SUMMARY OF REPORT ON THE BUILDING TRADES
A careful estimate places the number of men engaged in building
construction in Cleveland at the present time at about 30,000,
comprising more than one-fifth of the total number employed in
manufacturing and mechanical occupations. About two-thirds of these
workmen are skilled artisans, distributed among some 20 different
trades. The estimated number in each trade is shown in Table 22.
SOURCES OF LABOR SUPPLY
The building trades get their workers from four principal sources:
immigration, native journeymen from outside the city, helpers, and
apprentices. Immigration contributes the largest proportion in both
skilled and unskilled work, practically monopolizing the latter. Over
four-fifths of all cabinet makers, more than two-thirds of all brick
and stone masons, and nearly two-thirds of all carpenters are foreign
born. Plumbers and steam-fitters show the smallest proportion of
foreign labor.
TABLE 22.--ESTIMATED NUMBER OF MEN ENGAGED IN BUILDING TRADES, 1915
----------------------------------------+------------------+
Workers in trade | Number employed |
----------------------------------------+------------------+
Carpenters | 7,105 |
Painters, glaziers, varnishers | 2,746 |
Plumbers, gas- and steam-fitters | 2,014 |
Bricklayers | 1,800 |
Machine woodworkers | 1,198 |
Sheet metal workers or tinsmiths | 1,069 |
Cabinet-makers | 895 |
Inside wiremen and fixture hangers | 750 |
Plasterers | 638 |
Paperhangers | 379 |
Structural iron workers | 356 |
Roofers and slaters | 315 |
Stone-cutters | 292 |
Lathers | 275 |
Stone masons and marble setters | 250 |
Ornamental iron workers | 200 |
Cement finishers | 200 |
Hoisting engineers | 150 |
Elevator constructors | 100 |
Parquet floor layers | 100 |
Tile-layer | 100 |
Asbestos workers | 75 |
Wood carvers | 63 |
Helpers | 926 |
Apprentices | 306 |
----------------------------------------+------------------+
Total | 22,302 |
----------------------------------------+------------------+
APPRENTICESHIP
The general decline of the apprenticeship system which began with the
invention of modern labor-saving machinery has affected the building
trades least of all. Here it survives in an active state and is
steadily gaining ground. It is in favor with many employers and with
all unions. The best apprenticeship systems are found in the strongly
organized trades.
It is true that in some of the trades apprenticeship is little more
than a name, meaning simply that permission has been granted to learn
the trade. The apprentice is left free to pick up what experience he
can between the odd jobs that are given him. What meager instruction
he receives comes from a journeyman worker who is none too eager to
give up what he considers the secrets of his trade.
The union regulations provide that boys shall not enter the trades as
apprentices or helpers below the age of 16. The limits set by the
various trades and the union regulations as to length of
apprenticeship are shown in Tables 23 and 24.
TABLE 23.--UNION REGULATIONS AS TO ENTERING AGE OF APPRENTICES
----------------------------------------+------------------------+
Asbestos workers | Enter at any age |
Bricklayers | Between 16 and 23 |
Carpenters | Between 17 and 22 |
Cement finishers | Must be full grown |
Elevator constructors | Must be full grown |
Lathers | Must be 18 years old |
Inside wiremen | Between 16 and 21 |
Painters and paperhangers | Before 21 years old |
Plumbers and gas-fitters | Must be 16 years old |
Sheet metal workers | Must be over 16 years |
Slate and tile roofers | Must enter before 25 |
Steam-fitters | Must be full grown |
Structural and ornamental iron workers | Between 18 and 25 |
----------------------------------------+------------------------+
TABLE 24.--UNION REGULATIONS AS TO LENGTH OF APPRENTICESHIP PERIOD
_Trades in which indentures are usually signed_
Bricklayer 4 years
Plasterers 4 years
Sheet metal workers 4 years
_Trades in which indentures are seldom signed_
Steam-fitters 5 years
Carpenters 4 years
Inside wiremen 4 years
Plumbers and gas-fitter 4 years
Cement finishers 3 years
Asbestos workers 3 years
Painters and paperhangers 3 years
Slate and tile roofers 3 years
Lathers 2 years
Structural and ornamental iron workers 11/2 years
Elevator constructors varies
All obtainable information points to the conclusion that the number of
apprentices employed in the city is far below the maximum permitted by
the unions. Many large contractors have no apprentices and say they
will not bother with them. Others state that they have been unable to
get or keep good apprentices and have therefore given up the plan.
