CHAPTER I._History of the Water Supply of the World arranged in a comprehensive form from eminent authorities, containing a description of the various methods of water supply, pollution and purification of waters, and sanitary effects, with analyses of potable waters, also geology and water strata of Hamilton county, Ohio, statistics of the Ohio river, proposed water supply of Cincinnati.

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HISTORY

OF THE

WATER SUPPLY OF THE WORLD,

ARRANGED IN A COMPREHENSIVE FORM

FROM EMINENT AUTHORITIES,

CONTAINING A DESCRIPTION OF THE VARIOUS METHODS OF

WATER SUPPLY, POLLUTION AND PURIFICATION OF

WATERS, AND SANITARY EFFECTS, WITH

ANALYSES OF POTABLE WATERS,

ALSO

GEOLOGY AND WATER STRATA OF HAMILTON COUNTY, OHIO, STATISTICS

OF THE OHIO RIVER, PROPOSED WATER SUPPLY OF

CINCINNATI--TOGETHER WITH A NUMBER

OF VALUABLE TABLES AND

DIAGRAMS.

THOMAS J. BELL,

_Assistant Superintendent of the Cincinnati Water-Works_.

CINCINNATI:

PETER G. THOMSON, PUBLISHER.

1882.

1882,

BY PETER G. THOMSON.

CONTENTS

PAGE

Chapter I. 5

Chapter II. River Pollution. 15

Chapter III. Purification of Waters. 27

Chapter IV. System of Supply. 36

Chapter V. Historical and Statistical. 68

Chapter VI. Other Articles. 92

Chapter VII. Cost of Constructing Water-Works. 125

INDEX. 132

INTRODUCTION.

The original intention of this work was to arrange a treatise, in

the form of a compilation, of general and local information on water

supply, in all its bearings, with special reference to Cincinnati,

in view of the fact that the question of a new supply would become

an important one when the “Markley Farm Project” presented a more

tangible form.

As the work progressed, its scope became broader, so much so that the

author was induced to depart somewhat from the original idea, and

arrange the plan in a more comprehensive form for general use.

To condense a large amount of information in a few pages, so as to

make it interesting as well as intelligent, is a work requiring

patience and diligence. While the work may be of little service to

the profession, it is hoped those connected with water-works and the

general reader will find sufficient compensation for the time lost in

its perusal.

The authorities quoted are the highest, and the general facts are

from the most reliable sources. Considerable space is given to

pollution of water, believing it to be the most important question

that bears on the subject before us. Water-works officials will find

useful information in the work, which is so frequently desired and

sometimes difficult to obtain.

Due acknowledgments are made for information derived from the

following works: Rivers Pollution Commission, (London,) 1874;

Humber’s Water Supply of Cities and Towns; Fanning’s Water Supply

Engineering, (New York,) 1876; History and Statistics of American

Water-Works, by J. James R. Croes, C. E., Engineering News,

(New York,) 1881; Hughes’ Water-Works, Weale Series; Hydraulic

Engineering, Weale Series; Die Städtische Wasserversorgung, Von

E. Grahn, (München,) 1878; Practical Hydraulics, by Thomas Box,

(London,) 1873; Kirkwood’s Filtration of River Waters, (New York,)

1869; Ohio State Geological Works, 1870; U. S. Census Reports, 1881;

The National Board of Health Bulletins; The Sanitary Engineer and

Engineering News; Catch Water Reservoirs, by C. H. Beloe, London.

January, 1882. T. J. B.

HISTORY OF WATER SUPPLY.

CHAPTER I.

It is an historical fact that the water supply of Rome, during

the first century of our era, was so abundant “that whole rivers

flowed through the streets of Rome.” The quantity was estimated at

375 million gallons per day, an equivalent to 375 gallons for each

inhabitant. This supply was conducted to the city through nine costly

and marvelous conduits of brick and stone, that tunneled hills and

crossed rivers and ravines in the boldest manner, presenting most

skillful engineering ability. The number was afterwards increased

to fourteen. The principal aqueducts were: Aqua Martia, erected B.

