WE CAPTURE THE DESERT CITY OF DERNE
"_An army, composed in part of Americans, but chiefly of the
descendants of the ancient Grecians, Egyptians and Arabians; in
other words, an army collected from the four quarters of the
globe, and led by an American commander to conquest and glory,
is a phenomenon in military history calculated to attract the
attention of the world, not only by its novelty, but by its real
influence and consequence. It ought to be considered, too, that
this army, notwithstanding the singularity of its organization and
character, and the smallness of its number and its means, acted in
a cause that might be thought to affect, at least in some remote
degree, the general interest of mankind. Since the destruction of
Cato, and his little senate at Utica, the banner of freedom had
never waved in that desert and barbarous quarter of the globe; and
he who carried it so nobly, in the language of the resolution,
through the desert of Libya, and placed it so triumphantly upon
the African shore of the Mediterranean deserves to be honorably
distinguished by that country and that government, to which the
enterprise has added lustre._"
--Speech made by James Elliott, Representative from Vermont,
before the House of Representatives.
Every step we took, I could tell by the rector's map, which now I
daily consulted, was taking me to that section of the coast where the
treasure lay buried. We had hard fighting ahead of us, and all of my
energies were needed to help our cause, yet I was determined to find
enough time to make the search. The problem of finding a trustworthy
person who could read for me the Arabic inscription on the map had
been solved through my friendship with Mustapha, who had acquired a
fair education in Egypt. I planned to go to Tokra under his guidance.
My plans worked out well, but in a different way from that which I
proposed.
The first duty ahead of our army--a task that must be done before any
treasure hunt could be thought of--was the capture of Derne. The city
of Tokra lay beyond Derne. Our army, if it went on to Tripoli, must
pass near it. The coast was clear--if Derne were captured by us. Little
did I think that the ill fortunes of our soldiers should send me forth
at last to fulfill my long-cherished aim.
Two days after leaving Bomba, we camped on a height that overlooks
Derne, and reconnoitered. We had reached the climax of our march. We
learned that the governor of the place had decided to defend the city
against us. We learned also that the army Joseph Bashaw had sent from
Tripoli was making a forced march to Derne and might arrive before the
return of our vessels, which had been blown out to sea in a gale. This
information alarmed the Turks and Arabs. Hamet, we observed, again
seemed to be ready for flight. The Sheik il Taiib, who had promised to
prove himself a valiant man at Derne, quitted the camp.
Several chiefs came out from Derne to assure Hamet of their faith. They
told us that the city was divided into three departments; that two
of these favored Hamet and one Joseph, but that the department that
favored Joseph was strongest and had control of the guns.
General Eaton had sent a messenger to the governor under a flag of
truce with this message:
"I want no territory. With me is advancing the real sovereign
of your country--give us a passage through your city; and for
the supplies of which we shall have need, you shall receive fair
pay. Let no differences of religion induce us to shed the blood
of harmless men who think little and know nothing. If you are a
man of liberal mind you will not hesitate. Hamet Bashaw pledged
himself to me that you shall be established in your government. I
shall see you tomorrow in a way of your choice.
"Eaton."
The flag of truce was sent back to the general by the governor with
this answer:
"My head or yours!"
"We shall see whose head it will be!" General Eaton declared.
Having learned that the army from Tripoli was only a four hours' march
distant, the general determined to attack the city before it had time
to arrive.
On the next morning the _Argus_, _Hornet_ and _Nautilus_ appeared off
the coast, and on a signal sailed in toward the city. The general at
once began the assault. The fleet sent a few guns ashore to assist
us in the land attack, and then the three vessels opened fire on the
city's batteries.
The Governor of Derne had mounted a battery of eight nine-pounders
along the water-front; had thrown up breastworks along the unprotected
parts of the city; and had mounted cannon on the terrace of his palace
and on the roofs of certain buildings. We heard that he possessed an
army of eight hundred men, in addition to such citizens as would fight
with him.
General Eaton, with a detachment actively commanded by Lieutenant
O'Bannon, consisting of the six American marines, twenty-four gunners,
twenty-six Greeks, and a few Arabs, attacked the temporary forts that
had been thrown up in the southeast section of the town. Hamet Bashaw
attacked and captured an old castle on the southwest, and drew up his
cavalry on this site. I fought beside the general, and a stiff business
it was. The enemy's musketry was so warm that our troops were thrown
into confusion. To counteract this, the general ordered a charge. The
enemy had flocked to the point where we advanced, so that we had to
fight as ten to one. The infidels waged a guerrilla warfare, dashing
out of their hiding-places and then, in retreat, firing from behind
every palm tree and wall along their way.
