Graves, _In Modern Times_ (Macmillan, 1913), chap. X; and _Great
Educators_ (Macmillan, 1912), chap. XIV; Monroe, _Textbook_ (Macmillan,
1905), chap. XII; Parker, _Modern Elementary Education_ (Ginn, 1912),
pp. 331-340. Popular accounts of the growth of science can be found in
Buckley, Arabella B., _A Short History of Natural Science_ (Appleton),
and Williams, H. S., _Story of Nineteenth Century Science_ (Harper).
Spencer’s _Education_ and Huxley’s _Science and Education_ should
be read. Further arguments for the study of science can be found in
Coulter, J. M., _The Mission of Science in Education_ (_Science_,
II, 12, pp. 281-293); Dryer, C. R., _Science in Secondary Schools_
(Prize Essay in _The Academy_, May, 1888, pp. 197-221); Galloway, R.,
_Education, Scientific and Technical_ (Trübner, London, 1881); Norton,
W. H., _The Social Service of Science_ (_Science_, II, 13, pp. 644ff.);
Pearson, K., _Grammar of Science_ (Macmillan, 1911), chap. I; Roberts,
R. D., _Science in the Nineteenth Century_ (Cambridge University Press,
1901), chap. VII; Sedgwick, W. T., _Educational Value of the Method of
Science_ (_Educational Review_, vol. V, pp. 243ff.), and especially
Youmans, E. L., _Culture Demanded by Modern Life_ (Appleton, 1867).
CHAPTER XXVII
PRESENT DAY TENDENCIES IN EDUCATION
OUTLINE
At the present time there is great progress in industrial,
commercial, and agricultural training in the schools of Europe and
America.
For a quarter of a century the educational systems of Europe have
been giving attention to moral training, and of late there has been
some discussion of the subject in the United States.
All the great nations now provide for the training of mental
defectives, and for some time training has been afforded those
defective in some sense organ.
The attempts at improved methods of teaching are witnessed by the
study of industries in the experimental school of Dewey, by the
formulation of a curriculum in terms of normal activities of other
elementary schools, and by the ‘didactic apparatus’ and the devices
for learning the ‘three r’s’ of Montessori.
Methods of mental measurement are being devised for the elementary
school subjects by Thorndike and others, and systems of measurement
are being utilized in administration.
Darwin’s theory of evolution has revolutionized our attitude,
imagery, and vocabulary in education.
There is also a great variety of other educational movements in all
grades of education.
[Sidenote: Constant efforts at a reconstruction of education.]
=Recent Educational Progress.=--Because of the notable development
of science and invention, which has been noted in the last chapter,
the nineteenth century has often been referred to as the ‘wonderful’
century. Such a term affords no better description of material
achievement than of the remarkable progress that has taken place
in education. Previous chapters have indicated the extent to which,
through various movements, education has advanced and broadened in
conception, but the near future of education will probably witness
a much greater development. At the present time there are constant
efforts at a modification and a reconstruction of education in the
interest of a better adjustment of the individual to his social
environment and of greatly improved conditions in society itself. It
would, of course, be impossible to describe all of these movements even
in the briefest manner, but some of the present day tendencies that
appear most significant should now engage our attention.
[Sidenote: Social reasons for industrial education.]
=The Growth of Industrial Training.=--The movement that is perhaps most
widely discussed to-day is the introduction of vocational training
into the systems of education. There is now an especial need for this
type of training. Since the industrial revolution and the development
of the factory system, the master no longer works by the side of his
apprentice and instructs him, and the ambition of the youth can no
longer be spurred by the hope that he may himself some day become a
master. His experience is generally confined to some single process,
and only a few of the operatives require anything more than low-grade
skill. Nor, as a rule, will the employer undertake any systematic
education of his workmen, when the mobility of labor permits of no
guarantee that he will reap the benefit of such efforts, and the
modern industrial plant is poorly adapted to supplying the necessary
theoretical training for experts. Hence an outside agency--the
school--has been called upon to assist in the solution of these
new problems. To meet the demand for industrial education, all the
principal states of Europe have maintained training of this sort for
at least half a century, and the United States has in the twentieth
century been making rapid strides in the same direction.
[Sidenote: Industrial training of the continuation schools in Germany.]
[Sidenote: Work of Kerschensteiner.]
=Industrial Schools in Europe.=--In Germany, where this training is
most effective, the work has for fifty years been rapidly developing
through the _Fortbildungsschulen_ (see Fig. 55). The course in these
schools at first consisted largely of review work, but the rapid
spread of elementary schools soon enabled them to devote all the
time to technical education. Training is now afforded not only for
the rank and file of workmen in the different trades, but for higher
grades of workers, such as foremen and superintendents. Girls are
likewise trained in a wide variety of vocations. During the last
twenty-five years there have also been developed continuation schools
to furnish theoretical courses in physical sciences, mathematics,
bookkeeping, drawing, history, and law. In North Germany there is a
tendency to confine the courses to theoretical training, and leave
the practical side to the care of the employers, but the South German
states generally combine theoretical and practical work, and develop
schools adapted to the industries of the various localities. Through
the work of Kerschensteiner, Munich has even included an extra class
in the elementary schools, to bridge the gap between school life and
employment.
[Sidenote: No apprenticeship in France, but all training in
continuation schools.]
[Sidenote: Early facilities in England.]
France goes still further, and, because of unsatisfactory conditions in
apprenticeship, attempts to eliminate it altogether, and to furnish the
entire industrial training through continuation schools articulating
with the elementary system. The pupils are admitted at thirteen to the
continuation schools (see p. 383) and obtain practice in the school
workshops for three years. Woodwork is generally taught to the boys,
but the other courses vary with local needs. Girls learn to make
dresses, corsets, millinery, artificial flowers, and other industrial
products. In England, grants were first made to evening industrial
schools and classes in 1851, but twenty years later regular schools of
science were organized, which had both day and evening sessions. In
addition to these continuation schools, there have now been established
higher elementary schools, which afford a four-year course in practical
and theoretical science arranged according to local needs.
[Sidenote: Evening continuation schools in United States.]
[Sidenote: Day schools, private]
[Sidenote: and public.]
[Sidenote: Secondary schools.]
[Sidenote: ‘Part-time’ schools.]
=Industrial Training in the United States.=--Industrial training first
began to be offered in the United States during the latter half of
the nineteenth century by means of a number of evening continuation
schools. These were established through philanthropy in the larger
cities, and included the Cooper Union and the Mechanics’ Institute
in New York; the Franklin Union and the Spring Garden Institute in
Philadelphia; the Ohio Mechanics’ Institute in Cincinnati; and the
Virginia Mechanics’ Institute in Richmond. The public schools at
length followed this example, and of late years have organized evening
classes in drawing, mathematics, science, and technical subjects. Day
instruction was long delayed. It began in 1881 with the foundation of
the New York Trade School, but at the end of twenty years there were
only two others,--the Williamson Free School of Mechanical Trades near
Philadelphia and the Baron de Hirsch Trade School in New York. Later
the development was more rapid, and since 1906 several hundred day
trade schools have been organized, mostly through public support, in
the larger cities of the country. These schools are mostly for youths
between sixteen and twenty-five, but ‘preparatory trade schools’ for
younger boys have also been started in New York, Massachusetts, and
other states. Higher training to equip leaders for the industries
has also come to be furnished through endowed secondary schools and
technical high schools in a number of cities. A recent variety of
vocational training is the ‘part-time’ plan, by which students are
given some theoretical and formal training in a regular high school
or college, while they are obtaining their practical experience. This
alternation of practical and theoretical training is sometimes carried
on in a single institution, or even within a commercial establishment
itself.
[Sidenote: Conditions requiring commercial education.]
=Commercial Education in Europe and America.=--But the modern
development of vocational training throughout the leading countries
has not been confined to industrial lines. With the extension of the
sphere of commerce and the development of its organization that have
taken place in the nineteenth century, it has come to be recognized
that preparation is essential for a business career. Only recently,
however, has this training been felt to be a proper function of the
schools, since for many years it was opposed by educators as sordid and
commercializing, and by business men as unpractical and ineffective.