C. 431, was 38 miles in length, part of which was composed of 7,000

arches. Aqua Claudia, a subterranean channel for 36¼ miles; 10¾ miles

a surface conduit, 3 miles a vaulted tunnel, and 7 miles on lofty

arcades, had a capacity for delivering 96 million gallons daily. New

Anio was 43 miles in length. Some of these aqueducts were made of

three distinct arches, one above the other, that conveyed waters from

sources of different elevations.

Constantinople presents remains of the skill possessed by the Romans

in the numerous subterraneous reservoirs, covered with stone arcades

supported by pillars. Pont du Gard is another relict that supplied

the town of Nismes, France. “It consists of 3 tiers of arches, the

lowest of 6 arches, supporting 11 of equal span in the center tier,

surmounted by 35 of smaller size. Its height is 180 feet, the channel

way being 5 feet high by 10 feet wide; the capacity was estimated at

14 million gallons per day.”

In Mexico and Peru are found water channels of marvelous length,

while India is noted for the numerous impounding reservoirs of

wonderful dimensions,--the Poniary reservoir, having an area of

50,000 acres, and banks 50 miles in extent.

While the ancients have left monuments of their skill in gathering

and conducting waters, modern science has been, and is, endeavoring

to leave a reputation for its devotion to the knowledge of pollution

in, and purification of waters required for mankind.

The vast amount of literature devoted to this subject, containing a

varied scope of discussions, arguments and analyses, has a tendency

to lead one to the conclusion that wholesome water scarcely exists.

In fact, the theory advanced by the Massachusetts State Board of

Health, in their Fifth Annual Report, is not so premature. They say:

“The time may come when it will be necessary to supply our drinking

water from sedulously guarded but limited sources of supply, and to

furnish for manufacturing and other uses less pure water. This plan

is partly carried out in Paris, and it is the purpose to enlarge

it, although much of the water is unfit to drink.

“The injurious character of a water, impregnated with sewage

matter, might not be discovered for years. You might go on using

it for years and might not be discovered, and you might have some

outbreak of disease in the place, which nevertheless might be

connected with the use of that sewage water.”

The Rivers Pollution Commission of Great Britain struggled with

this subject for six years, and at last resolved upon the following

classification of potable waters:

{ 1. Spring water. }

Wholesome, { 2. Deep well water. } very palatable.

{ 3. Upland surface water. }

{ 4. Stored rain water. } moderately

Suspicious, { 5. Surface water from cultivated lands. } palatable.

{ 6. River water to which sewage gains }

Dangerous, { access. } palatable.

{ 7. Shallow well water. }

The constituent parts of pure water, in volumes, are two parts of

hydrogen and one of oxygen, and by weight one part hydrogen and eight

parts oxygen. When pure it is transparent, tasteless, inodorous,

and colorless, except when seen in considerable depths. But having

such high solvent powers and affinity for almost every substance in

nature, one can account for suspicions that science places on all

waters, for it is never free from impurities. And well it may not, if

doctors are to be believed, for they tell us, that chemically pure

water is not best for man; that good potable waters have from one to

eight grains weight in each gallon of certain impurities diffused

through them. Impurities are arranged under the following general

heads:

Rain Water--Atmospheric influences.

Spring and Well Water--Mineral properties.

Rivers, Lakes--Vegetable and animal organisms.

But what can we consider good drinking water? Dr. Frankland, of

England, has given the following as a minimum limit of mechanical and

chemical impurities held in suspension or solution, to be considered

bad or polluted liquid:

_A._ Every liquid which has not been submitted to precipitation,

produced by a perfect repose in reservoirs of sufficient

dimensions, during a period of at least six hours; or which, having

been submitted to precipitation, contains in suspension more

than one part by weight of dry organic matter in 100,000 parts

of liquid; or which, not having been submitted to precipitation,

contains in suspension more than three parts by weight of dry

mineral matter, or one part by weight of dry organic matter in

100,000 parts of liquid.

