THE LAST SCENE OF ALL--BURIAL AND TOMBS
Whatever conceptions may have been entertained as to existence beyond
the grave, there was no doubt in the Roman mind as to the claim of the
dead to a proper burial and a worthy monument. It had once on a time
been a matter of universal belief that the spirit which had departed
from an unburied corpse could find no admittance to the company in the
realms of Hades. It could not join "the majority" below. Originally no
doubt the notion was simply that, as the body had not been consigned
to the earth, the spirit also remained homeless above ground.
Gradually this fancy shifted to the notion that, through neglect of
burial, the dead man was dishonoured--he had no friends--and that his
spirit was thereby disgraced and unworthy of reception by the powers
beneath. It must therefore remain shivering on the near side of the
river across which the grim Charon ferried the more fortunate souls.
Even when the body had been decently buried, the spirit, though
received into the gloomy realm, called for continued respect on the
part of its friends on earth. Unless it received its periodical
honours and was commemorated by a fitting sepulchre, it would meet
with slights from other ghosts and would feel its position keenly.
Naturally it would then do its best, by some form of haunting, to
punish the living for their disregard and forgetfulness. From such
considerations there arose in very ancient days in Italy, as in
Greece, a great anxiety to perform scrupulously "the dues" of the
defunct. Even if the body could not be found, it was obligatory to
perform the obsequies and to build a cenotaph. If a stranger came
across a dead body he must not pass it by without throwing at least
three handfuls of dust or earth upon it and bidding it "Farewell."
Though the burial customs still employed sprang from old fancies like
these, we are not to suppose that such notions were in full life in
the Roman world of our period. Poets might play with them, and some
ignorant folk might still vaguely entertain them. The mere belief in
ghosts was doubtless general, and even the learned argued the question
of their existence. Here are parts of another letter culled from Pliny
already several times quoted. He writes to his friend Sura: "I should
very much like to know whether you think that apparitions actually
exist, with a real shape of their own and a kind of supernatural
power, or that it is only our fear which gives an embodiment to vain
fancies. My own inclination is to believe in them, and chiefly because
of an experience which, I am told, befell Curtius Rufus." He then
speaks of a phantom form which prophesied that person's fortune.
"Another occurrence, quite as wonderful and still more terrifying, I
will relate as I was told it. There was at Athens a house which was
roomy and commodious, but which bore an ill-name and was
plague-stricken. In the silence of the night there was heard a sound
of iron. On closer attention it proved to be a rattling of chains,
first at a distance and then close at hand. Soon there appeared the
spectre of an old man, miserably thin and squalid, with a long beard
and unkempt hair. On his legs were fetters, and on his hands chains,
which he kept shaking. In consequence the inhabitants spent horrible
and sleepless nights; the sleeplessness made them ill, and, as their
terror increased, the illness was followed by death.... As a result
the house was deserted and totally abandoned to the ghost.
Nevertheless it was advertised, on the chance that some one ignorant
of all this trouble" (note the commercial morality) "might choose to
buy it or rent it. To Athens there comes a philosopher named
Athenodorus, who reads the placard. On hearing the price and finding
it so cheap, he has his suspicions" (the ancient philosopher had his
practical side), "makes enquiry, and learns the whole story. So far
from being less inclined to hire it, he is only the more willing. On
the approach of evening he gives orders for his couch to be made up in
the front part of the house, and asks for his tablets, pencils, and a
light. After dismissing his attendants to the back rooms, he applies
all his attention, as well as his eyes and hand, steadily to his
writing, for fear his mind, if unoccupied, might conjure up imaginary
sounds and causeless fears. At first there was the same silence of the
night as elsewhere; then there was a shaking of iron, a movement of
chains. The philosopher refused to lift his eyes or stop his pencil;
instead he braced up his mind so as to overcome his hearing. The noise
grew louder; it approached; it sounded as if on the threshold; then as
if within the room. He looks behind him; sees and recognises the
apparition of which he has been told. It was standing and beckoning to
him with its finger, as if calling him. In answer our friend makes it
a sign with his hand to wait a while, and once more applies himself to
tablet and pencil. The ghost began to rattle its chains over his head
while he was writing. He looks behind him again, sees it making the
same signal as before, and promptly picks up the light and follows. It
goes at a slow pace, as if burdened with chains, then, after turning
into the open yard of the house, it suddenly vanishes and leaves him
by himself. At this he gathers some grass and leaves, and marks the
spot with them. The next day he goes to the magistrates and urges them
to dig up the spot in question; and they find bones tangled with
chains through which they were passed... These they put together and
bury at the public charge. The spirit being thus duly, laid, the house
was henceforward free of them."
