise of “the noble and valiant nation.” The city of Santiago
presented President Prado with a sword, in token of appreciation. Though
the administration of Dictator Prado was liberal and his authority mild,
the spirit of the nation was now opposed to an unconstitutional
government, and in 1868 he abdicated in favor of General Canseco, who
immediately convoked Congress to elect a new president. The choice fell
on Colonel José Balta. His administration is noted for the extensive
improvements made in public works during that period, from 1868 to 1872.
The influence of militarism, which had been so powerful during the first
days of the republic, gradually declined, as republican principles
became better established and a younger generation grew up more zealous
for the moral and material development of the country than for glorious
records of the battlefield. General Pezet was the last of the heroes of
Ayacucho who occupied the presidency. Colonel Balta was only eight years
old when the victory of Ayacucho was won, and thus, born a child of the
republic, he grew to manhood under conditions which enabled him to
appreciate the needs as well as the accomplishments of the nation. He
saw that, in order to realize the progress for which the people were so
earnestly struggling, greater facilities of communication were
indispensable, and he devoted his attention especially to the
construction of important railways, their cost being defrayed with the
product of the national loans of the years 1869, 1870, and 1872. These
loans increased the foreign debt of Peru to thirty-two million nine
hundred and fifty-four thousand pounds sterling, and the sales of guano
were pledged as security for its payment. During this administration,
the region of the Amazon, which had been opened up to traffic by General
Castilla, was put in closer communication with the capital, explorations
being made on the tributaries—Pachitea, Perené, and others. The city of
Lima was beautified, a new iron bridge was built across the Rimac River,
and a great industrial fair was inaugurated, the handsome Exposition
Palace being built for the purpose. When his presidential term expired,
in 1872, Don Manuel Pardo, who had founded the civil party in opposition
to militarism, was elected his successor. A few days before President
Balta was to retire from office, his Minister of War, Colonel Tomás
Gutierrez, in conspiracy with officers of the army, effected a _coup
d’ètat_, overpowering the president, who was carried off and imprisoned,
and, later, assassinated. Gutierrez caused himself to be proclaimed by
his officers Supreme Ruler of Peru; he had already given secret orders
for the capture of Don Manuel Pardo,—whom he was determined to get out
of the way in order to establish his authority more securely,—but the
president-elect was informed of the imminent danger which threatened him
and he succeeded in making his escape on board a man-of-war which lay in
the harbor. But the _coup d’état_ found no sympathy with any political
party, and had no significance beyond the ineffectual attempt of a few
soldiers of inflamed ambition and little patriotism to impose their will
on a law-abiding people; the citizens of Lima and Callao rose _en masse_
against the treacherous soldiers and overthrew them, putting to death
Tomás Gutierrez and two of his three brothers implicated in the deed.
The surviving brother deeply repented his share in the revolt, and spent
the remainder of his life in an honest and brave attempt to expiate his
crime.
[Illustration: DON MANUEL CANDAMO—ELECTED PRESIDENT OF PERU 1903, DIED
1904.]
President Manuel Pardo was inaugurated on the 2d of August, 1872. Born
in Lima in 1834, of a family distinguished for generations as statesmen
and men of letters, he had early imbibed the sentiments of patriotism.
His education began in the college of San Carlos, Lima, and was
completed in Barcelona and Paris, where he developed an especial
interest in the study of political science and finance. When still in
his early twenties he began his public career as one of the founders of
_La Revista de Lima_, a periodical of importance; and, in 1858, he
received the appointment of _Oficial Mayor_ in the Ministry of Finance.
In 1864, the first bank in Lima was founded by him, and, during the
administration of the Dictator Prado, he was promoted to the post of
Minister of Finance. As mayor of Lima and as director of its benevolent
societies, his official services were of such importance that the
citizens presented him with a gold medal in token of their gratitude.
This occurred during a period when the capital was visited by an
epidemic.
Possessing unusual gifts and wide experience, President Pardo was well
equipped to fulfil the highest duties of the state. He devoted himself
with particular energy and purpose to the intellectual development of
his country, and introduced radical reforms in various branches of the
public service. In no period of the republic was more rapid progress
shown in the culture of the people than during this administration, when
the encouragement of education stimulated a love of knowledge among all
classes. A Faculty of Political and Administrative Science was created,
also a School of Engineers and a School of Science and Arts; the
military and naval schools were reorganized, and the School for
Midshipmen of the Navy as well as the School for Corporals and Sergeants
of the Army was established. The present system of modern instruction
conforms to the code promulgated by President Pardo. His administrative
ability was seen in every department of the government. He organized the
national guard and the police service; established departmental,
provincial, and district councils, to overcome municipal centralization;
coöperated with the judiciary in maintaining the authority of their
decisions; ensured the stability of the financial system and reformed
the mining code.