Both classes have now been brought to realize the need of mutual
support, and the rapid growth of commercial education indicates an
appreciation of its usefulness.
[Sidenote: In Germany many private continuation schools,]
[Sidenote: and secondary and university courses,]
[Sidenote: but England and France indifferent.]
[Sidenote: In the United States ‘business colleges,’]
[Sidenote: and secondary and higher courses.]
Germany is generally admitted to lead in commercial education. The
growth of this training has taken place since 1887, but there is now
offered under state control a unified and thorough preparation for
any line of business. Besides private continuation schools, in which
a course of three years in modern languages and elementary commercial
studies can be obtained, there have grown up both public secondary
schools and university courses in which a thorough general education
and theoretical work in commerce, as well as a practical and technical
training, are provided (Fig. 55). England and France have been rather
indifferent to commercial education. In both countries until very
recently schools have been few, and the number of pupils in each has
been small. But now continuation schools, free evening courses, and
private classes have sprung up, and in a few large cities commercial
schools of secondary and even higher grade have been established.
In the United States commercial training began by the middle of
the nineteenth century through private enterprise with classes in
bookkeeping, and later with ‘business colleges.’ Despite the name of
the latter, the course is narrow and is generally shaped by pecuniary
aims. During the last two decades of the nineteenth century high and
normal schools began to offer commercial instruction, but until the
twentieth century the courses were only tolerated as a necessary evil,
and largely imitated those of the business colleges. Since then many
cities have opened high schools of commerce, and university schools and
colleges of commerce have arisen, and even a score of years before this
development the Wharton School of Finance and Commerce was started at
the University of Pennsylvania.
[Sidenote: Agricultural instruction in the schools of France and
Germany.]
[Sidenote: United States offers courses in all grades of education.]
=Recent Emphasis upon Agricultural Training.=--A similar development
has of late been taking place in agricultural education. France and
Germany offer elementary instruction in agriculture, while the former
has also introduced the subject into the normal schools, and the
latter has established a secondary agricultural institution open to
students at the close of their sixth year in the _Realschule_. Through
the feeling that the United States must become the great agricultural
nation, and that the traditional methods of agriculture have been
exceedingly wasteful, this country especially has been emphasizing that
type of vocational education. The land grant colleges, first endowed
by act of Congress in 1862, have greatly stimulated interest in the
subject, and later Congress added other sources of revenue, and has
recently furnished appropriations for instruction in the teaching of
agriculture and for extension work in agriculture. Thus the way has
been prepared for the introduction of the subject into the high school
and grades. There are now at least one hundred agricultural high
schools in the United States, and agriculture is taught as a branch of
study in several thousand high and elementary school systems.
[Sidenote: Social conditions demanding moral training.]
=Moral Training in the Schools To-day.=--But present day tendencies in
education have to do with more than the material side of civilization.
There is a growing sentiment in favor of moral instruction in the
schools. There are many reasons why this need should be especially felt
in the complex business life of to-day. When men work for impersonal
corporations, sell products to people they never see, or intrust their
welfare to officials whose names are scarcely known, one strong factor
making for honesty and virtue, that of personal relations, is lost.
Moreover, as a result of the weakening of old religious sanctions, the
new conditions in large cities, and other causes, moral traditions are
in need of being buttressed.
[Illustration:
Fig. 55.--Vocational education for boys in Germany (Commercial,
Industrial, and Professional) in Relation to Public School Organization.
(Reproduced by permission from Farrington’s _Commercial Education in
Germany_.)]
[Sidenote: In France secular training, but in England and Germany
religious.]
[Sidenote: Sadler’s commission.]
[Sidenote: Work of the N. E. A. in the United States.]
[Sidenote: Summary of the R. E. A.]
The educational systems of Europe have for a quarter of a century given
more or less attention to moral training. In France this training
has been purely secular and excluded all religious elements. But the
education of England and Germany has always associated the teaching of
morality with religion. In England, the ‘board’ schools have furnished
religious instruction of a nonsectarian character, but the religious
training of the ‘voluntary’ schools has occupied more time and has
stressed the creed and denominational teaching of some church, usually
the Church of England (see pp. 380 f.). The contest over religious
teaching since the Act of 1902 (see p. 390) caused a self-constituted
commission, with Michael E. Sadler as chairman, to investigate the
subject of moral instruction, and in 1908-1909 it presented a large and
illuminating report. In Germany the moral and religious instruction
in all elementary schools is sectarian, and Catholic and Protestant
schools are alike supported, wherever needed, at public expense.
During the past decade there has been considerable discussion in the
United States concerning moral education. In response to the demand
for an investigation of the subject, a committee of the National
Education Association in 1908-1909 made a report upon various phases
of moral training, and recommended special instruction in ethics,
not in the form of precepts, but through consideration of existing
moral questions. In 1911 the Religious Education Association, whose
convention in that year was devoted to moral training, gave in its
_Journal_ a broad summary of the progress of moral education in the
United States. The report reveals a wide difference of opinion and
practice, but an evident tendency to trust other agencies than direct
moral instruction. As a rule, state legislation seems as yet to have
failed to provide a general system of training, but has confined itself
to specific subjects, such as instruction in citizenship, the effects
of alcohol and narcotics, and the humane treatment of animals.
[Sidenote: Impulse given by Seguin’s ‘physiological’ methods.]
[Sidenote: Attempts to introduce intellectual elements.]
=The Development of Training for Mental Defectives.=--One of the most
patent evidences of the growth of the humane spirit in modern times
is found in the universal attention now given to the education of
mental defectives. This movement was given its greatest impulse through
Édouard Seguin, who came to the United States in 1850 and developed
his methods here. His general plan was to appeal to the mind through
the senses by means of a training of the hand, taste and smell, and
eye and ear. He used pictures, photographs, cards, patterns, figures,
wax, clay, scissors, compasses, and pencils as his chief instruments of
education. The stimulus he gave to the training of defectives has been
epoch-making, and his ‘physiological’ methods have remained the chief
means of education. Although there has grown up a tendency to introduce
intellectual elements into the training of the feeble-minded, the
advantages of such a procedure are doubtful.
[Sidenote: Schools in Germany,]
[Sidenote: France, and England.]
All the great nations now provide schools for the training of
defectives. Germany has over one hundred institutions, with some
twenty thousand pupils in them, although nine-tenths of them are not
supported by the state, but are under church or private auspices. These
schools generally stress manual education, but give some attention to
intellectual lines, especially to speech training. There are but few
schools for defectives in France, aside from the two near Paris and
the juvenile department of the insane hospital at Bicêtre, but these
institutions largely follow the physical work formulated by Seguin. In
London there is one excellent institution with two thousand pupils,
where manual training constitutes almost the entire course. But there
are five other schools so located as to serve the various parts of
England, in which the training is rather bookish and emphasis is
especially laid upon number work.
[Sidenote: Training in the United States.]
Thanks to the start given by Seguin, America has taken up the education
of defectives more fully than any other country. Schools for the
feeble-minded now exist in almost all the states, and there are some
thirty-five or forty private institutions of considerable merit. Not
far from twenty thousand defectives are being trained, although this
is probably only about one-tenth of the total number of such cases in
the country. The type of education differs greatly according to the
institution, ranging from almost purely manual training to a large
proportion of the intellectual rudiments, but in all the work is
adapted to the various grades in such a way as to raise them a little
in the scale of efficiency and to keep them as far as possible from
being a burden to themselves and to society. Likewise, special clinics
and investigations, like those of Lightner Witmer of the University of
Pennsylvania and of H. H. Goddard of the Training School at Vineland
(New Jersey), are greatly adding to our knowledge of the best methods
for training defectives.
[Sidenote: Manual]
[Sidenote: and oral methods for the deaf.]