The battery was at last silenced by the fire of our ships, and most of
the gunners retired to join the forces opposed to us. Yet on we went,
passing through a shower of bullets from the walls of houses. Soon we
reached the battery, and wrested it from its defenders. I had the honor
of planting, amidst cheers from my comrades, the American flag on the
wall--an honor indeed, since this was the first time the American flag
had been raised on a fort of the old world. Then we turned the guns on
the infidels and drove them back into the houses, where they could only
fire at us from behind walls.
[Illustration: THIS WAS THE FIRST TIME AN AMERICAN FLAG HAD BEEN RAISED
ON A FORT OF THE OLD WORLD.]
Our ships, which had suspended their fire during our charge, now
resumed bombarding the houses that sheltered the governor and his men.
The deadly fire of the ships terrified the already faint-hearted forces
there, and they began to flee in disorder. Hamet's troops captured
the governor's castle, and his cavalry pursued the flying foe. By four
o'clock in the afternoon we were in full possession of the city, the
action having lasted about two hours and a half. Of the Christians
who fought there were fourteen killed and wounded. Three of these
were American marines; two dead and one wounded. The rest of the dead
were Greeks. Our Grecian allies showed great bravery and were worthy
descendants of the ancient heroes of their race.
THE GOVERNOR FLEES
The governor fled first to a mosque; then to the abode of an old sheik.
"I must lay hold of him!" General Eaton said. "He is the third man in
rank in the entire kingdom of Tripoli, and we can use him to exchange
for Captain Bainbridge!"
The general, in great zeal to take the governor captive, now marched at
the head of fifty Christians with bayonets to that remote section in
which the fugitive had found refuge. The aged chief who sheltered him,
however, vowed that the laws of hospitality would be violated if he
permitted us to take the governor, and refused to yield him up to us.
General Eaton explained that the Governor had rejected peace terms; had
challenged us and been beaten at his post; was still in a conquered
town, and was by all the laws of war a prisoner. The sheik remained
firm.
The citizens of Derne began to look at us with hostile eyes.
"The Christians no longer respect the customs of our fathers and our
laws of hospitality," they exclaimed.
Hamet Bashaw, fearful that the people would be turned against him if
we seized the governor against the old sheik's wishes, persuaded the
general to postpone the attempt.
We had been in possession of Derne about a week when the army sent from
Tripoli arrived and planted their camp on the ground we had occupied.
Meanwhile, General Eaton had fortified the city as strongly as possible.
We found ourselves facing enemies within and foes without, because the
people of the town, true to their nature, were now debating which army
would be the most likely to win, so that they might be on the victor's
side. The late governor, we learned, was the leader in trying to
persuade the people of the city to revolt against us.
On May 18th the troops from Tripoli advanced towards the city in order
of battle, but when General Eaton marshalled his forces to meet them
they halted, conferred, and then retired. We found out later that
the Beys in charge of the enemy's forces had tried day after day to
persuade the Arabs under them to attack. They had refused, stating that
Joseph Bashaw must send them aid before they would attempt to conquer
the city.
"We have," they said, "not only our lives to preserve, but also the
lives of our families. Hamet has possession of the town; his Christian
allies possess the batteries; these, together with the great guns of
the American ships, would destroy us if we attacked!"
The Beys then demanded of the Arabs that they permit their camels to be
used to protect the front and flanks of the assaulting forces, but this
too was refused.
Word came to General Eaton that Hassien Bey, commander of the enemy's
forces, had offered six thousand dollars for his head, and double that
sum if he were brought as a prisoner. We heard also that thirty dollars
had been offered for the head of an ordinary Christian.
Then there came to our camp a Bedouin holy man who had previously been
befriended by the general. He whispered that two women, one in our
camp and one in Derne, had been employed by Hassien Bey to poison our
commander. In payment for this service they had already been given
presents of diamond rings. The saint cautioned the General not to
accept any presents of pastry, preserves or fruit.