Unfortunately, the administration of President Manuel Pardo succeeded a
period of material expansion so costly that the responsibilities
resulting therefrom were of extraordinary weight and difficulty, and
could be met only by heroic sacrifices. The public debt called for an
immense sum to pay the interest, and caused a financial and economic
crisis, which made it impossible to redeem the bank notes, and
necessitated the issuance of government notes. In order to improve the
economic situation, President Pardo, realizing that Peru contained the
world’s chief nitrate and guano deposits, conceived the plan of
establishing a nitrate monopoly. He hoped by controlling the nitrate
output to destroy the competition which nitrate had waged against guano,
the country’s principal source of revenue, and the chief means of paying
its public debt. By this and other patriotic measures, a reform in
existing conditions was to be effected which would relieve the financial
strain and restore the prosperity of the country. But the intensity of
the commercial crisis and the unsettled state of politics that always
accompanies panic conditions, made it impossible for the great statesman
to realize his hopes, and his administration was a continued struggle
through one of the most trying financial periods of the republic.
President Manuel Pardo, the founder of the Civil party, was the first
executive to dominate the tendency which had hitherto prevailed in
Peruvian politics of keeping the public offices in the hands of a
privileged class. He was impartial in his recognition of superior worth
wherever he found it.
The dictator, Don Mariano Prado, was elected constitutional president to
succeed President Pardo in 1876, the latter being called to the Senate,
of which he became president the following year. On the 16th of
November, 1878, while passing through the ante-room to the Senate
Chamber, the illustrious statesman met his death at the hand of an
assassin. An ignorant sergeant committed the deed which robbed Peru of
one of her noblest and devoted patriots, and plunged the whole nation
into grief. By what strange fatality the defender of the masses and
their most sincere protector should have been murdered by one of their
number is no more to be explained than that Lincoln, Garfield, and
McKinley should have been similarly sacrificed while laboring in behalf
of the sacred principles of human liberty.
In the year 1879 the war of the Pacific was inaugurated by Chile, whose
government claimed that its interests were threatened in consequence of
a treaty of alliance made six years earlier between Peru and Bolivia,
which Chile denominated a secret compact. The treaty was known to the
Chilean Minister in Bolivia in 1874, however, and was officially
announced to Argentina in 1876. According to some authorities, Chile
sought a pretext for war, hoping to gain possession of the nitrate beds
of Tarapacá. In any case, its government was well prepared for war,
having just reorganized its navy and purchased the new ironclads
_Almirante Cochrane_ and _Blanco Encalada_, which were superior to the
Peruvian ironclads _Huascar_ and _Independencia_, purchased ten years
earlier. The first attack was made on Bolivia, but that country was in
no condition to resist a powerful enemy, and the war soon became a trial
of strength between Chile and Peru. The first naval engagement occurred
off the coast of Iquique, Rear-Admiral Miguel Grau commanding the
_Huascar_, and Captain Moore the _Independencia_, against the Chilean
corvette _Esmeralda_, commanded by Captain Arthur Prat, and the gunboat
_Covadonga_, commanded by Captain Condell. The _Esmeralda_ was sunk by
the guns of the _Huascar_ and Captain Prat lost his life in the
engagement, though fighting with great heroism. A letter from Admiral
(then Captain) Grau of the _Huascar_ to the widow of the Chilean hero,
reveals the noble character and gentle heart of the victorious
commander, who was soon to meet his own death fighting against greater
odds. “Captain Prat died,” he wrote, “a victim to his excessive
intrepidity in the defence and for the glory of the flag of his country.
I sincerely deplore this mournful event, and in expressing my sympathy,
I take the opportunity of forwarding the precious relics that he carried
on his person when he fell, believing that they may afford some slight
consolation in the midst of your great sorrow.” Such thoughtful
tenderness inspires the greatest admiration for this brave man. Meantime
the _Independencia_ in pursuit of the _Covadonga_, and drawing much more
water than the adversary, suddenly ran on the rocks and became a total
wreck, this fatal accident proving a deathblow to Peru, as the strength
of the Chilean fleet was now overwhelming. The brilliant exploits of
Admiral Grau kept the enemy at bay for four months, during which he
protected the Peruvian coast by a series of rapid and skilful manœuvres.