UNION ORGANIZATION
The building trades are among the most strongly organized in the city.
It is estimated that their unions at the present time include about 90
per cent of all the men engaged in building work. Practically all the
large contracting firms employ only union labor. The few non-union
workers are employed by small contractors.
Requirements for admission to the different unions vary to a marked
degree. If the union is strong and has a good control over the labor
supply, admission fees are higher and regulations as to apprentices
and helpers are more stringent than if the union is fighting to gain a
foothold.
EARNINGS
No industrial workers in the city are paid better wages than those
employed in the building trades. More than one-half of the skilled
workers are in trades that pay an hourly wage of 50 cents or over. The
hourly rate in each occupation is shown in Table 25.
TABLE 25.--UNION SCALE OF WAGES IN CENTS PER HOUR MAY 1, 1915
_70 Cents_
Bricklayers 70.00
Hoisting engineers on boom derricks, etc. 70.00
Stone masons 70.00
Structural iron workers 70.00
_From 60 to 70 Cents_
Marble setters 68.75
Inside wiremen 68.75
Plasterers 68.75
Slate and tile roofers 67.50
Parquet floor layers (carpenters) 62.50
Lathers, first class 62.50
Plumbers 62.50
Steam-fitters 62.50
Stone-cutters 62.50
Hoisting engineers, brick hoists 60.00
Elevator constructors 60.00
_From 50 to 60 Cents_
Tile layers 59.38
Lathers, second class 56.25
Carpenters 55.00
Cement workers, finishers 55.00
Sheet metal workers 50.00
Painters 50.00
Paperhangers 50.00
_From 40 to 50 Cents_
Asbestos workers 47.50
Composition roofers 42.50
_Under 40 Cents_
Cabinet-makers and bench hands 37.50
Machine woodworkers 37.50
Electrical fixture hangers 37.50
Hod-carriers 35.00
Union organization is a more powerful factor in determining wages in
these trades than technical knowledge and skill. A high degree of
skill in a given trade brings little advantage in the matter of wages.
By establishing a minimum scale below which no journeyman shall work,
the union secures practically a flat rate of pay for most of the men
in the trade. When there is much building work and good men are
scarce, contractors sometimes pay higher wages to highly skilled
workmen in order to secure their services. As a rule, however, their
reward comes in the form of steadier employment. The less skilled man
is the first to be laid off when business is slack, while the
first-class workman, for the reason that he is so hard to replace, is
the last to be discharged.
Many unions, among them those of the carpenters, bricklayers, and
painters, make no provision as to the wages of apprentices. Table 26
shows the wages in three of the building trades that have established
a uniform scale for apprentices. Sheet metal apprentices are paid a
bonus of $1 extra for each week served.
TABLE 26.--USUAL WEEKLY WAGES OF APPRENTICES IN THREE BUILDING TRADES
-------------+----------------+----------------+--------------+
| | | Sheet metal |
Year | Inside wiremen | Plasterers | workers |
-------------+----------------+----------------+--------------+
First year | $5.50 | $5.50 to $6.25 | $5.00 |
Second year | 13.20 | 8.25 to 11.02 | 5.50 to 6.00 |
Third year | 17.60 | 13.75 to 16.00 | 6.50 to 7.00 |
Fourth year | 22.00 | 19.25 | 8.00 to 9.00 |
-------------+----------------+----------------+--------------+
HOURS
The usual working day is eight hours. Many of the trades work only a
half day on Saturdays throughout the year; practically all have this
half holiday during the four summer months. For holiday or over-time
work the men receive either pay and a half or double pay.