Whatever the Roman beliefs on this point, so far as funeral rites and
ceremonies were concerned, they were carried out simply in accordance
with custom and tradition. The Romans of this date no more analysed
their motives and sentiments than we do ours in dealing with such
matters. They honoured the dead with funeral pomp and conspicuous
monument; but, at the bottom, it was often more out of respect for
themselves than because they imagined that it made any difference to
the departed. In a very early age it had been considered that the
spirit led in the underworld a feeble replica of human existence: it
required food, playthings, utensils, money, as well as consideration.
Hence food was periodically poured into the ground, playthings and
utensils were burned on the pyre or laid in the coffin, and money was
placed in that most primitive of purses, the mouth. Conservatism is
nowhere so strong as in rites and ceremonies, and therefore the Romans
continued to burn and bury articles along with the remains of the
dead, and they continued to put a coin in the mouth before the burial.
But it would be absurd to suppose that an intelligent Roman of our
date would have offered the original and ancient motives for this
conduct as rational motives still actuating himself. Enough that
convention expected certain proceedings as "due" and "proper": a true
Roman would not fail to perform what convention decreed.
[Illustration: FIG. 120.--"CONCLAMATIO" OF THE DEAD.]
Our friend the elder Silius dies a natural death, after completing the
fullest public career. His family has its full share of both affection
and pride, and therefore his obsequies will be worthy of his character
and standing. When his Greek physician Hermogenes assures the watching
family that life is departing, Marcia or Publius or Bassa will
endeavour to catch the last breath with a kiss, and will then close
the eyelids. Upon this all those who are present will call "Silius!
Silius! Silius!" The original motive of this cry--which has its modern
parallel in the case of a dead Pope--was to make sure that the man was
actually dead and beyond reply. This point made certain, the
professional undertaker is called in and instructed to take charge of
all the proceedings usual in such cases. It is he who will provide the
persons who are to wash and anoint the body and lay it in state, and
also, on the day of the procession, the musicians, the wailing-women,
the builders of the funeral pyre, and others who may be necessary,
together with the proper materials and accessories. He will further
see that the name of Quintus Silius Bassus is registered in the
death-roll in the temple of "Juno the Death-Goddess," and that the
registration fee is paid. The name will also appear in the next issue
of the "Daily News." The body, anointed so as to preserve it till the
third day, and dressed in the toga--which will be that of the highest
position he ever occupied--is laid in state in the high
reception-hall, with the feet pointing to the door. On the bier are
wreaths, by it is burning a pan of incense, in or before the vestibule
is placed a cypress tree or a number of cypress branches for warning
information to the public.
On the day next but one after death the contractor, attended by
subordinates dressed in black, marshals his procession. Though it is
daytime, the procession will be accompanied by torches--another piece
of conservatism reminiscent of the time when funerals took place at
night, as they still did with children and commonly with the lower
orders. First go the musicians, playing upon flageolet, trumpet, or
horn; behind these, professional wailing-women, who raise loud
lamentation and beat their breasts. Next come the wax-masks, already
mentioned, of the distinguished ancestors of the Silii. These, which
are life-like portraits, have been taken out of their cupboards in the
wing of the reception-hall, and are worn over their faces by men of a
build as nearly as possible resembling that of the ancestors
represented. Each man also wears the insignia of the character for
whom he stands. The more of such "effigies" a house could produce, the
greater its glory. Such, however, was not the original purpose of this
part of the procession, for--though it had doubtless been generally
forgotten--the intention was to represent the deceased as being
conducted into the underworld by an honourable company already
established there. After the effigies comes that which would
correspond to our hearse. It is, however, no hearse of the modern
kind, but a bier or couch with the usual embellishment of ivory and
with covers of purple worked with gold. On this the body lies, open to
the sky, like that of Juliet. The bearers are either relatives or such
slaves as have been set free under Silius's last will. Behind come the
nearest relatives or heirs, the freedmen, friends, and clients, all
clothed in black, except the women, who are in white, without colour
or gold upon their dress. Young Publius will walk with his head
covered by his toga; Bassa with her hair loose and dishevelled. The
whole party will utter lamentations, though under more restraint than
those of the professional women in front.