The discontent in Chile over the inactivity of the fleet became so great
that a new War Minister was appointed, whose first act was to order the
two ironclads back to Valparaiso to be overhauled, as they were no match
in speed for the _Huascar_. The Chilean navy was practically
reorganized, merchant ships were engaged to transport troops, and a few
were purchased to be used as men-of-war. The naval fight was really a
single-handed encounter between the _Huascar_ and the two Chilean
ironclads. Admiral Grau’s heroism was sublime. The English historian,
Clements R. Markham, who has written a detailed description of this war,
says that “the Chilean squadron consisting of two ironclads and several
other vessels, all carefully and thoroughly refitted, was despatched
from Valparaiso for the purpose of forcing the _Huascar_ to fight
single-handed against hopeless odds.” Meantime gallant Grau was along
the coast, doing his utmost to hinder the preparations of the Chileans
for a military invasion of Peru. On the morning of the 8th of October,
1879, as the _Huascar_, followed by the gunboat _Union_, was slowly
steaming northward from Antofagasta, the three Chilean warships, the
_Blanco Encalada_, _Covadonga_, and _Matias Cousiño_ appeared in sight
to the northeast near Point Angamos; the _Huascar_ turned to the
northwest and put on all speed to escape the enemy, when suddenly the
_Almirante Cochrane_, _O’Higgins_, and _Loa_ came into view, heading
from the very direction in which the _Huascar_ was steering. Undismayed
by the critical situation, Admiral Grau ordered Captain Garcia y Garcia,
the commander of the _Union_ to put on full speed and get out of danger,
as in case of the loss of the _Huascar_ the _Union_ would be the only
serviceable vessel left to Peru. In the fight which followed, a shell
from the _Cochrane_ struck the pilot tower of the _Huascar_, in which
were Admiral Grau and one of his lieutenants, destroying the tower and
killing its occupants, who were blown to pieces. The brave hero and his
ship met their doom by the same blow, as, up to that moment, the
_Huascar_ had held its own. A few minutes later, the _Blanco Encalada_
fired on the doomed _Huascar_, its shell killing Captain Elias Aguirre,
who had taken the admiral’s place. No sooner had he fallen than his
successor, Captain Manuel Carbajal, met the same fate, to be followed by
Lieutenant Rodriguez, whose place was immediately taken by Lieutenant
Enrique Palacios, until a fragment of shell struck him down and the
command devolved on Lieutenant Garezon. When the terrible combat ended,
it was found that one-third of the one hundred and ninety-three officers
and men on the _Huascar_ had been killed or wounded.
[Illustration: GENERAL ANDRÉS CÁCERES, PRESIDENT OF PERU, 1886–1890 AND
1894–1895.]
In the hecatomb of Angamos perished Peru’s last hope of keeping the
enemy from an attack on the coast, which extended fourteen hundred miles
in length and presented peculiar difficulties of defence, because of the
desert regions that occur at intervals. The movement of troops was
practically impossible in case of a blockade of the ports, and the
uncertainty of the chosen point of attack made it necessary to prepare
for defence everywhere. In November 1879 the invading Chilean army,
consisting of ten thousand men, and supported by the Chilean fleet,
began a series of attacks on land which, with the exception of the
battle of Tarapacá and a few minor engagements, resulted in victory for
the invading troops. The only advantage Peru could claim lay in the
skill of her generals and other commanding officers who performed
miracles in manœuvring the small forces at their disposal. General
Buendia, commander-in-chief of the Peruvian army, was fortunate in the
officers who surrounded him. His chief staff officer, Colonel Suarez,
who led the troops in the victory of Tarapacá, and Colonel (now General)
Andrés Cáceres, who received the felicitations of his chief on the field
of battle on that memorable occasion, showed themselves worthy
descendants of a race of warriors; Colonel Bolognesi, Colonel Zubiaga,
Colonel Pardo de Figueroa, Colonel Rios, all of whom lost their lives in
the service of their country, were soldiers whose military genius, no
less than their heroism, reflected glory on their country. The name of
Bolognesi is especially revered in Peru, in memory of the heroic fight
which this indomitable hero made on the Morro de Arica, June 5, 1880.