REGULARITY OF EMPLOYMENT
Due to the seasonal character of building work, it is next to
impossible for a building contractor to keep a large force employed
all the year. One result of this situation is that the men change
employers more than any other workers in industry. Irregularity of
employment is greater in building construction than in any other of
the principal industries of the city. A comparison between the
different branches of building work as to regularity of employment is
presented in Diagram 11. The best showing is made by electrical
contracting, in which the average number employed is 93 per cent of
the maximum working force, and the poorest by plastering in which the
average is only 66 per cent of the maximum.
HEALTH CONDITIONS
Nearly all of the building trades are open air occupations, much even
of the inside work being done before the buildings are closed in. For
the most part the materials used are not injurious to health if
reasonable precautions are taken and ordinary habits of cleanliness
observed. In general, health conditions are better than those found in
the factory industries.
[Illustration: Diagram 11.--Sections in outline represent percentage
of men employed, and sections in black percentage of men unemployed in
each of nine building industries at the time when each industry showed
the largest percentage of unemployment]
OPPORTUNITIES FOR ADVANCEMENT
The building trades offer many opportunities for advancement. One
reason for this is the large number of supervisory positions made
necessary by the wide range of building activities. A foreman in
almost any of the trades must be able to read plans, as he must lay
out the work. It is not necessary for him to be the most skilled
mechanic in the force. Employers and superintendents say that in
selecting foremen they lay about equal weight on skill and on ability
to handle men.
As a rule, foremanship carries with it higher wages, although in some
cases the pay is the same as that of the regular journeymen. The
reward for the added responsibility comes in the form of steadier
employment. It is not uncommon for a foreman to be hired on a salary
basis and carried on the payroll throughout the entire year.
Small contracting offers another form of advancement. It requires but
little initial investment to make a modest beginning, because
individual workmen in the various building trades provide their own
tools and no expensive machines are required. Comparatively little
working capital is necessary, as provision is made in most contracts
for part payments as the work progresses.
THE PROBLEM OF TRAINING
The recommendations of the report relating to training for the
building trades may be summarized under five headings:
1. _Reduce retardation._ The first step in improving the educational
preparation of workers entering the building trades is to reduce
retardation or slow progress in the elementary grades. At present it
is approximately true of the men entering the building trades that
one-third drop out of school by the sixth grade, two-thirds by the
seventh grade, and three-thirds by the eighth grade. Now according to
law a boy cannot go to work until he is 16, and if he has made normal
progress he will have completed the eight grades of the elementary
course before he has reached that age. In point of fact, many of these
boys do not make normal progress through the grades and hence they
reach the age of 15 before completing the elementary course. As a
result they fall out of school without having had those portions of
the work in reading, drawing, mathematics, and elementary science
which would be of most direct use to them in their future work.
2. _General industrial courses in seventh, eighth, and ninth grades._
If retardation could be largely reduced in the elementary grades,
industrialized courses could be properly introduced in the seventh,
eighth, and ninth grades for boys intending to enter the building
trades. The specific changes recommended include as their most
important elements:
a. Increased training in industrial arithmetic beginning in
the seventh grade.
b. Courses in industrial drawing.
c. Courses in elementary science relating to industry.
d. Courses in industrial information.
e. General courses in industrial shop work.
These are general industrial courses and it is recommended that they
be introduced as prominent features of the work of the junior high
school. They are not intended to take the place of specialized courses
in the building trades, but they are proposed as courses valuable for
all future industrial workers and within which certain adaptations
should be made for those who are intending to enter the building
trades.
3. _A two year industrial trade school._ In addition to the general
industrial courses in junior high schools that have been recommended
in the previous section, there should be established a two year
industrial trade school for boys. It should receive boys 14 to 16
years of age who desire direct trade-preparatory training. There are
good reasons why the present elementary schools, the proposed junior
high schools, and the existing technical high schools cannot
satisfactorily take the place of a specialized two year course in
giving boys direct trade-preparatory education. Boys who go through
the technical high schools do not remain in the building trades as
artisans. This is shown by the fact that less than two per cent of the
graduates of these schools are working in the building trades.