Silius having been a senator and a man of other official standing, the
procession passes from the Caelian Hill along the Sacred Way to the
Forum, as far as the Rostra or speaking-platform. There the bier is
set down, the "ancestors" seat themselves on the folding-stools which
were the old-fashioned chairs of the higher officers, and one of the
relatives delivers an oration in praise, not only of Silius, but of
his family as represented in the ancestors.
[Illustration: FIG. 121.--TOMB OF CAECILIA METELLA.]
[Illustration: FIG. 122.--STREET OF TOMBS. (POMPEII.)]
The procession then forms again, and the party proceeds to whatever
place outside the walls may contain the family tomb of the Silii. No
burial is allowed within the city proper, and for our purposes we will
assume that the place is distant nearly a mile along the Appian Way.
We will assume also that Silius is to be cremated, and not simply
buried in a coffin or a marble sarcophagus. Few persons of the higher
classes, except certain of the Cornelii, are buried at this date,
although there is nothing in law or custom to prevent the choice.
There exists no "crematorium," and the Silii are regularly burned at
their own sepulchral allotment beside the "Queen of Roads."
If you were with the procession on this day you would find yourself
before one of an almost continuous chain of monuments, built in all
manner of shapes and sizes--such as great altars, small shrines,
pyramids (like that of Cestius on another road), or round towers like
the beautiful tomb of Caecilia Metella. The exterior of these
structures is often adorned with commemorative or symbolic carvings,
and the inside, which may be wholly above the surface or partly sunk
beneath--is a chamber surrounded by niches, in which are placed the
urns containing the ashes of the dead. Perhaps an illustration of the
present state of the "Street of Tombs" at Pompeii will afford some
notion, although the sepulchres of that provincial place by no means
matched those upon the various roads outside the Roman gates. Often
the monumental chamber stands somewhat back from the road, leaving
space for a large semicircular seat of stone open to public use, its
back wall being inscribed with some statement of honour to the family.
Round the sepulchre--"where all the kindred of the Silii lie" is a
space of ground, planted with shrubs and trees, and surrounded by a
low wall. Somewhere near, on an open level, the funeral pile has been
built of pine-logs, with the interstices stuffed with pitch,
brushwood, or other inflammable material. It is natural that the pyre
should take the shape of an altar and that cypress branches should
lean against the sides.
Upon the summit of this pile is laid Silius on his bier; incense and
unguents are shed over him; wreaths and other offerings, often of no
little value, are cast upon the heap. While loud cries of lamentation
are being raised by the company present, a near kinsman approaches the
pile with a torch, and, turning his face away, sets fire to the whole
structure. It speedily burns down, the last embers are quenched with
wine, the general company thrice cries "farewell," and, except for the
nearest relatives, the procession returns to the city. The relatives
who stay take off their shoes, wash their hands, and proceed to gather
up the bones--which they cleanse in wine and milk--and the ashes,
which they mix with perfume. These remains are then placed in the urn
of bronze, marble, alabaster, or maybe of coloured glass, and the urn
fills one more niche in the chamber of the monument.
[Illustration: FIG. 123.--COLUMBARIUM.]