=Education of the Deaf and Blind.=--Persons defective in some sense
organ, but otherwise up to the standard, have likewise for some time
been receiving an education that will minimize the difficulty. There
have been two chief methods for teaching the deaf. The manual or
‘silent’ method of communication was invented by the Abbé de l’Épée in
Paris during the latter part of the eighteenth century, and his school
was adopted by the nation in 1791. The other method, the ‘oral,’ by
which the pupil learns to communicate through reading the movements
of the lips, was started in Germany early in the eighteenth century,
but was not employed to any great extent until the middle of the next
century. Most countries now use the oral method exclusively, or in
connection with the manual system. In the United States practically
every commonwealth now has one or more schools for the deaf, and since
1864 even higher education has been furnished by Gallaudet College at
Washington.
[Sidenote: Schools for the blind in Europe and the United States.]
The first instruction of the blind through raised letters was given
toward the end of the eighteenth century by Abbé Haüy at Paris. While
his schools, owing to his lack of judgment, were failures, the idea
spread rapidly. Early in the nineteenth century there were one or more
schools in each of the leading countries of Europe, and a generation
later institutions of this sort were started in the United States.
In schools for the blind or deaf, industrial training has in most
instances been added to the intellectual (see p. 300), in order to
fit every individual to be an independent workman in some line. Even
pupils, both deaf and blind, like Laura Bridgeman and Helen Keller,
have had their minds awakened through the sense of touch.
[Sidenote: Colonel Parker’s contributions.]
=Recent Development of Educational Method; Dewey’s Experimental
School.=--Nor has the past century witnessed any cessation of the
attempts at improved methods of teaching. Various suggestions and
systems have been put forward and many have had an important effect
upon school procedure. It is impossible, however, to discuss any
except a few of the more influential and prominent, and these can be
considered but briefly. The occupational work of Professor Dewey and
Colonel Parker’s scheme of concentration have marked the growth of a
body of educational theory and practice that places the methods of
to-day far in advance of anything previously known. The combination and
modification of Ritter, Herbart, and Froebel worked out by Parker have
perhaps received sufficient attention (see pp. 293, 350, and 364), but
we may at this point outline a little more fully the contributions made
by John Dewey, who has probably been the leader in the reconstruction
that has taken place in education almost since the twentieth century
began.
[Sidenote: Purpose]
[Sidenote: and course of Dewey’s school.]
The methods of Dewey were developed in an experimental elementary
school connected with the University of Chicago and under his
supervision from 1896 to 1903. The school did not start with ready-made
principles, but sought to solve three fundamental educational problems.
It undertook to find out (1) how to bring the school into closer
relation with the home and neighborhood life; (2) how to introduce
subject-matter in history, science, and art that has a positive
value and real significance in the child’s own life; and (3) how to
carry on instruction in reading, writing, and figuring with everyday
experience and occupation as their background “in such a way that the
child shall feel their necessity through their connection with subjects
which appeal to him on their own account.” The plan for meeting these
needs was found largely in the study of industries. Since industries
are most fundamental in the thought, ideals, and social organization
of a people, these activities must have the most prominent place
in the course of a school. “The school cannot be a preparation for
social life except as it reproduces the typical conditions of life.”
The means used in furnishing this industrial activity were evolved
mainly along the lines of shopwork, cooking, sewing, and weaving,
although many subsidiary industries were also used. These occupations
were, of course, intended for a liberalizing, rather than a technical
purpose, and considerable time was given to an historical study of
them (Fig. 56). Dewey declares: “The industrial history of man is
not a materialistic or merely utilitarian affair. It is a matter of
intelligence. Its record is the record of how man learned to think, to
think to some effect, to transform the conditions of life so that life
itself became a different thing. It is an ethical record as well; the
account of the conditions which men have patiently wrought out to serve
their ends.”
[Sidenote: In harmony with Froebel,]
[Sidenote: but not as stereotyped,]
[Sidenote: and work--not amusement--the spirit of the school.]
It can be seen how fully this plan is in accord with the real
principles of social coöperation and expression of individual
activities underlying the work of Froebel; and “so far as these
statements correctly represented Froebel’s educational philosophy,”
Dewey generously grants that “the school should be regarded as its
exponent.” But these industrial activities of the Chicago experimental
school were not in the least suggested by Froebel’s work, and were far
more expressive of real life. They never became as stereotyped and
external as the gifts or even as the occupations of the kindergarten
have generally been. Dewey is insistent that this training shall be
carried on not for the purpose of furnishing facts or principles to
be learned, but for enabling the child to engage in the industrial
occupations in miniature. “The school is not preparation for life:
it is life.” Hence this training is superior to the occupations of
Froebel in that “it maintains a balance between the intellectual and
the practical phases of experience.” Where Froebel has held to the
construction of beautiful things in mechanical ways, Dewey emphasizes
the ordinary activities and experiences of life, even though the
expression of these be crude. The child should be “given, wherever
possible, intellectual responsibility for selecting the materials and
instruments that are most fit, and given an opportunity to think out
his own model and plan of work, led to perceive his own errors, and
find how to correct them.” Thus the work was never “reduced to a mere
routine or custom and its educational value lost.” As a result, too, it
was the consensus of opinion that “while the children like, or love, to
come to school, yet work, and not amusement, has been the spirit and
teaching of the school; and that this freedom has been granted under
such conditions of intelligent and sympathetic oversight as to be a
means of upbuilding and strengthening character.”
[Sidenote: Schools on a similar basis.]
=Other Experiments in Method.=--Hence, while the Chicago school is
now at an end, the experiment in education developed there is still
yielding abundant fruitage. It has stimulated similar undertakings
elsewhere, and has been the largest factor in determining the theory
and practice of the present day. Either as a result of Dewey’s work or
through independent thought, there has sprung up an important group of
schools in which there is clearly an effort to bring boys and girls of
elementary school age into more intimate relation to community life
about them. Such are the Gary (Indiana) Public Schools, the Francis
W. Parker School of Chicago, the Elementary School at the University
of Missouri, the Pestalozzi-Froebel School of Berlin, the Abbotsholme
School in Derbyshire (England), and a number of others.
[Sidenote: University of Missouri Elementary School:]
[Sidenote: its purpose and curriculum.]
A good illustration is afforded in the school developed by Junius L.
Meriam at Columbia, Missouri, although it has not been given much
publicity. Its function is to help children do better in all those
wholesome activities in which they normally engage. The school does
not attend to the ‘three r’s’ as such, but specifically to particular
activities of children, including (1) play, (2) observation, (3)
handwork, and (4) stories, music, and art. These four ‘studies,’
representing real life, irrespective of the school, constitute the
curriculum, and the ‘three r’s’ are studied only as they are needed.
Their content, therefore, being used, as in life, in meeting real
needs, is studied most effectively.
[Sidenote: Gary school system:]
[Sidenote: its plant and methods.]
An experiment that has attracted widespread interest is that worked out
in the Gary school system by William A. Wirt. While the achievement is
mostly in the way of a remarkable organization and administration that
have undertaken to make available “all of the educational opportunities
of the city all of the time for all of the people,” the teaching has to
some extent been carried on so as to reveal to the pupils “that what
they are doing is worth while.” The school plant includes a playground,
garden, workshop, social center, library, and traditional school, and
it has been shown that these agencies, when properly organized, “secure
the same attitude of mind toward the reading, writing, and arithmetic
that the child normally has for play.” All the other schools that have
been mentioned above make similar attempts to enable the children
to get into closer touch with their environment. While each of them
approaches the problems of elementary training from a different angle,
they are all in harmony with the spirit of Dewey and present day theory.
[Sidenote: ‘Liberty of the pupil;’]
[Sidenote: Seguin’s apparatus.]