The war had gone against the allies, the command of the sea giving the
Chileans a tremendous advantage; though, in spite of their watchfulness,
the _Union_ and small transports succeeded in running the blockades and
getting troops, arms, and clothing to the Peruvian army at various
points. The assault and capture of Arica was to bring the struggle close
to its final scene—the last formal resistance on the part of Peru being
made at Huamachuco under the command of General Cáceres—and this
thrilling event proved a fitting climax to one of the saddest dramas in
the history of republican America. Colonel Francisco Bolognesi was given
command of the defence of Arica. With him were Captain Moore, Alfonso
Ugarte, Colonel Inclan, Arias, Varela, and the Cornejo brothers, all
prepared to die with their leader rather than surrender. The heavy
bombardment from the _Cochrane_, _Magallanes_, _Covadonga_, and _Loa_
was answered by the monitor _Manco Ccapac_ and the shore batteries, the
guns on the Morro doing effective service; but the odds were more than
two to one of disciplined troops against volunteers and the result was
inevitable. Bolognesi, Moore, and Alfonso Ugarte stood together at the
guns as the fort was taken, and met the death of heroes. The story of
Arica and of the events which followed chills one with horror at the
thought that such things could be; and the nation to whom victory was
thus brought must sincerely regret that it was won at such dreadful
cost. Peruvian industries and commerce were paralyzed, as if the whole
land had been scourged by a plague; and the beautiful City of the Kings,
with its population of one hundred thousand, as well as the suburbs,
Chorillos and Miraflores, presented a spectacle of general desolation.
The War of the Pacific lasted four years and a half, and closed with the
Treaty of Ancón, which was signed in Lima on the 23d of October, 1883,
by General Manuel Iglesias, the commander of the Peruvian army in the
north, who believed there was no other way to obtain peace than by
submission. In accordance with this treaty, the province of Tarapacá,
with its valuable nitrate fields, was given up to Chile unconditionally
and for all time; and the provinces of Tacna and Arica were ceded for a
period of ten years, subject, at the expiration of that time, to a
plebiscite, which would definitely establish their nationality; it being
stipulated that the country in whose favor it should result, should pay
to the other the sum of ten million pesos. This plebiscite has not yet
been held. After the signing of this treaty, General Iglesias assumed
command of the government, the Assembly convoked by him ratifying his
appointment as president of Peru and approving the Treaty of Ancón. But
a great part of the nation refused to recognize his authority and could
not be induced to lay down their arms; General Cáceres, who with General
Canevaro and others had sustained the honor of their country through
four years of incessant struggle against heavy odds, continued the
bitter fight to the last.
On the 2d of December, 1885, General Cáceres occupied Lima and was
installed as constitutional president of the republic on August 10,
1886, seven years after the declaration of war by Chile. He was the
unanimous choice of the nation and was elected amid the acclamations of
the people, without regard to political parties, his election signifying
the final restoration of peace. President Cáceres devoted his chief
attention to reorganizing the various departments of the administration.
The consolidation of the public debt was effected, the foreign debt
contracted by the loans of 1869, 1870, and 1872 being cancelled by a
contract with the corporation which represented the bondholders. By this
contract, Peru ceded, in payment of its debt, the usufruct, for
sixty-six years, of all the state railways and the guano in Peru, not,
however, in excess of three million tons, and furthermore obligated
itself to pay eighty thousand pounds a year for thirty-three years in
consideration of the construction of one hundred and sixty kilometres of
railway in addition to the mileage already built.
When General Cáceres retired from the presidency in 1890 he was
succeeded by Colonel Remigio Morales Bermudez, who died just before the
expiration of his term in 1894. The second vice-president, General
Borgoño, assumed the presidency, disregarding the right of the first
vice-president, Dr. Alejandrino del Solar. The disturbances threatened
by this irregular proceeding culminated when General Cáceres assumed
command of the government for the second time, though his attitude
brought about the coalition of the Civil and Constitutional parties,
formerly antagonistic but henceforth proving a powerful combination for
political peace and progress. General Cáceres resigned from the
presidency in March, 1895, and a governmental committee took charge of
the administration, presided over by Don Manuel Candamo, its first act
being to convoke Congress for a general election.
[Illustration: SCENE ON BOARD A PERUVIAN WARSHIP.]
General Don Andrés Avelino Cáceres stands among the foremost leaders of
Peruvian politics, combining, with extraordinary success, the gifts of a
soldier and a statesman, fearless and unyielding on the battlefield,
clear-headed and resolute in the cabinet. Born in Ayacucho on the 11th
of November, 1838, the hero of many combats has passed his three score
and ten years with the same disdain of fatigue in his march with Time
that he used to display when outgeneralling the enemy of his country.