_B._ Every liquid containing in solution more than two parts by

weight of organic carbon, or three parts of organic nitrogen, in

100,000 parts of liquid.

_C._ Every liquid which, when placed in a white porcelain vessel to

the depth of one inch, exhibits under daylight distinct color.

_D._ Every liquid which contains in solution, in every 100,000

parts by weight, more than two parts of any metal, except calcium,

magnesium, potassium and sodium.

_E._ Every liquid which in every 100,000 parts by weight contains

in solution, suspension, chemical combination or otherwise, more

than 0.5 metallic arsenic.

_F._ Every liquid which, after the addition of sulphuric acid,

contains in every 100,000 parts by weight more than one part of

free chlorine.

_G._ Every liquid which in every 100,000 parts by weight contains

more than one part of sulphur, in the state of sulphuretted

hydrogen or of a soluble sulphuret.

_H._ Every liquid having an acidity superior to that produced by

adding two parts by weight of hydrochloric acid to 1000 parts of

distilled water.

_I._ Every liquid having an alkalinity greater than that produced

by adding one part by weight of caustic soda to 1000 parts of

distilled water.

_J._ Every liquid exhibiting on its surface a film of petroleum, or

hydrocarbon, or containing in suspension, in 100,000 parts, more

than 0.5 of such oils.

But to arrive at a fair and impartial conclusion, authorities now

agree that analyses and investigations must be often, and for a

prolonged period of not less than one year. The aim of modern

scientists, in their analyses, is to detect the amount of organic

(especially sewage) contamination. Dr. Frankland’s method is by the

estimation of organic carbon and nitrogen, while Wanklyn, Chapman,

and Smith reach their conclusions by estimation of nitrogenous

organic matter, by breaking up the organic bodies and separating

their nitrogen in the form of albuminoid ammonia. Ammonia is the

measure of that portion of organic matter not decomposed but in state

of or capable of undergoing putrefaction.

The maximum amount of free ammonia permissible in good drinking water

is .5 of a grain per 1000 gallons, and of albuminoid ammonia .9 of a

grain per 1000 gallons.

Upon the above basis the relative merits of the following waters may

be formed:

NUMBER OF GRAINS OF SEWAGE IN EACH THOUSAND GALLONS.

============+=============+=====+=======+========+========+================

------------+-------------+-----+-------+--------+--------+----------------

Philadelphia|Schuylkill |1874 |Booth &| 1.17 | 1.76 |Fairmount.

“ | “ | “ | “ | 5.85 | 5.11 |Belmont.

“ | “ | “ | “ | 7.31 | 5.12 |Flat Rock.

“ | “ | “ | “ | 1.46 | 7.31 |Perkiomen.

“ | “ | “ | “ | 17.50 | 8.75 |Spring Garden.

“ |Delaware | “ | “ | 25.74 | 11.70 |

London |Artesian Well| “ | “ | none | 1.75 |Bryn Maws.

“ |Thames | “ | “ | 1.00 | 5.31 |

Detroit |Detroit |1879 |Stearns| 3.09 | 7.29 |Hydrant.

Hoboken |Passaic |1880 |Leeds | 1.72 | 19.22 |Hydrant water.