=The Montessori Method.=--But probably the most spectacular development
in educational procedure is that originating with Maria Montessori
at Rome. Yet the Montessori method, except for some elements adapted
from Seguin (see p. 426), is largely a combination of several of the
concepts found in Rousseau, Pestalozzi, and Froebel, and fails to grasp
the larger vision of education that appears in present-day theory, such
as Dewey’s. Like Rousseau and Froebel, Montessori holds fundamentally
to the rightness of child nature and consequently to the liberty of
the pupil, but she does not, like Dewey, realize that education is
itself life and that the activities of real life should be utilized
in training. Moreover, the sense training, which Montessori herself
considers the most distinctive feature of her system, is neither
original nor psychologically sound. Montessori began as a teacher
of defectives, and her ‘didactic apparatus’ and methods are largely
borrowed from Seguin. Exercises of this sort are of great value in
training defectives, but the assumption of their usefulness in the
education of normal children is more doubtful. They are intended to
train the senses to general powers and discriminations, and seem to be
defended simply upon the basis of faculty psychology and the outworn
theory of ‘formal discipline’ (see p. 182 f.).
[Sidenote: Writing,]
[Sidenote: reading, and arithmetic.]
The feature of the Montessori method, however, that has attracted most
attention is its apparent success with the formal elementary studies,
especially the facility, enthusiasm, and speed with which it has
enabled the pupils to learn to write. Montessori has carefully analyzed
the process of writing and devised three exercises by which this art is
unconsciously learned by three or four year old children in Italy. If
this training can be applied to unphonetic languages, like the English,
it may possibly be regarded as a contribution. It is evident, however,
that Montessori lays too much stress upon the acquisition of the
formal studies and starts them at too early an age. In this she fails
to appreciate Froebel’s great contribution of a school without books,
and certainly does not realize, with Dewey, that the main purpose of
education is to give a child some control of his social environment and
that for this there are activities of more importance to child life
than the school arts. Within a few years it will probably be difficult
to understand the _furore_ that has been created by the Montessori
methods.
[Sidenote: Technique of the physical sciences applied to education.]
=The Statistical Method and Mental Measurements in Education.=--One of
the most significant of the present day movements is the application,
especially in the United States, of scientific, statistical methods to
problems of education. Statistics have long been used, though often
without clearness or accuracy, in reports of school administration,
but it remained for this century to apply to the various phases of
education the same general technique and approximately the same
precision as that long demanded by the physical and biological
sciences. Quantitative, unambiguous statements are now sought and
secured not only for the phenomena of attendance, retardation,
expenditures, and the like, but also for the relative and absolute
amounts of knowledge. As a consequence, emphasis has been placed upon
the results of education rather than upon the declaration of intentions.
[Sidenote: Thorndike’s advocacy of a quantitative description and of
scales, and the application to achievement in school subjects.]
Probably the first scholar to apply the scientific principles of
statistics to education was Edward L. Thorndike of Columbia University.
In his _Educational Psychology_ he illustrates how a quantitative
description of individual differences and of the factors that condition
them is necessary to throw real light upon educational theory and
practice, and in his _Mental and Social Measurements_ he presents the
details of the method. Subsequently he maintained, in the face of much
opposition, that scales, as objective and as impersonal as possible,
should and could be devised for measuring variations in ability and
changes that take place as a result of natural growth and instruction.
Such scales, beginning at an ascertained zero and progressing by
regular steps to a point near perfection, are, because of the
complexity of their elements, difficult to construct, but they have
been set forth more or less tentatively by various investigators for
the measurement of achievement in handwriting (Fig. 57), arithmetic,
English composition, spelling, drawing, freehand lettering, and
reading respectively. Other scales to measure ability in the several
high school subjects may be expected soon.
[Sidenote: Measurement of the quantitative significance of factors in
method.]
Studies are also being made in several universities to determine the
relative importance of the numerous factors in methods of teaching.
This is done by conducting experiments with hundreds or thousands of
children to find out by the most accurate measurement yet devised the
amount of progress in learning that is wholly due to the presence of
some one factor of method in the technique of class-room exercises.
Educational psychology has revealed the qualitative significance of
many of the single elements in the very complex procedure that we have
called a ‘method of teaching,’ and this new type of research aims
to determine the quantitative significance of each of these several
elements of method as factors in the production of abilities. A. Duncan
Yocum of the University of Pennsylvania has formulated a considerable
number of tests, and, by preliminary experimentation, has determined
the conditions under which they may with a high degree of accuracy
be given to groups of students engaged in actual school work under
ordinary class-room conditions. His students have made a number of
tentative, but suggestive studies, which have not yet been published.
Milo B. Hillegas of Columbia University and others are engaged on
certain aspects of this general type of research. There is reason,
therefore, to believe that we may sometime be able to measure with as
much accuracy the efficiency of well-defined educational processes
as we are now able to measure educational products. If this can be
attained, the technique of class-room teaching and of educational
supervision will begin to rest on a really scientific basis.
[Illustration:
Fig. 56.--Indian house constructed in Dewey’s experimental school by
children between seven and eight years of age, while studying the
development of primitive life.
(Reproduced from the _Elementary School Record_ by permission of the
University of Chicago Press.)]
[Illustration:
Fig. 57.--Specimen No. 13 taken from the ‘Thorndike Writing Scale.’
This specimen constitutes the approximate quality of handwriting that
may reasonably be expected of pupils in the seventh or eighth grade. In
the complete scale the specimens are numbered from 4 to 18.]
[Sidenote: Other mental and social measurements,]
[Sidenote: and ‘educational surveys.’]
Moreover, by the use of the improved statistical method and of
scales, studies of greatly increased value have been made of fatigue,
retardation, elimination, and of other social and mental phenomena of
individual children. And in 1911, with the reports of Paul H. Hanus
of Harvard University and Ernest C. Moore of Yale University upon the
school systems of Montclair and East Orange, New Jersey, there began
to be instituted those measurements and consequent criticisms of whole
school systems, known as ‘educational surveys.’ These scientific
reports have been extended to the educational work of a large number
of cities and states throughout the Union. They are intended to enable
school officers and patrons to comprehend with more definiteness the
absolute, as well as the relative, achievements of their children.
[Sidenote: New attitude toward intelligence.]
[Sidenote: Studies of mental development in the race and individual.]
[Sidenote: Change in imagery and vocabulary.]
=Education and the Theory of Evolution.=--A most characteristic
influence in education to-day has come through the theory of evolution
of Darwin (Fig. 51). This fruitful hypothesis came to be generally
accepted during the last quarter of the nineteenth century as the
guiding principle of education, and has constantly increased the
illumination it has shed upon the educational process. It has given
an entirely new meaning to education, and has greatly modified
the course of study and revolutionized the method of approaching
educational problems. It has wrought very much the same changes in
the treatment of intelligence that it did in the biological sciences.
Consciousness is no longer regarded as a fixed set of entities, but
as a developmental process. Instead of classifying and cataloging
mental processes in fixed groups, efforts are made to study their
growth from the standpoint both of the race and of the individual.
Studies of mental development in the race, begun by Darwin’s _Descent
of Man_, which recognized ‘sexual’ and ‘social selection,’ as well as
‘natural selection,’ have been continued by numerous investigators,
and equally extensive researches have also been latterly made in
genetic psychology, child study, mental development, and adolescence.
Both observation and experimentation have been introduced into the
study of mental processes. Even more revolutionary than this actual
increase in knowledge, however, is the change that has taken place in
the conception, imagery, and terminology of education. Writers upon
education constantly employ the language of evolution. Educational
discussions are now filled with such terms as ‘variation,’ ‘selection,’
‘adjustment,’ and ‘adaptation,’ and such concepts dominate all
educational thinking. If educational leaders of half a century ago
could be present to-day at a gathering of educational thinkers, they
would find themselves listening to what would seem to them almost a
foreign language.
[Sidenote: Centralization;]
[Sidenote: school hygiene;]
[Sidenote: school architecture;]
[Sidenote: professionalization of teaching.]
[Sidenote: Reorganization of secondary and higher education.]