The elementary schools and the junior high schools cannot conduct
satisfactory trade-preparatory courses for the building industry for
the reason that they do not bring together at any one point a
sufficient number of these future workers to make it possible to teach
them economically. This is a consideration which conditions every
plan for the organization of industrial education. It is a question of
the community's capacity to absorb workmen trained for any given
occupation. In Cleveland about 4,000 boys leave the public elementary
schools each year. Approximately 2,400 of them drop out of the
elementary schools or leave after graduating from them, while the
remaining 1,600 go on to high school. The future workers in the
building trades will be largely recruited from the 2,400 boys who
leave the elementary schools each year. Most of them range in age from
14 to 16 and in school advancement from the fifth to the eighth
grades. They represent a cross-section of a large part of the city's
adult manhood of a few years hence.
Now the census figures tell us that if present conditions maintain in
the future only about 100 of the 4,000 boys leaving school each year
will be carpenters. For the purposes of the present inquiry we may
assume that these 100 future carpenters are to be found among the
2,400 boys who do not go on to high school. But Cleveland has 108
elementary schools and these 100 future carpenters are widely
scattered among them. Even if we knew which boys were destined to
become carpenters, and even if we knew when they would leave school,
and even if we should decide to give them all trade preparatory
education for the last two years of their school life, we should still
have an average class in carpentry of only two boys in each elementary
school. This is administratively and educationally impossible. For
similar reasons specialized trade preparatory classes in junior high
schools would prove exceedingly difficult to organize.
The whole situation is changed, however, when we gather in a central
school all these future artisans who have decided that they wish to
prepare for specific trades. Under these conditions classes would be
sufficiently large so that specialized training could be given and
special equipment provided. This work would best be undertaken in a
school entirely devoted to the purpose, but such courses might be
organized in connection with the present technical high schools. This
arrangement would be less desirable and probably give inferior
results. The important point, however, is not so much the organization
or curriculum for these classes, it is the fundamental fact that trade
classes can be wisely organized only when a sufficiently large number
of pupils can be gathered in one place so as to make the work
efficient and economical.
The effectiveness of the trade-preparatory training recommended would
be greatly increased if the upper limit of the compulsory attendance
period for boys should be placed at 16 years instead of at 15 as it is
now.
4. _Trade-Extension Classes for Apprentices._ At the present time the
technical high schools offer evening classes for apprentices in the
building trades. About one-seventh of the apprentices of the city are
enrolled in these classes. In the main they are full grown men. In
general they do not want shop work related to their own trades, but
prefer instead to enroll in courses in drawing.
The considerations already presented bear in minor degree on the
problem of providing evening instruction for trade apprentices. The
essential for efficient work is that a sufficient number of pupils be
brought together so as to make it possible to organize specialized
classes in different kinds of work that the pupils want and need. So
long as there are only 50 apprentices enrolled in the entire city, and
these represent a number of trades, many different stages of
advancement, and a variety of needs, truly efficient work will be
impossible. Better conditions can be brought about only through the
coöperation of the unions, the employers, and the school people.
5. _Trade-Extension Work for Journeymen._ The evening technical
schools now maintain shop classes and drawing classes for workers in
the building trades. Less than one per cent of the workers in these
trades are enrolled in these classes. There is little differentiation
in the school work offered to helpers, apprentices, and journeymen.
The result is that the work is much less efficient than it might well
be. It cannot be rendered much more efficient than it is until the
classes are increased in size and as a result the work differentiated
and specialized. This type of improvement will result only from
putting the night school work in the hands of skilful and well paid
directors and teachers who bring to it a degree of energy, enterprise,
ingenuity, and adaptability that it is unreasonable to expect and
impossible to get from day school teachers who have already given the
best that is in them to their regular classes and are giving a
fatigued margin of work and attention to their night school pupils.