Jersey City |Passaic | “ | “ | 2.96 | 22.28 | “

Patterson |Passaic | “ | “ | 1.50 | 30.90 | “

New York |Croton | “ | “ | 1.60 | 15.70 | “

Brooklyn |Long Island | “ | “ | .50 | 4.80 | “

Boston |Lake | “ | “ | 7.60 | 35.60 | “

Rochester |Hemlock Lake | “ | “ | .90 | 13.00 | “

Philadelphia|Schuylkill | “ | “ | .60 | 10.50 | “

Wilmington |Delaware | “ | “ | 2.00 | 17.50 | “

Baltimore | | “ | “ | 2.90 | 11.70 | “

Washington |Potomac | “ | “ | 3.50 | 15.70 | “

Oswego | | “ | “ | 2.00 | 15.20 | “

“ |Well | “ | “ | 4.90 | 12.30 | “

Cincinnati |Ohio River | “ | “ | 6.70 | 14.00 | “

“ | “ | “ |Stuntz | .87 | 1.40 |Markley Farm,

“ | “ | “ | “ | 2.45 | 36.42 |Markley Farm,

“ | “ | “ | “ | 3.15 | 4.37 |Dayton Sand B’ch

“ | “ | “ | “ | 2.33 | 14.24 |Dayton Sand B’ch

“ | “ | “ | “ | 13.48 | 11.67 |Eden Reservoir,

“ | “ | “ | “ | 12.20 | 42.50 |Eden Reservoir,

“ | “ | “ | “ | 2.92 | 9.10 |Pump House,

“ | “ | “ | “ | 4.43 | 79.73 |Pump House,

------------+-------------+-----+-------+--------+--------+----------------

The Rivers Pollution Commission value the quality of water by the

previous sewage or animal contamination, as they term it. This

expression is obtained by taking, as a standard of comparison, the

amount of total combined nitrogen (which is assumed as 10 parts),

in solution, in 100,000 parts of average London sewage. The parts of

nitrogen obtained, in the form of nitrates, nitrites, and ammonia,

less .032 part of 100,000 for that portion in rain, is that nitrogen

derived from animal matter. Animal matters dissolved in water, such

as those contained in sewage, the contents of privies and cess-pools,

or farm-yard manure, undergo oxidation in lakes, rivers and streams

very slowly, but, in the pores of an open soil, very rapidly. When

this oxidation is complete, they are resolved into mineral compounds;

their carbon is converted into carbonic acid; and their hydrogen

into water; but their nitrogen is transformed partly into ammonia

and chiefly into nitrous and nitric acids. The following table is a

compilation of their analyses:

POTABLE WATERS, FROM ANALYSES BY RIVERS POLLUTION COMMISSION, (1874,)

(PARTS OF 100,000 PARTS.)

================================================+=======+=========+========

|Organic| Organic |Previous

|Carbon.|Nitrogen.| Sewage.