=Enlarging Conceptions of the Function of Education.=--Such are a
few of the chief tendencies and advances that are being made in
education to-day. There is also a great variety of other educational
movements, almost too numerous to be mentioned. In the organization
and administration of the public schools there is a decided tendency
toward centralization in educational activities, corresponding to the
centralization in industrial and political affairs. The United States
Bureau of Education and the various State Departments of Public
Instruction have had their functions much enlarged and their activities
greatly increased. There are also such matters as the new procedure
in school hygiene, arising from the modern attitude toward the
prevention of disease; new health regulations, as a result of having
so many children housed in the same buildings; medical inspection,
open-air schools, and better nourishment; and new tendencies in school
architecture. Likewise we find progressive legislation on compulsory
school attendance; more extensive training of teachers; a rapid
recognition of education as a profession; the organization of various
types of teachers’ associations; and the development of educational
journalism. Secondary education is also being greatly extended and
largely reorganized. ‘Junior high schools,’ combining the upper grades
of the elementary school with the lower grades of the secondary
school, and thus bridging the gap, are being widely introduced into
American cities, and a variety of propositions for a six-year course
are being seriously entertained. In connection with higher education
there are such new tendencies as university extension, correspondence
courses, summer sessions, university interest in the practical problems
of the people, the correlation of the first two years of college
with the secondary school, more flexible entrance requirements, an
increasing number of fields of professional work, and, above all, the
professional training of teachers through Departments of Education,
Teachers Colleges, and Schools of Education. With this is connected the
scientific study of Education, both in graduate courses and independent
investigations.
[Sidenote: Other progressive tendencies.]
Similar efforts to secure economy, guard health, improve method, and
cause education to serve democratic ideals are everywhere apparent.
Educational theory and practice are in a constant flux, and have
entered upon a most distinctive epoch of experimentation, change, and
improvement. While such a situation is not without its perils, and each
proposal should be carefully scrutinized before acceptance, the present
tendencies are in the main a sign of progress and life.
SUPPLEMENTARY READING
Graves, _In Modern Times_ (Macmillan, 1913), chap. XI; Monroe,
_Textbook_ (Macmillan, 1905), chaps. XIII-XIV. For the special
tendencies mentioned, the following works may be consulted: Cooley, E.
G., _Vocational Education in Europe_ (Chicago Commercial Club, 1912);
Hanus, P. H., _Beginnings in Industrial Education_ (Houghton, Mifflin,
1908); Haskins, C. W., _Business Education and Accounting_ (Harper,
1904); Adler, F., _Moral Instruction of Children_ (Appleton, 1895);
Palmer, G. H., _Ethical and Moral Instruction in Schools_ (Houghton,
Mifflin, 1909); Goddard, H. H., _Education of Defectives_ (_Monroe’s
Cyclopædia of Education_); Bell, A. G., _Deaf Mute Instruction in
Relation to the Work of the Public Schools_; Armitage, T., _Education
and Employment of the Blind_ (Harrison & Sons, London, 1886); Dewey,
J., _The School and Society_ (University of Chicago Press, 1899),
and _Elementary School Record_ (University of Chicago Press, 1900);
Montessori, Maria, _The Montessori Method_ (Translated by Anne E.
George, Stokes Co., New York, 1912); Kilpatrick, W. H., _The Montessori
Method Examined_ (Houghton, Mifflin, 1914); Ayres, L. P., _Measuring
Educational Processes through Educational Results_ (_School Review_,
May, 1912); Strayer, G. D., _Standards and Tests for Measuring the
Efficiency of Schools_ (Report of the Committee of the National Council
of Education in the _United States Bureau of Education Bulletin_, 1913,
No. 13); Thorndike, E. L., _The Measurement of Educational Products_
(_School Review_, May, 1912).
CHAPTER XXVIII
RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT
OUTLINE
Evolution in education may be interpreted from the standpoint of
the development of individualism. Individualism was first fully
recognized in the teachings of Christ, but was repressed during
the Middle Ages. While it reappeared during the Renaissance,
Reformation, and other movements, it soon lapsed, but a complete
break from tradition occurred with Rousseau in the eighteenth
century.
For a time individualism dominated, but education since then has
endeavored to afford latitude to the individual without losing
sight of the welfare of society.
[Sidenote: Progress of individualistic tendencies during the days of
primitive man,]
[Sidenote: Oriental nations,]
[Sidenote: Jewish, Athenian, and Roman civilizations,]
[Sidenote: Christian development,]
[Sidenote: and the Middle Ages;]
=The Development of Individualism.=--The discussion of present day
tendencies that has just been given, together with the account of
educational evolution in the preceding chapters, serves to show how far
modern times have progressed in the ideals and practice of education.
This may perhaps be best appreciated from the standpoint of the
development of individualism. To follow such an interpretation back to
the beginning of the history of education, it may be stated that during
the day of primitive man no real distinction was made between society
and the individual, and practically all advancement was impossible,
for no one looked much beyond the present. With the appearance of the
transitional period in the Oriental countries, the individual had
begun to emerge, but was kept in constant subjection to the social
whole, for man was quite enslaved to the past. As the Jewish, Athenian,
and Roman civilizations developed, the beginnings of individualism
were for the first time clearly revealed, and some regard was had
for the future. Then, through the teachings of Christ, there came to
be a larger recognition of the principle of individualism and the
brotherhood of man. Owing to a necessity for spreading these enlarged
ideals among a barbarous horde of peoples, individualism was repressed,
and throughout the Middle Ages the keynote was submission to authority
and preparation for the life to come. The cultural products of Greece
and Rome largely disappeared, and all civilization became restricted,
fixed, and formal.
[Sidenote: the Renaissance,]
[Sidenote: the Reformation,]
[Sidenote: and realism;]
[Sidenote: Puritanism and Pietism;]
But the human spirit could not be forever held in bondage, and, after
almost a millennium of repression and uniformity, various factors
that had accumulated within the Middle Ages produced an intellectual
awakening that we know as the ‘Renaissance.’ Its vitality lasted during
the fifteenth century in Italy and to the close of the sixteenth in the
Northern countries, but by the dawn of the seventeenth century it had
everywhere degenerated into a dry and mechanical study of the classics.
This constituted a formalism almost as dense as that it had superseded,
except that linguistic and literary studies had replaced dialectic and
theology. A little later than the spread of the Renaissance, though
overlapping it somewhat, came the allied movement of the ‘Reformation.’
This grew in part out of the disposition of the Northern Renaissance
to turn to social and moral account the revived intelligence and
learning. Yet here also the revival failed in its mission, and
the tendency to rely upon reason rather than dogma hardened into
formalism and a distrust of individualism. Again, in the seventeenth
century, apparently as an outgrowth of the same forces, intellectual
activity took the form of a search for ‘real things.’ The movement
that culminated in ‘sense realism’ appeared, but this small and crude
beginning of the modern scientific tendency was for some decades yet
held within limits. Associated with this realistic tendency, on the
religious and political sides also appeared a quickening in such forms
as ‘Puritanism’ and ‘Pietism,’ which likewise degenerated eventually
into a fanaticism and hypocrisy.
[Sidenote: and Rousseau and the destructive tendency.]
[Sidenote: The present tendencies in education seem to harmonize the
individual interest with those of society.]
=The Harmonization of the Individual and Society.=--Thus the way
was opened for the complete break with tradition and authority that
occurred in the eighteenth century. This tendency, while in France
at least most destructive and costly, was the inevitable result of
the unwillingness to reshape society and education in accordance with
changing ideals and conditions. Hence Rousseau undertook to shatter all
educational traditions. But his recommendation of isolated education,
so palpable in its fallacies, prepared the ground for the numerous
social, scientific, and psychological tendencies (see pp. 218-222) that
were destined to spring up in modern education and for the consequent
improvement in the aim, organization, content, and method of education.
Of course modern education has advanced infinitely beyond anything
implied by Rousseau or even the later reformers of the past century,
but it is out of his attempts at destruction that has grown this nobler
structure. For a time individualism triumphed and ground authority
under its heel, but when this extremity had been passed, the problem
became how to harmonize the individual with society, and to develop
personality progressively in keeping with its environment. Thus the
nineteenth and twentieth centuries have put forth conscious efforts
to justify the eighteenth and to bring out and develop the positions
barely hinted at in its negations. It is not alone the individual as
such that has been of interest in the modern period, but more and more
the individual in relation to the social whole to which he belongs, as
only in this way can the value of his activities be estimated.