Now and then there were more magnificent obsequies than those of
Silius. A "public" funeral might be decreed to a man who had deserved
conspicuously well of the state. On such an occasion the crier would
go round, calling "Oyez, come all who choose to the funeral of
So-and-So." The invitation meant, not merely participation in a solemn
procession, but also in the funeral feast, and probably an exhibition
of gladiators. On the other hand the majority of burials were
naturally of a far more simple and inexpensive kind. The poor could
not afford to use unguents and keep their dead till the third day;
they could not afford real cypress trees, but must use cheaper
substitutes, if anything at all. They could not afford all the
processionists and paraphernalia of the undertaker, but must be
satisfied with four commonplace bearers, who hurried away the corpse
in the evening, not on a couch but in a cheap box, and carried it out
to the common necropolis beyond the Esquiline Gate. Seldom could they
afford the fuel to burn the body, and in many cases it must simply be
thrown into a pit roughly dug and there left without monument. To
secure more respect and decency there were many burial clubs, whether
connected with the trade-guilds or not, and these procured a joint
tomb of the kind known as a "dovecote," or columbarium, from the
resemblance of its niches to so many pigeon-holes. These cooperative
sepulchres were underground vaults, and it is perhaps hardly necessary
to point out their direct relation to the Christian catacombs. Similar
tombs were sometimes used by the great Roman families for the remains
of the freedmen and slaves of their house.
[Illustration: FIG. 124.--TEMPLE OF JUPITER ON THE CAPITOL (Platform
omitted).]
INDEX
Actors, contempt for, 268
Advertisements, 257
Aemilia, Basilica, 108
Africa, 45
Age, coming of, 332
Agriculture, implements of, 252
Alexander the Great, 34
Alexandria, 14, 25, 34, 44
Amphitheatres, 280
performances, 282
Amulets, 318
Andalusia, 36
Antioch, 14, 43
Appian Way, 22, 118
Aqueducts, 136
Architecture, 112, 422-424
Argiletum, the, 108
Aristocrat, clients of, 206
daily life of, 193
dress of, 196
as pleader in law-courts, 216
social duties of, 217
Army, the, 12, 52, 338-358
artillery, 356
auxiliaries, 352
camping arrangements, 349
cavalry, 339, 353, 356
composition, 339
dress and equipment, 342
Imperial Guards, 353
infantry, 339, 352
legionaries, 339
pay and rations, 344
promotion, 347
terms of service, 340
training, 340, 345
typical soldier's life, 342-350
Art, 416-433
apparent lack of artistic feeling, 429
contempt for professional artists, 428
influence of Greece, 421
profession and quality of, 416-420
statues, 418, 424
wall-paintings, 425-428
Artemis, temple of, 42
Artillery, 356
Asia Minor, towns of, 42
Astronomy, 359
Athens, 40
Athletics, 263
Auctioneers, receipt tablets of, 250
Augustus, title of emperor, 55
Augustus, Forum of, 188
mausoleum of, 120
Authors, amateur, 219, 235
Baetica (_see_ Andalusia)
Bakers, 248
Bandits, 24
Banking, 216, 239
Basilica Aemilia, 108
of Julius, 106
Baths, 122, 124
Beard, method of wearing, 195
Beds, 182
Beggars, 243
Betrothal ceremony, 296
Boadicea, 39
Books, size and shape of, 335-337
Booksellers, 109, 247
Boots (_see_ Shoes)
Boxing-gloves, 265
Breakfast, 200
Britain, 39
Burial, 434-447
funeral rites, 439-445
offerings to the dead, 438
tombs, 444, 446
Caligula, 73, 95, 115, 234
Camps, military, 349