A few days later, the forces of Hassien Bey gave battle. He was
assisted by Muhamed, Bey of Bengazi; Muhamed, Bey of Derne, and
Imhamed, Bey of Ogna. Under them were one thousand mounted Arabs and
two thousand Arabs on foot. On the night before, Muhamed, the former
governor of Derne, had escaped into Hassien Bey's camp, and had told
him that our numbers on shore were far less than the general had
supposed. Encouraged by this information Hassien Bey ordered the attack.
About nine o'clock in the morning his troops appeared, under five
standards, and attacked about one hundred of Hamet's cavalry, who had
been stationed about a mile from town. The cavalry fought bravely but
were forced to retreat. The _Argus_ and _Nautilus_ trained their guns
on the enemy, and we in town bombarded them with our battery and field
pieces, but by taking advantage of walls they penetrated the town up
to the palace that sheltered Hamet. Here they were met by a hot rifle
fire from Hamet's supporters, but they held their ground stubbornly,
determined to capture Hamet.
The general was wondering whether with the small force in charge of
the battery he dare risk a sortie to defend Hamet, when fortunately a
shot from one of our nine-pounders killed two mounted enemies near the
palace.
Instantly they sounded a retreat and fled from all quarters. Hamet's
cavalry pursued them. In their flight they again came within range of
our ships' guns, and these poured into their ranks a galling fire.
We were told later by an Italian slave who escaped from their camp
that they had lost twenty-eight men killed and that fifty-six of their
number had been wounded by our fire.
This defeat took the heart out of the Arabs supporting the Beys.
Officers and soldiers began to desert to us from the enemy, and when
Hassien Bey began to prepare for another assault by collecting camels
that would be used as traveling breastworks, the Arabs recruited on the
march refused to take part. They protested that they would have been
willing to fight under ordinary circumstances, but that the Americans
were firing balls that would kill both a rider and his horse, and that
they would not expose themselves to such shots. They also complained
that we rushed at them with bayonets, and would not give them time to
reload their muskets!
Hearing these reports our fearless general tried to persuade Hamet to
make a counter-attack, but without success. Skirmishes continued to
occur. A few days after the battle, a company of the enemy attacked
some Arab families who had camped in the rear of the town. Learning
of the attack, the general headed a party of thirty-five Greeks and
Americans, with a view to cutting off their retreat. We met them in a
mountain's ravine--the Greeks must have thought of the Spartans at
Thermopylae--and charged them with our bayonets. They broke and fled,
hotly pursued. We killed their captain and five men, and took two
prisoners. None of us were injured.
This affair put Hassien Bey in a frenzy. The next morning he came
forward to revenge his cause, but again the Arabs mutinied and
retreated, leaving Hassien and his soldiers to follow in humiliation
back to their camp.
Hamet Bashaw had his turn at open fighting a few days later, and
acquitted himself far better than we expected. The enemy appeared in
great numbers on the heights overlooking the town, seeking a way to
descend that would not expose them to the fire of our guns. They found
a pass and started to descend to the plain below, but here Hamet's
cavalry met them and, as reinforcements joined each side, the battle
increased in size until there were five thousand men engaged. The
fighting lasted four hours, during which Hamet held his ground like
a true general. It was a battle fought in the Barbary style, for the
field of conflict was beyond the range of our batteries, and we were
rejoiced to learn that the victory belonged to Hamet. The enemy lost
fifty men killed, and had over seventy wounded, while of the forces
of Hamet, the killed and wounded amounted together to about fifty. We
had lost respect for Hamet during our march across the desert, but his
gallantry in this engagement restored confidence.
Lieutenant O'Bannon was eager to lead our Americans and Greeks out
to hold the pass by which the enemy must retreat with our bayonets,
but the general decided wisely that it would be unwise to leave the
batteries undefended, since Hamet Bashaw's forces might suffer a
reverse.
THE CAMPAIGN BLOCKED
Our prolonged stay at Derne had begun to worry both the general and
Hamet. I saw them frequently conferring with great seriousness, and
heard General Eaton say that if the aid, money, and supplies had come
which he hoped would be awaiting him at Derne, he might now be at Cape
Mensurat, and in fifteen days after, at Tripoli.
My wonder as to what there was being discussed by the general and Hamet
Bashaw was cleared away somewhat by the arrival of a spy from the
enemy's camp, who informed us that a courier had arrived, eleven days
from Tripoli, with dispatches from the reigning Bashaw stating that
he intended to make peace with the United States, _even if he had to
sell his wardrobe_ to do so. This was a great change of front; a change
caused, we all felt sure, by our conquest of Derne, and by our openly
avowed determination to capture Tripoli in the same manner.