[Sidenote: Recent definitions of education show this.]
[Sidenote: The educational problem of the future.]
This is revealed in the works of those who followed Rousseau, and
especially in the attempts of recent educational philosophers to
frame a definition of education that shall recognize the importance
of affording latitude to the individual without losing sight of the
welfare of the social environment in connection with which his efforts
are to function. Thus Butler, though recognizing the individual
factor, especially stresses the social by declaring education to be
“the gradual adjustment of the individual to the spiritual possessions
of the race.” Then he further declares: “When we hear it sometimes
said, ‘All education must start from the child,’ we must add, ‘Yes,
and lead into human civilization;’ and when it is said on the other
hand that ‘all education must start from a traditional past,’ we must
add, ‘Yes, and be adapted to the child.’” And the balance between the
two factors of the individual and society is even more explicitly
preserved in Dewey’s statement “that the psychological and social
sides are organically related, and that education cannot be regarded
as a compromise between the two, or a superimposition of one upon
the other.” In the same way Bagley has made ‘social efficiency’ the
main aim in educating the individual to-day, and both elements are
carefully considered by all modern writers in discussing educational
values. Thus the central problem in education of the twentieth and
succeeding centuries is to be a constant reorganization of the
curriculum and methods of teaching, and this reconstruction must be
such as to harmonize a due regard for the progressive variations of
the individual with the welfare of the conservative institutions of
society. It must include a continual effort to hand on the intellectual
possessions of the race, but also to stimulate all individuals to add
some modification or new element to the product. In this way there may
develop unending possibilities for both the individual and society.
SUPPLEMENTARY READING
Graves, F. P., _History of Education before the Middle Ages_
(Macmillan, 1909), chap. XII; _History of Education during the
Transition_ (Macmillan, 1910), chap. XXIII; _History of Education in
Modern Times_ (Macmillan, 1913), chap. XII; Monroe, P., _Textbook in
the History of Education_ (Macmillan, 1905), chap. X.
INDEX
Abelard, 70, 76.
Academy, in Germany, 158;
in England, 159, 177, 410;
of Franklin, 196;
Lancasterian, 242;
in South, 258;
in New York, 260;
in Massachusetts, 268;
in United States, 274, 331, 414.
Adventure schools, 93.
Agassiz, 398, 413.
Agricola, 112.
Agricultural training, 295 ff., 424.
Alcotts, The, 293.
Alcuin, 61 ff.
Alexandria, 29, 30, 46.
Alsted, 171.
_American Annals of Education_, 305.
_American Journal of Education_ (Russell) 304, (Barnard) 316 ff.
American Sunday School Union, 238.
Andover Theological Seminary, 299.
Anselm, 70.
Antioch, 46.
Apologists, 45.
_Apostles’ Creed_, 48.
Apperception, 338, 341.
Aquinas, 71 f.
Archimedes, 30.
Aristophanes, 19.
Aristotle, 19, 24 ff., 27, 45, 58, 70 f., 165, 182.
Ascham, 117.
Assyria, 5.
Athens, 14 ff.
_Atrium_, 170.
Averroës, 67.
Avicenna, 66, 79.
Babylonia, 5.
Bacon, Francis, 23, 164 f., 166, 171, 174, 206.
Bacon, Roger, 163.
Bagley, W. C., 445.
Barnard, 309, 312 ff.
Basedow, 220, 223 ff., 231.
Bateus, 169.
Bell, Andrew, 239 f.
Benedict, St., 55.
Bentham, 387.
Berkeley, 192.
Blackstone, 387.
Blankenburg, 354.
Blow, Susan E., 366 f.
Board schools, 241, 388 ff., 425.
Boccaccio, 104.
Bölte, 366.
Boëthius, 57 f.
Bonnal, 279.
Boyle, 163.
Brathwaite, 156.
Bray, Thomas, 232.
Brinsley, 119.
British and Foreign Society, 239 f.
Brooks, Charles, 293.
Brothers of Sincerity, 66.
Brothers of the Christian Schools, 140.
Brougham, 387.
Bruni, 105.
Buchanan, James, 245.
Budæus, 110.
Bugenhagen, 128, 145.
Bülow, Baroness von, 354.
Burgdorf, 281 f.
Burgher schools, 93 f.
Burrowes, T. H., 323.
Butler, N. M., 444.
Cæsarea, 46.
Calvin, 130, 193, 197.
Cambridge, 117, 149, 177, 392.
Campe, 225, 228.
Capella, Martianus, 57.
Carlisle, 299.
Carpenter, Mary, 299.
Carter, J. G., 305, 309.
Cassiodorus, 57.
Castes, 5 ff.
Castiglione, 156.
Catechetical schools, 46.
Catechumenal schools, 43 f.
Cathedral schools, 46 f., 54, 131.
Catholepistemiad, 273.
Chantry schools, 94 f., 132.
Charity schools, 231 ff.
Charlemagne, 61 ff.
Charles VIII, 110.
Chavannes, 291, 292.
Cheke, 117.
China, 5.
Chivalry, 83 ff.
Christianity, 29, 42 f.
Chrysoloras, 104.
Cicero, 58, 108, 116, 151.
Circulating schools, 234.
Clement of Alexandria, 46.
Clinton, De Witt, 260.
Cockerton Judgment, 391.
Colburn, Warren, 293.
Colet, 93, 117 f.
College of Clermont, 137.
College of France, 111, 385.
College of Guyenne, 111.
College of William and Mary, 192.
Combe, 403, 405, 410, 416.
Comenius, 167, 168 ff., 224, 353.
Commercial education, 422 f.
Communal collèges, 384.
Concentration, 340, 345 f., 350, 429.
Condillac, 205.
_Conduct of the Understanding_, 180.
_Connecticut Common School Journal_, 313.
Continuation school, 298, 374, 377, 383, 420.
Copernicus, 163.
Corderius, 111, 130.
Cordova, 66.
_Corpus Juris Civilis_, 76, 79.
Correlation, 341, 344, 350.
Council of Whitby, 56.
Court schools, 105 ff.
Cousin, 291 f., 408.
Creativeness, 356 ff.
Culture epochs, 341, 344, 346.
Cygnæus, 363.
D’Alembert, 205.
Dame schools, 266.
Dana, James D., 412.
Darwin, 398, 413, 437 f.
_Decree of Gratian_, 76, 79.
Defectives, 300, 426 ff.
De Garmo, Charles, 348, 351.
Delayed maturing, 221.
Delinquents, 142, 300.
Descartes, 138.
Dewey, John, 364, 429 ff., 444.
Dialectic, 20, 58, 71, 76, 127.
Didascaleum, 14, 18, 21.
Diderot, 205.
Diophantus, 30.
Discipline, Locke’s, 180 ff.
Districts, 266 f.
Divided schools, 267.
Dock, Christopher, 195.
Donatus, 58.
Double translation, 117.
Duns Scotus, 71.
Eaton, Amos, 412.
Écoles maternelles, 383.
Edessa, 46.
Edward VI, 132.
Edwards, Ninian W., 325.
Egypt, 5.
Eisleben, 128, 145.
_Elementarwerk_, 224.
Elementary education, with Hindus, 7;
with Jews, 9;
in Sparta, 13;
in Athens, 14;
in Rome, 33, 36 f.;
monastic, 56;
with Charlemagne, 62;
humanistic, 105 ff., 113 f.;
Sturm, 115;
Zwingli, 129;
Jesuit, 134;
Port Royal, 139 f.;
Reformation, 144 ff.;
Innovators, 156;
Comenius, 171;
German realists, 175;
colonial Virginia, 191;
colonial New York, 194;
colonial Pennsylvania, 195;
colonial Massachusetts, 197;
England, 231, 244 ff., 387 ff., 409;
S. P. G., 234;
monitorial, 240;
France, 243, 381, 408;
United States, 246, 415;
New York, 258 f.;
Herbartian, 347;
Prussia, 377;
Canada, 392 ff.;
Germany, 407.
Eliot, Charles W., 403.
Elyot, 156.
_Emile_, 208 ff.