Campus Martius, the, 120
Carpets, absence of, 180
Carriages, 19
regulation of traffic, 131
Cavalry, 339, 353, 356
Census of Augustus, 85
Chariot-races, 263, 274, 280
colours in, 274, 278
horses, 275
prizes, 278
procession of chariots, 277
Charts, 18
Chemistry, 402
Children:
ceremony at birth and naming, 317
coming of age, 332
early life, 319
education, 320-335
parental power over, 315-317
privileges of parents, 314
registration, 318
Christians, earlier tolerance towards, 383
their subsequent persecution, 79, 384-387
Circus Maximus, 128, 173
Citizens: as clients of the wealthy, 206
doles of corn and money to, 242
freed slaves may become, 204
rights of, 56, 92
Civilisation, Roman, 30
Greek, 32
Asiatic, 33
_Claqueurs_, in law-courts, 217
in theatres, 273
Nero's use of, 77
Class distinctions, 66
Clients, 206, 222, 245
dinner to, 235
escort to patron, 211
literary, 208
Cloaks, 220
Clocks, water, 192
"Colony," formation of, 84
Columbarium, joint sepulchre, 447
Commerce, 36
Concord, Temple of, 105
Concrete, extensive use of, in building, 138
Consulship, the, 359
Cook-shops, 258
Corinth, 40
Corn, monthly allowances of, 242
corn-lands, 45
Couches, 181, 226
Cremation, 445
Crops, rotation of, 252
Customs duties, 87
Cynics, the, 412
Damascus, 44
Dancing girls, 232
Dead, offerings to the, 438
Decoration, house, 150, 164
in theatres, 267
Deities, festivals of, 261
household, 376
official duties to, 374
variety of, 362, 366, 368
Delphi, 40
Dicing, 232, 258
Dinners:
conversation and entertainment at, 231, 235
description of, 229, 234
exaggerated accounts, 228
extravagance of Court, 234
to clients, 235
wine at, 233
Dissection, human, prohibition of, 404
Divorce, 304
Doles of corn and money, 242
Doors, 145
Dowry, 299
Drainage, 161
Drama, low level of the, 268, 270
Dress:
distinctions of, 65
for dinner, 226
hats, 212
mantles, 221, 274
military, 342
toga, 197, 332
theatrical, 269
typical aristocrat's, 196
women's, 308-313
Druids, the, 382
Education:
of boys, 321-326
of girls, 327
ideal of, 320
physical training, 331
primary and secondary, 327-331
Egypt, 45
Elections, municipal, 255
Emblems, city, 47
Emperor, the:
dependence upon the army, 52
nomination of Senators by, 60
powers of, 50
and the Senate, 57
symbolic character of statue, 386
Empire, the Roman:
Eastern and Western halves, 35
extent, 6, 8
expeditions, 7
government, 9
military and naval forces, 12
provinces, 30
roads, 16
security under, 12
Ephesus, 42
Epicureans, the, 407-409
Etiquette, exactions of, 217
Euclid, 401
Festivals, 261
Field-glass, primitive, 275
Fingers, use of, at meals, 228
Fires, destructive, 98, 133
Floors, 149, 180
Flour-mills, 248
Food, 200, 230, 258
Foreigners, 67
Forum, the, 102
public life in, 214
"Free" towns, 90
Freedmen, 204, 245
wealth of, 205
Freethought, 378-381
"Friends of Caesar," 211
Frontiers, protection of, 12
Fullers, 250
Funeral rites, 439-445
Furniture:
beds, 182
chairs and couches, 181
chests, 185
kitchen utensils, 189
lamps, 186
mirrors, 186
silver and glass ware, 188
tables, 183
tripods, 184
Games, 214, 222, 232, 262
Gaul, 37
tribes of, 38
Geographical knowledge, 398-401
Ghosts, belief in, 435-437
Gladiators, 264, 280, 282, 285-288
female spectators at combats, 288
"Golden House," the, 116
"Golden Milestone," the, 105
Goldsmiths, 250
Government, system of, 49
emperor, 50
"knights," 63
provinces, 82-95
Senate, 56
tribunes, 53
Governors, provincial, dress of, 93
duties, 91
emoluments, 94