------------------------------------------------+-------+---------+--------

| parts | parts |

Rain-water, collected in leaden gauges | .070 | .015 | 42

“ “ “ from roofs, etc., for | .257 | .080 | 12031

domestic use | | |

Dew or hoar frost collected on leaden gauges | .264 | .076 | 1536

Sea-water | .278 | .165 | 103

Upland surface, from non-calcareous strata | .278 | .033 | 0

“ “ from calcareous strata | .346 | .037 | 33

Land drainage water, from sewage farms | .082 | .191 | 10443

Deep well waters, in the chalk below London clay| .093 | .028 | 797

Spring waters, from the chalk | .044 | .010 | 3511

Bristol, from springs and deep wells | .172 | .024 | 16620

Edinburgh, from springs and streams-- | .145 | .026 | 2020

water filtered | | |

Glasgow, from Loch Katrine | .204 | .017 | 0

Liverpool, Green Lane well | .020 | .020 | 3840

“ Rivington River, gravity supply, | .243 | .031 | 0

unfiltered | | |

“ “ “ gravity supply, | .210 | .029 | 0

filtered | | |

Birmingham, from Bourne River, normal | .211 | .039 | 2480

“ “ “ “ in flood | .640 | .059 | 3890

“ “ “ “ filtered | .460 | .045 | 2720

“ from Aston well | .034 | .006 | 1440

“ mixed waters--river and well | .040 | .010 | 1380

London, Thames water from Hampton | .246 | .033 | 3270

Grand Junction Works | | |

“ “ “ after subsidence “ “ “ | .262 | .042 | 3270

“ “ “ after filtration “ “ “ | .231 | .032 | 3140

Jacob’s Shallow Well, at Sheffield | 1.200 | .126 | 590

------------------------------------------------+-------+---------+--------

They consider reasonably safe water, when it is derived from deep

wells, (say 100 feet,) or from deep-seated springs, although it

contains previous animal sewage, but does not exceed 10,000 parts

in 100,000 parts of water. Suspicious or doubtful water is, first,

river or flowing water which exhibits any proportion, however small,

of previous sewage; and, second, well or spring water containing

10,000 to 20,000 parts. Dangerous water is, first, river or flowing

water which exhibits more than 20,000 parts of previous animal

contamination; second, river or flow water containing less than

20,000 parts of previous contamination, coming from sewage discharged

into it directly, or mingling with it as surface drainage; third,

well or deep-seated springs containing more than 20,000 parts,

because previous contamination is in direct proportion to the amount

of such contamination.

The value of an analysis, sanitarily considered, is questioned. Mr.

Simon, medical officer of Her Majesty’s Privy Council, testified,

before the Royal Commission on Water Supply, on this point, as

follows:

“There are dangerous qualities of water supply with regard to

which, so far as I know, chemists are totally unable to measure,

even to demonstrate the fatal influences that a water may have.

A water may be, for instance, capable of spreading the cholera,

but chemists be unable to identify the particular contamination

which produces that effect. It is, I think, a matter of absolute

demonstration that, in the old epidemics, when the south side of

London suffered so dreadfully from cholera, the great cause of the

immense mortality there was a badness of the water supply then

distributed in those districts of London.”

Prof. Frankland says:

“That we have no reason to believe that the injurious character of

either sewage or of the gases from a drain depends fundamentally

upon the quality of that sewage or of that gas. In all probability

it far more depends upon the quality of the sewage, namely, what

it consists of. Now, what is the nature of the poisonous matter

in the atmosphere or in the sewage? We do not know that, at all;

therefore you can not possibly say when that poisonous matter is

got rid of from the water or from the air. Chemical analysis can

not do it, for its limit is by the power of weighing and measuring.

It is not sufficiently advanced, and is one of the poorest things

possible to reach those delicate points.”

Vital statistics are sources of reliable information; and from them

we can learn more of the propagation or dissemination of certain

diseases through the water supply, and the relation of water to

health. The cholera epidemics of Great Britain exhibit striking

examples.

The following are tabulations from the Rivers Pollution Commission

Report, 1874:

LONDON.

YEAR. CHARACTER OF WATER. MORTALITY. RATE PER 10,000.

1832 Polluted 5,275 31.4

1849 Very much polluted 14,137 61.8

1854 Less polluted 10,738 42.9

1866 Much less polluted 5,596 18.4

Between the years 1849 and 1854, the water supply was much improved

by removal of intakes to purer sources.

The area of intense cholera of 1866 was confined within the limits of

the foul or unfiltered water supply by the East London Company; and,

when notified and stopped the rate of deaths immediately decreased.

It was almost exactly the area of this particular water supply,

nearly if not absolutely filling it, and scarcely at all reaching

beyond it.

MANCHESTER AND SALFORD.

YEAR. CHARACTER OF WATER. NUMBER OF DEATHS.

1832 Used polluted water 890

1849 Used polluted water 1,115

1854 Used pure water 50

1866 Used pure water 88

In 1851 the new supply of unpolluted upland-surface water was

introduced in place of shallow wells.

GLASGOW.

YEAR. CHARACTER OF WATER. NUMBER DEATHS. RATE PER 10,000.

1832 Polluted water 2,842 140

1849 Polluted water 3,772 106

1854 Polluted water 3,886 119

1866 Pure water 68 1.6

In 1859 the present source, Loch Katrine, was first used for water

supply.