Encyclopedists, 204 ff.
Épée, Abbé de l’, 428.
Epicureans, 28, 46.
Episcopal schools, 46 f.
Erasmus, 113, 117, 125.
Eratosthenes, 30.
Erigena, 64.
_Essay concerning the Human Understanding_, 180.
Euclid, 30, 58.
_Evening Hour of a Hermit_, 279.
Faculty psychology, 27, 182 ff., 222, 434.
Falloux, 382.
_Father’s Journal_, 278.
Felbiger, 374.
Fellenberg, 219, 295 ff.
Feudalism, 83 f., 90.
Fichte, 290, 351.
Field school, 253.
Formal discipline, 23, 182 ff., 404, 434.
Forster, W. E., 388.
Fortbildungsschulen, 298, 377, 420.
Francis I, 110.
Francke, 175 f.
Francke Institutions, 346.
Frankland, 158.
Franklin, Benjamin, 159, 261.
Frederick Barbarossa, 76.
Frederick the Great, 373.
Frederick William I, 373.
Frederick William III, 290, 375.
Frederick II, 67, 75.
Free School Society, 260.
French Revolution, 204.
Frick, 346.
Froebel, 168, 175, 219, 243, 334, 351 ff., 368, 430 f.
Froebel Union, 365.
Fulda, 63.
Galen, 79, 164.
Galileo, 163.
Galloway, S., 325.
Gild schools, 92 f., 132.
Gifts, 354, 359 f.
Gnosticism, 30, 45.
Goddard, H. H., 427.
Grammar schools, Rome, 36 f.;
cathedral, 47;
monastic, 57;
Charlemagne, 61;
chantry, 94;
England, 118 f.;
America, 120;
New Amsterdam, 194;
Massachusetts, 197;
Virginia, 253;
South, 258;
United States, 274, 331.
Granada, 66.
Gratian, 76, 79.
Gravel Lane School, 234.
Gray, Asa, 413.
_Great Didactic_, 169, 170 ff., 175.
Griscom, 242, 292, 305.
Grocyn, 117.
Grüner, 352.
Guericke, 163.
Guizot, 382.
Guyot, 293.
Gymnasium, Athens, 15, 17, 21;
Melanchthon, 114;
Sturm, 115 f., 128, 157, 176;
Prussian, 378, 406.
Hall, Samuel R., 304.
Hampton, 299.
Hanus, P. H., 437.
Harvard, 149, 177, 198.
Harvey, 164 f., 206.
Haüy, Abbé, 428.
Hawley, Gideon, 259.
Hecker, 176, 373, 378.
Hellenistic philosophy, 29.
Henry VIII, 131.
Herbart, 168, 175, 219, 243, 334 ff., 363, 368.
Herbart Society, 348, 351.
Hieronymians, 112 ff.
High school, 242, 269, 306, 311, 331, 414.
Hillegas, M. B., 436.
Hippocrates, 79.
Hofwyl, 295 ff.
Home and Colonial School Society, 246.
Hopkins, Edward, 120.
_How Gertrude Teaches Her Children_, 282, 286.
Humanistic education, 102 ff., 164.
Hume, 335.
Hutton, 398.
Huxley, 220, 399, 402, 404, 416.
India, 5 ff.
Induction, 165, 173 f.
Industrial education, of gilds, 91 f.;
La Salle, 141;
Virginia, 191, 193;
Massachusetts, 197;
Philanthropinum, 229;
monitorial, 240;
charity, 249;
Pestalozzi, 278 ff.;
Fellenberg, 295 ff.;
Europe, 298 ff.;
present status, 419 ff.
Infant School Society, 246 f.
Infant schools, 243 ff.
Initiatory ceremonies, 5.
Innovators, 156.
Irnerius, 76.
Isocrates, 28.
Jansenists, 138 ff.
_Janua Linguarum_, 169, 174.
Jarrow, 56.
Jefferson, 253, 270.
Jesuits, 133 ff.
Jews, 9 f.
Joule, 398.
Judaism, 29.
Jullien, General, 291 f.
Justinian, 54, 76.
Kant, 227.
Keilhau, 353.
Kepler, 163, 165.
Kerschensteiner, 420.
Kindergarten, 354, 358 ff., 364 ff.
Kitchen school, 267.
Krüsi, 289.
Lancaster, Joseph, 239 ff.
Lagrange, 398, 408.
Lange, Karl, 346.
Langethal, 352.
Laplace, 398, 408.
La Salle, 140.
Latin schools. See Grammar schools.
_Laws, The_, 23.
_Leonard and Gertrude_, 278 f.
Leopold of Dessau, 225.
Lewis, S., 325.
Liberal studies, 23, 56 f., 122.
Libraries, 307.
Liebig, 398, 406.
Liebenstein, 354.
Lily, 113, 118.
Linacre, 117.
Locke, 154 ff., 158, 179, 206, 213, 335.
Louis XII, 110.
Louis XIV, 140.
Louis XV, 207.
Louis Philippe, 382.
Loyola, 132 f.
Ludus, 36 f.
Luther, 114, 125 ff.
Lycées, 384, 408.
McClure, William, 292.
McMurry, C. A., 348.
McMurry, F. M., 348, 351.
Malpighi, 164.
Mann, 293, 304, 306 ff., 415.
Manual training, in United States, 298 f.;
Cygnæus, 363;
in France, 383.
Many-sided interest, 336 ff.
Marwedel, Emma, 366.
Mason, 293.
_Massachusetts Common School Journal_, 307.
Maternal schools, 244.
Maurus, Rabanus, 63 f.
Mayer, 398.
Mayo, Charles, 246, 291.
Medici, 105.
Melanchthon, 114, 128, 131, 145.
Mendel, 398.
Merchant Taylors’, 92, 120.
Meriam, J. L., 432.
_Methodenbuch_, 224.
Middendorf, 352.
Mills, Caleb, 325.
Milton, 152, 155, 157.
Mittelschule, 377.
Mohammed, 65.
Mohammedanism, 27, 65 ff.
Monastic schools, 49, 54 ff., 132.
Monitorial system, 239 ff.
Montaigne, 153 f., 155.
Montessori, 433.
Moore, E. C., 437.
Moors, 66.
More, 23, 117.
_Morrill Act_, 413.
Morton, Charles, 158.
_Mother Play and Nursery Songs_, 358 f., 360.
Motor expression, 356.
Moving school, 267.
Mulcaster, 155 f.
Murphy, Judge A. D., 257.
Nägeli, 285, 293.
Napoleon, 381, 408.
National Education Association, 350.
National Society, 233, 239 f.
Naturalism, 180, 277.
Nature study, 415.
Neander, 129.
Neef, 292.
Neomazdeism, 29.
Neoplatonism, 30.
Neopythagoreanism, 29.
Neshaminy, 196.
Nestorius, 46.
Neuhof, 278.
_New Atlantis_, 23, 166.
Newlands, 398.
_New Testament_, 48.
Newton, 164 f., 177, 206, 398.
Niccoli, Niccolo de’, 105.
_Nicene Creed_, 48.
Nicolovius, 290.
Nisibis, 46.
Normal schools, Carter, 305;
Mann, 307 f.;
Massachusetts, 320;
Middle states, 322, 324;
Zedlitz, 374;
France, 382, 408.
Notre Dame, 76.
Novalis, 321.
_Novum Organum_, 165.
Oberlin, 244.
Oberrealschule, 378 f., 406.
Observation, 276 ff., 280, 286 ff., 337, 343.
Occam, William of, 71.
Occupational work, Froebel, 363;
Europe and United States, 364;
Dewey, 429 f.
Occupations, 354, 359 f.
_Orbis Pictus_, 170, 174, 224.
Ordinance of 1787, 271.
Origen of Alexandria, 46.
Oswego methods, 293 f., 415.
Otherworldliness, 43 ff., 75, 101, 121.
_Outlines of Educational Doctrine_, 337.
Owen, 244 f., 387.
Oxford, 117, 149, 177, 392, 409.
Pädagogium, 176.