Greece, indebtedness to, 32
influence of art of, 421
language and culture, 34
scientific thought, 397
Greeks, prominence of, 67
Greeting, manner of 211
Guards, Imperial, 353
Guides, professional, 19
Guilds, _trade_, 254
Hair, method of wearing, 37, 195 298, 311
Hairpins, 311
Hats, 212
Health resorts, 174
Heating, domestic, 161
Holidays, 254
number of, 260
Homestead, country, 169
Horses, in chariot-races, 275
Hotels, scarcity of, 22
Hour of rising, 195
House, country, 175-179
House, typical town, 143-163
decoration, 150, 164
dining-rooms, 155
doors, 145
exterior, 144
floors, 149
garden, 154, 156
hall, 148
heating system, 161
kitchen, 156
library and picture-gallery, 158
lighting, 145, 150, 153, 160, 186
peristyle, 154
reception-room, 153
roofs, 141, 162
shrine, 157, 376
water-supply and drainage, 160
vestibule, 146
Houses, 131
height of, 131, 139
lighting of, 141
tenement blocks,140
Imperial Guards, 353
Infantry, 339, 352
Inns, 20
Instruments, musical, 430
Interest, rates of, 239
Isis-worship, 373
Italy, 30
Janitors, 209
Janus, Temple of, 110
Jerusalem, 14, 44
Jewelry, female love of, 297, 312
Jews, colony of, 67
rebellious among, 10
toleration shown to, 382
Jove, Temple of, 105
Julius, Basilica of, 106
Jurymen, 217
Juvenal, on marriage, 293
Kissing, excessive, 211
Kitchens, 156, 170, 189
"Knights," order of:
composition, 63
dress, 66
occupations, 238
privileges, 64
Knives and forks, absence of, 189, 228
Lamps, 186
Land-tax, 85
Land-travelling, 16-25
Language, 32, 36, 91
of the people, 258
predominance of the Greek, 34
Law-courts, pleaders in, 216
president and jury, 217
Learning, tastes in, 398
Legacies, 314
Legions, number and name of, 341
strength, 339
Life, social, aristocratic, 193-237
middle and lower class, 238-259
Literature, 394-396
literary dependants, 208
Litter, 211
Loafers, 241
Local government, 89
Lugdunum (Lyons), 14, 38
Luncheon, 219
Macedonia, 40
Marriage, 220
betrothal ceremony, 296
divorce, 304
dowry, 299
festivities, 300
two forms of, 290
Juvenal on, 293
legal age for, 294
not based on love, 292, 294
matrimonial freedom, 291
morganatic, 295
wedding ceremony, 297
Mars, Temple of, 118
Martial on country life, 172
Masks:
at funerals, 152, 440
theatrical, 268
Mathematics, 401
Mausoleum of Augustus, 120
Meals:
breakfast, 200
luncheon, 219
dinner, 226, 229
Medicine, 403
Mediterranean Sea, 46
Milestones, 18, 28
Mines, 37
Mirrors, 186
Money-lending, 238
Morals, 378
Municipal elections, 255
Music, as part of education, 331, 341
fondness for, 430
instruments, 430
Mysticism, 372
Names, family, 194
of slaves, 204
Navy, 12
Nero:
musical eccentricities of, 78
persecution of Christians by, 79, 383, 387
personal appearance, 80, 213
powers vested in, 55, 71
reception by, 213
reign, 74
vices and follies 75, 116
New Year's Day, 262
News-sheets, official, 215
Noises, street, 134, 195
Oath of obedience, military, 342
Officials, public, 358
Oratory, school of, 329
Ornament, architectural, 112, 423
Paintings, wall, 325-328
Palatine Hill, 115
Pantheon, the, 121
Papyri, 336
Passes, Alpine, 39
Patriotism, municipal, 90
Paul, St., 34, 42, 80, 197, 383, 413
_Pax Romana_, the 9, 12
Pedigrees, 152
"People," the, 67, 241
doles of corn and money to, 242
Person-tax, 87
Philosophy, study of, 332-335, 380
Pipes, lead, 160
Pliny the elder, literary industry of, 390-392
Pliny the younger, 236, 294, 305, 321, 392, 435
Plutarch, 334, 395
Police, soldiers as, 14
Polytheism, 364