PAISLEY AND CHARLESTON.

YEAR. CHARACTER OF WATER. NUMBER OF DEATHS.

1849 Polluted water 182

1854 Polluted water 173

1866 Pure water 7

The testimony of Dr. Daniel Richmond, the medical officer of Paisley,

before the Rivers Pollution Commission of 1874, in reference to

the cholera epidemics, is of sufficient interest to be embodied

_verbatim_:

“1. Have you any complaint to make of the water supply? No. The

water that we have in Paisley is of a very superior character,

and there is an unlimited supply to the whole of the inhabitants.

The supply is constant, and I regard that as one of the greatest

blessings the people ever received.

“2. Is there any water used which is obtained from wells? None.

During the last epidemic of cholera the wells were ordered to be

entirely shut up.

“3. When did the last epidemic of cholera occur? Four years ago.

But I should say it was not epidemic in Paisley then. It was

threatened in 1866.

“4. Had you any cases of cholera then? No. There was a danger felt

about it, but I had no fear of it; and I expressed that opinion

before the Sanitary Committee, that we should have no attack of

cholera, and that the city of Glasgow would not have it.

“5. On what did you found that opinion? Upon the unlimited supply

of pure water that we had, and on the supply of pure water that

Glasgow had obtained from Loch Katrine.

“6. Was your prediction fulfilled in both cases? Yes.

“7. When had you cholera last in Paisley? Was it in 1854? In 1854.

“8. Had you an attack of cholera in 1849? Yes. A very sharp attack.

“9. What was the state of the water supply in 1849? In 1848 and

1849 the town was but partially supplied with water, and some of

the large suburbs, such as Charleston, were not supplied with the

town’s water. Charleston was supplied with water from wells. There

was one well that belonged to Baille Smith, which supplied a large

quadrangle of buildings; that well was at the bottom of an incline,

surmounted by buildings on all sides except one. Those wells took

a supply from the surface. They were surrounded by dung-pits, and

the wells imbibed the impurities of the dung-pits. I took occasion

to warn the people of the district not to use water from the wells,

but to get the town’s water. I recommended the authorities to open

pipes connected with the town’s water, and to supply Charleston

with pure water; and very soon after that was done the cholera

disappeared from that district. At the last threatened visitation

of cholera, in 1866, the Sanitary Committee took the precaution to

remove all the handles from the pumps, and they had the wells shut

up.

“10. Do you think there is a direct connection between the water

supplied to a town and the propagation of cholera? I believe that

there is a very intimate connection between the use of impure water

and the propagation of cholera; and the proper antidote to that is

a free and unrestricted supply of pure water.”

In Calcutta the yearly death rates from cholera averaged nearly 4,000

from 1841 to 1870. When water-works were introduced the rate of

deaths were:

1870 1,560

1871 790

1872 1,068

1873 1,134

The famous Broad Street pump, in London, in 1848, killed 500 persons

in a single week.

In 1866 many deaths occurred from the use of water from a famous

pump in Brooklyn. All trouble was brought to an end when the health

officers removed the handle.

Typhoid fever and diarrhea are universally traced to impure water,

and numerous examples can be given that were directly due to this

cause. The enterprising town of Rugby, on the Cincinnati Southern

Railroad, furnished us with a case of this nature. In Millbank

Prison, England, typhoid fever was especially fatal until the year

1854, when the supply was taken from an artesian well in Trafalgar

Square, instead of the Thames; and immediately thereafter, and up to

April, 1872, a period of eighteen years, there have been only three

deaths from typhoid fever.

History of the Water Supply of the World arranged in a comprehensive form from eminent authorities, containing a description of the various methods of water supply, pollution and purification of waters, and sanitary effects, with analyses of potable waters, also geology and water strata of Hamilton county, Ohio, statistics of the Ohio river, proposed water supply of Cincinnati. · 第 1 / 7 章