When only sixteen years of age he solicited and received the appointment
of sub-lieutenant in the Ayacucho battalion. He fought with credit under
General Castilla, who afterward sent the handsome young soldier to Paris
as military attaché to the Peruvian Legation. During the administration
of the dictator Prado he was prefect of Cuzco, and when the war of the
Pacific began, he was among the first to march to Tarapacá with his
famous battalion, “Zepita,” which he commanded as Lieutenant Colonel;
his bravery at Tarapacá, Tacna, Chorillos, Miraflores, Pucará, and
Huamachuco, made his name renowned in war, as his efforts to establish
reform and progress in the government, which he twice directed as chief
executive, have brought him fame in the victories of peace.
The result of the elections of 1895 was the choice of Don Nicolás de
Pierola, a well-known statesman, whose government was one of order and
improvement in financial and industrial affairs. During his
administration the gold standard was adopted in Peru, the monetary unit
being the Peruvian pound, equal in weight and fineness to the English
pound sterling. This reform has greatly stimulated the investment of
foreign capital in Peru, the stability of exchange being an important
factor in attracting all kinds of enterprises. Among other noted
reforms, President Pierola secured the reorganization of the army,
obtaining from the French government the appointment of a military
mission to direct this work; a military school, under the direction of
French officers, was established, which has proved eminently
satisfactory. To President Pierola is also due the inauguration of the
national general postoffice, and projects for the construction of a
state prison, an insane asylum, and other edifices. His government was
marked by peace and order, and the country made rapid progress in
recuperating from the effects of the war of the Pacific. President
Pierola was succeeded by President Eduardo Lopez de Romaña, who
continued the work of peaceful development, retiring from office at the
end of his term to give place to President Manuel Candamo, who was
elected in 1903.
President Candamo was a statesman of progressive ideas and lofty
principles, and a leader of the Civil party, founded by Don Manuel
Pardo; his programme of government included many important measures for
the national well-being. A law was passed devoting the product of the
tobacco tax to the construction of new railways, and taxes were decreed
which doubled the fiscal revenue of the state. Every effort was made to
turn the people away from a bitter contemplation of the past, with its
terrible experiences, and to direct them toward a brighter future. The
remembrance of suffering and loss, under peculiarly unfortunate
circumstances, was resolutely stifled, to give place to the nobler
sentiments of aspiration and hope, under the guiding genius of a leader
who believed in looking forward, not backward; in overcoming hard
conditions, not in bewailing them. And the people were ready to follow
the wise direction of a chief executive who stimulated them to make
their best endeavors and who encouraged education, industrial
development, and commercial activity by every possible means. The
administration of President Candamo marked the inauguration of a new era
for Peru. The strife that had followed the period of war was buried away
never to be resurrected. The sentiment of the nation was shown to be in
accord with all that contributed to the peaceful progress of the
country. The principles of industry and prudence which had been so
earnestly upheld by his illustrious political teacher, Don Manuel Pardo,
were sustained and made more popular than they had ever been, by the
example of the new leader, who was the second president elected by the
Civil party. But his patriotic efforts were cut short by his death only
seven months after being elected to office, and the nation was called to
mourn the loss of one of its most illustrious sons. The demonstration of
grief with which the sad news of President Candamo’s death was greeted
in every town and hamlet of the republic afforded a touching evidence of
the esteem and affection he had won from all classes, the rich and the
poor, the proud and the humble, by his high principle and sterling
patriotism. The funeral ceremonies were attended with every honor that a
sorrowing nation could bestow in recognition of the dignity and glory
with which their lamented president had served his country. On the death
of President Candamo, the second vice-president, Señor Serapio Calderon,
succeeded to the office of chief executive. He governed with prudence
and success during the months that intervened between the death of
President Candamo and the inauguration of his successor, a period that
was marked by the unsettled conditions which are usual during the year
of the presidential election in all republican countries. By his
authority a general election was called which resulted in the choice of
Dr. José Pardo as president of the republic. The proclamation of his
election was attended by demonstrations of the national enthusiasm in a
series of banquets and speeches in all the cities of the republic, which
afforded opportunity for the expression of the spontaneous and sincere
admiration of his devoted supporters. His youthful appearance and
distinguished presence added to the interest which a recognition of his
well-proved ability and energy gained from the applauding multitude, and
the _vivas_ carried a note of affection as well as esteem as they were
repeated in every street and alley of the capital. On the 24th of
September, 1904, he was inaugurated by the sovereign will of the nation,
in accordance with the principles of the Civil party, founded by his
illustrious father. The record of his administration affords ample proof
of the good judgment of the people who elected him their chief
executive.
[Illustration: COAT-OF-ARMS OF PERU.]
[Illustration: ONE OF THE PRINCIPAL STREETS OF LIMA, DECORATED ON A
NATIONAL HOLIDAY.]