Population of the city, 101
Portugal, 37
Present-giving, prominence of, 262
Priests, 361
Processions:
chariot, 227
funeral, 440
wedding, 300
Proconsuls, 93
Provinces, 30
civilisation of, 31
commerce, 36
contributions by, 85
distinctions between, 35
government, 82-95
language, 32
Public service, 358-360
Publicans (tax-collectors), 89, 240
Record Office, the, 105
Religion, 333, 361-387
attitude of state towards, 361-364, 370
conservatism in, 364, 368
free-thought, 378-381
mixed elements, 370
mysticism in, 372
polytheistic character of, 364
priests, 361
private observances, 375
superstitions in, 371
tolerance in, 381
treatment of Christians, 383-387
Rhodes, 42
Rings, 200
Roads, military, 16
construction and upkeep, 18
variety of traffic, 22
Rome in A.D., 64
appearance, 96-100
baths, 122
extent and population, 100-102
habits of the people, 102
public buildings, 102-129
streets, 130-138
theatres, 123
Roofs 141, 162
Rostra, the, 104
Sandals, 309
Saturn, Temple of, 105
Saturnalia, the, 261
Schools, 321-331
Science, 396-405
Sculpture, 418, 424
Sea-travelling, 25-28
Senate, the, 56, 71
imperial nomination to, 60
qualifications for membership, 59
relations with the emperor, 57, 72
senators' dress, 65
training of members, 62
Senate-House, the, 109
Seneca, 395
Sewers, 130
Ships, 26
Shoes, 197,310
Shops, 133, 141, 222
Shrine, household 159, 376
Sidon, 44
Signs, trade, 251
Slaves, 68, 206, 211, 240
citizenship bestowed on, 204
domestic, 201
dress, 202
licence at Saturnalia, 261
as musicians, 431
names, 204
occupations, 246
treatment, 203
Smyrna, 42
Snails, breeding of, 46
Social life, of aristocrats, 193-237
of middle and lower classes, 238-259
Spain, 36
Spoons, 228
Sports, 178, 263
Statues, 418, 424
Stoics, the, 409-412
Strabo, 379
Streets, 130
narrowness of, 132
noisiness, 134, 195
paving, 137
regulation of traffic, 131
Suicide, attitude regarding, 23
Sun-dials, 191
Superstitions, 371
Surgery, 404
Tarragona, 37
Tarsus, 42
Taxes:
collection 89, 240
farming of, 239
land, 85
miscellaneous 88
personal, 87
Temple, description of, 123, 265
Temples: of
Concord, 105
Janus, 110
Jove, 105
Mars, 118
Saturn, 105
Vesta, 114
Theatres, 123, 265
actors' status 268
_claqueurs_, 273
compared with Greek, 266
curtain, 267
decoration, 267
masks and dresses, 268
music and dancing, 270
plays performed, 268, 270-273
scenery, 267
seats, 267
women's presence not encouraged, 266
Tiles, 157, 162
Time, method of telling, 192
Toga:
colours of 218
compulsory use on formal occasions 198
distinctive meaning of, 197, 214
Toleration, religious, 381
Tombs, 253, 444
Trade guilds 254
signs, 251
Trade routes, 27
Travelling, land and sea:
accommodation, 20
dangers 24, 29
modes, 19
period and routes, 25
speed, 25, 28
"Tribunes of the commons," 53
Tunics, 196, 308
Tyre, 44, 45
Utensils, kitchen, 189
Vehicles, 19
Vesta, Temple of, 114
Water-clocks, 192
Water-supply, 135, 160
Wedding ceremony, 297
Wild-beast fights, 282, 284
Windows, 141, 145, 150, 60
Wine, 233, 241
Women:
fondness for jewelry, 297, 312
divorce, 304
domestic virtues, 307
dowry, 299
dress, 308-313
marriageable age, 294
position after marriage, 289, 301
presence at theatres not encouraged, 266
property after marriage, 299, 302
types of, 302, 306
Working-classes, the, 214
competition with slave-labour 246
dress and food 258
language 258
life of 253, 256
professions all ranked among, 258
Writing materials, 323, 337
Youths:
coming of age of 218, 382
military training, 338