Then there came a letter from Commodore Barron which informed General
Eaton that the United States must withdraw her support from Hamet,
since Consul Lear was making a peace with Joseph.
The general wrote hotly in reply: "I cannot be persuaded that the
abandoning of Hamet is in keeping with those principles of honor and
justice which I know actuate the national breast. But, if no further
aids come, and we are compelled to leave the place, humanity itself
must weep; the whole city of Derne, together with numerous families
of Arabs, who attached themselves to Hamet Bashaw, and who resisted
Joseph's troops in expectation of help from us, must be left to their
fate; havoc and slaughter must follow; not a soul of them can escape
the savage vengeance of the enemy; instead of lending aid to the
unfortunate people, we involve them in destruction."
The general wrote also in protest to the Secretary of the Navy, stating
that when Commodore Barron agreed to cooperate with Hamet there was
no talk of the latter being used as a means of making peace with the
reigning Bashaw; that nothing was talked of but punishment. The example
of Commodore Preble, he stated, had fired the squadron which relieved
him with an ambition to punish Joseph, and it was in the same spirit
that he, General Eaton, was sent on his mission to bring Hamet to the
rear of the enemy.
Shortly after these letters were dispatched, we had occasion to march
through Derne.
"Long live the Americans! Long live our friends and protectors!" the
people shouted.
The general bowed his head in shame.
General Eaton, in the opinion of all of us who marched with him, and
of many with whom I afterwards talked, could well complain of the way
he was treated by the United States Government. He had won at Derne a
victory that many thought was superior to the naval victories won over
Tripoli, and by his campaign had opened the way for a peace that saved
the United States the payment of hundreds of thousands of dollars in
warships and tribute money. Yet he had been allowed to enter upon his
enterprise in such a manner that if successful the Administration would
receive full credit for sending him, while if he failed, he could be
blamed for acting without authority.
At Tripoli, peace was being made after this manner: Colonel Lear,
then at Malta, received a letter from the Spanish consul at Tripoli
asking him to come to that place under a flag of truce, as the Bashaw
wanted to discuss peace. A few weeks later Captain Bainbridge wrote to
Commodore Barron that the Tripolitan minister of foreign affairs, Sidi
Mohammed Dghiers, who was opposed to the war, was about to leave the
city, and that it would be well to send an envoy to treat for peace
before the minister left.
Colonel Lear sailed from Malta on the _Essex_, which joined the
blockading frigates _Constitution_ and _President_ of Tripoli. The
white flag hoisted by Lear was answered by the hoisting of a similar
flag on the Bashaw's castle. The terms agreed upon were that the United
States was to pay him $60,000 for the ransom of the American captives
remaining after an exchange of prisoners, man for man, had been made;
that the American forces should withdraw from Derne, persuading Hamet
to go with them; and that in the course of time Joseph was to restore
to Hamet his wife and children.
The articles were signed on board the _Constitution_. A salute of
twenty-one guns was then fired by the Bashaw's battery and answered
by the _Constitution_. The people of the city crowded to the wharves
celebrating the making of peace. The released American officers and
sailors ran to the wharves to leap into the barges that were to take
them out of the hated town.
Sage men have predicted that the historians of the future would say
that Colonel Lear acted unwisely in making the peace, and that if he
had delayed for a few weeks, until bomb vessels and gunboats on the
way from America had arrived, a squadron would have assembled before
Tripoli that would have frightened the Bashaw into agreement with any
terms the United States' fleet chose to lay down. That we should have
had to pay ransom for the American captives at Tripoli after we had
captured the powerful province of Derne, and with such a strong fleet
in the Mediterranean, was not in accord with American traditions.
The act of Colonel Lear in making peace with the reigning Bashaw seems
to have been for the purpose of blocking Eaton's triumph. "Eaton," said
an officer holding a high place in the Mediterranean squadron, "was
running away with the honor of the Tripolitan war. Between an army and
navy jealousy is common. What had the navy done long before, after the
achievement of Preble? Hence the readiness to snatch the first chance
for peace."
The politics of the matter gave me little concern. Here was General
Eaton needing money. With money he could hire Arab tribes, buy caravans
loaded with food, march on to Tripoli. Here was my opportunity, and my
duty.