Palace school, 61.
Palæstra, 14, 17, 21.
Pancratium, 13.
Pansophia, 167, 169, 171 ff.
Parishads, 7.
Parker, Colonel F. W., 293, 350, 364, 429.
Parochial schools, 193 f.
Peabody, Elizabeth P., 366.
Peabody Educational Fund, 329.
Peacham, 156.
Penn, 120.
Penn Charter School, 195.
Pentathlum, 13 f.
Permissive laws, 256 f., 263 f., 269, 273, 320, 322, 324 f., 328.
Persia, 5.
Pestalozzi, 156, 168, 175, 219, 243, 277 ff., 363, 368, 415.
Peter the Lombard, 71 f., 76, 79.
Petrarch, 103 f.
Philanthropic movement, 229 ff.
Philanthropinum, 223 ff.
Philip Augustus, 76.
Philonism, 29.
Philosophical schools, Athens, 27 f.
Pickering, Timothy, 261 f.
Pietists, 176 f.
Plamann, 289.
Plato, 19 ff., 45, 56 f.
_Politics_, 24.
Poor schools, 261.
Port Royal, 138 ff.
Prelection, 135.
Primitive peoples, 4 f.
Princes’ schools, 116.
Priscian, 58.
Progymnasien, 379.
Protagoras, 18 f.
Prussian-Pestalozzianism, 289, 293, 308.
Psychological movement, 220 f., 415 f.
Ptolemy, 58.
Public schools, England, 120, 410.
Public School Society, 247, 261, 322.
Pythagoras, 18 f., 23, 45.
Quadrivium, 23, 57, 62.
_Quarterly Register_, 305.
Quintilian, 58.
Rabelais, 155.
Raikes, 237.
Ramus, 111.
Ratich, 167, 175.
Raymund of Toledo, 67.
Realgymnasien, 378, 406.
Realism, 151 ff., 162, 179.
Realprogymnasien, 379.
Realschulen, 176, 378 f., 406.
Rechahn, 228.
Reformation, 125 ff.
Reformschulen, 379.
Rein, W., 342, 346.
Renaissance, 70, 95, 101 ff.
_Republic, The_, 21 ff.
Reuchlin, 112, 114.
Reyher, Andreas, 175.
Rhetorical schools, Athens, 28, 30;
Rome, 36, 38 f.
_Rhode Island School Journal_, 314.
Ritter, 220, 285 f., 293.
Ritterakademien, 157, 176.
_Robinson Crusoe_, 216, 225, 345.
Rochow, 228.
Rogers, W. B., 413.
Rolland, 381.
Rollin, 140.
Rome, 29 f., 32 ff.
Rousseau, 156, 175, 179, 206 ff., 231, 277, 285 ff., 363, 368, 416, 443.
Rush, B., 261.
Russell, W., 304.
St. Paul’s school, 93, 118, 132.
St. Yon, 141.
Salomon, 364.
Salzmann, 220, 225, 228, 231, 284.
Saxony, 145.
Schelling, 352.
Schlegels, The, 352.
Scholasticism, 69 ff., 76.
_Scholemaster, The_, 117.
_Science of Education_, 337.
Scientific movement, 152, 163, 166 f., 219 f., 397 ff.
Secondary education, Athens, 15, 17;
Plato, 21;
Aristotle, 25;
Rome, 36;
gild schools, 92;
humanistic, 105 ff.;
French, 111;
German, 114 ff.;
England, 118 f., 132, 158, 390 f., 409;
Jesuit, 134;
Port Royal, 138 ff.;
La Salle, 141;
Reformation, 147 f.;
America, 158 ff., 274, 414;
Comenius, 171;
realists, 176;
colonial, 191 f., 193 f., 195 f., 196 f.;
charity schools, 235;
monitorial, 242;
Virginia, 253 f.;
other Southern states, 256 f.;
New York, 258 f.;
Massachusetts, 268;
Carter, 306;
Mann, 319, 331;
Herbart, 347;
Prussia, 373, 378 ff.;
France, 384, 408;
Canada, 394;
Germany, 406.
Seguin, 426 f., 433.
Self-activity, 356 ff.
Semler, 176.
Sense realism, 152, 162 ff., 169, 173, 175 f., 179.
_Seventh Annual Report_, Mann’s, 293, 308.
Sheldon, E. A., 293.
Simultaneous method, 143.
Skeptics, 28.
Smith, Adam, 387.
Social realism, 153 ff.
Sociological movement, 218, 357, 415 ff.
Socrates, 19 f.
Sophie, 217.
Sophists, 17 ff.
Sparta, 12 ff.
Spencer, 220, 400 ff., 416.
S. P. C. K., 232.
S. P. G., 234 ff.
S. P. K. G., 236.
Stanz, 279 ff.
Stevens, Thaddeus, 263.
Stoics, 28, 45.
Stowe, David, 305.
Stoy, 345 f.
Strassburg, 115, 128.
Sturm, 115 f., 128, 131.
Süvern, 290.
Sunday schools, 237 f.
_Swiss Family Robinson_, 225.
Syllabaries, 281, 283.
Table of fractions, 283.
Table of units, 281, 283, 293.
Technische Hochschulen, 380, 406.
Theodore of Gaza, 113.
Thorndike, E. L., 435.
_Thoughts concerning Education_, 179 f.
Tieck, 352.
Toledo, 66.
Torricelli, 163.
Trinity Church School, 235.
Trivium, 57.
Trotzendorf, 129.
Türck, 290.
Tuskegee, 299.
University, Athens, 29, 39;
Alexandria, 28, 39;
Rhodes, 29, 39;
Rome, 29, 39;
Pergamon, 29;
mediæval, 74 ff.;
Paris, 75 ff., 110;
Bologna, 75 ff.;
Salerno, 75;
Erfurt, 111;
Leipzig, 111;
Heidelberg, 111;
Tübingen, 111;
Ingoldstadt, 111;
Vienna, 111;
Wittenberg, 111;
Marburg, 111;
Königsberg, 111;
Jena, 111;
after Reformation, 148 f.;
Halle, 177;
Göttingen, 177;
Yale, 177;
Princeton, 177, 196;
Columbia, 177;
Pennsylvania, 177;
Virginia, 254;
Georgia, 256;
Michigan, 326;
France, 381;
Cornell, 413;
Johns Hopkins, 413.
University of the State of New York, 259.
Vaux, Robert, 247.
Vergerio, 105.
Verona, 105.
Vestibulum, 169 f.
Visconti, 105.
Vittorino da Feltre, 105 ff.
Vives, 117.
Vocational education, 219, 240, 249.
Volksschulen, 145, 377, 407.
Voltaire, 204 ff., 287.
Voluntary schools, 388 ff., 425.
Vorschulen, 380.
Wandering students, 78.
Wehrli, 295.
Weiss, Professor, 352.
Wessel, 112.
_What Knowledge Is of Most Worth_, 400.
Whitebread, 387.
Wilderspin, 245.
William of Champeaux, 76.
Williams, Roger, 120.
Wimpfeling, 112, 125.
Wirt, W. A., 432.
Witmer, L., 427.
Woman’s education, Hindu, 7;
Sparta, 14;
Athens, 15;
Aristotle, 25;
Rome, 34;
Convent, 56;
Luther, 127;
realists, 156;
academies, 160;
Comenius, 171;
charity schools, 278;
Pestalozzi, 278;
Fellenberg, 297;
Mann, 309;
France, 385.
Woodbridge, W. C., 305.
Woodhouse, John, 158.
Würtemberg, 145.
Wyss, 255.
Yocum, A. D., 436.
York, 56, 61.
Youmans, E. L., 403, 405.
Yverdon, 283.
Zedlitz, von, 374.
Ziller, 289, 295, 341 f., 345 f., 347.
Zoroastrianism, 29.
Zwingli, 129.
Printed in the United States of America
[Transcriber’s Note:
Page 218 line 8, Emile changed to read _Emile_ for consistency.
Obvious printer errors corrected silently.
Inconsistent spelling and hyphenation are as in the original.]